¥ —— KENYATTA UNIVERSITY —=qy DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 2014 ACADEMIC YEAR, 0 A A. COURSE OnsECTIVES By Henry K. Rono (Ph.D) art enable students 1 appecie and undrvand the esenils and een Is and scope of sciotony, theo he obiect icin und research outcomes. At the end o eee pen ste of eh nt ‘the course students should have basic knowledge on the eee areas ie et ets sa ape el esearch methods an vscarch outcomes. MIE OIE esse Sng fron thse 1 COURSE COVERAGE, seers of Challenges Sociology and Tvotuton of Knowledge 7 ; Cane mporay Societies Fc etl ed Moy we dpa, peat al cme on, eh etme, en Sem cage an 2 ey cb an ene etn flere tency inne pre ad oil Seles, me management a rvenion, Isis vd soc eben ul deep wan ee al Seven ene tera 12 Oran 0 SCY sales saree poe ew of Soy wat intended 1 ares: sca chee roblems ence of ami tc, social enpiztions an ama nw of pease met Se eT at ‘oF Philosophy YF Natural Scicnees (Positive Forces) 2B 217 Development Development o 33 Evolution of Soc ‘Overall Methods of 31 Deduction 32. Induction method 33 Hypothetico-deduction method 4. Founders of Sociology 41 Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes 42. Henri de Saint-Simon 43 Auguste Com 44 Herbert Spencer 45 Kast Heinrich Marx 46 David Emile Durkheim 47 Georg Simmel 48° May Weber Sociology as Science of the socicty/Social Organizations $1 From Joseph Sieyes, Saint-Simon to Come $2. Establishment of Sociology by Durkheim 53 Arca of Study?Practice Et Relation between Individual and Society $53. The Method (Rational thought, observation and validation) Branches of Sociology (Major Areas of Study) 61 Creation and Perpetuation of Societies 62 Culture and Socialization 63. Age, Roles and Social Responsibilities 64 Population and Demography 65 Social institutions 66 Social Order and Stability 61 Norms, Deviance and Crime 68 Social Change, Progress and Development 69. Education, Health and Environment 6.10 Labour and Utilization 6.11 Division of Labour, Social Structure and Stratification 6.12 Technology and Technical Capability 6.13 Socal, Industil and International Relations 6.14 Industrial Organization 6.15 Digital Organization 7. Policy and Implementation of Sociological Issues 7.1 Development Plans 72. Sessional Papers 73. Vision 2030 74 Constitution and Devolution 75. Intemational Relation Programmes 7.6 Organizational Policies and Programmes 7.7 Human Resource Development Programmes 74 Labour and Indus Relations :trepreneurship Development Programmes 1110 Health and Environmental Programmes 7.11 Community Based Initiatives 8. Research Experience and Outcomes 8.1 Research Outcomes 82. Way forward©. APPROACH AND EVALUATION ‘i readings and research 190 (2) CATS and the scheduled examination jot of etree, ¥S. E ons ‘Tre approach wil D. RECOMMENDED REFERE! cca te ete et tr Eat ne see coom ny commend ‘Heinenmann, London fac Cen 3. Ne ee of the Diva of aor in Scere Pes. Eni, and Rules of Sociological Method, New York, The Fee Pres Lami ee 9S, Suid, A st in Socilogy; New Yok, ee Me ve ich mcny af Sura Va, 3 vo Kare A eS of Copa rl by Ta “Max Weber 2008. aig ta Rares 200. The Practoe of Sol Retech, 10th eon. Wadsworth, Thomson Leaning i pane,KENYATTA UNIVERSITY Sy Hey Rone Dy vostrive KNOWL; owns challenge thal ince an not ted tes, unemploymentunder-cmploymer ‘toton an roa eenenym nd wer nt, me ee ay ress and social development, crime management ed wil be noted tht acces wud the wo nce dito, hel ose en ‘Cal epi teem ectenton tas an cial re robles rural developmen ban developmen nail rl be noted that some ofthese challenges we Jaron ty the United Neon en were Incorporated inthe 2000 Milenniam Development Gals (MDG om the N Declaration ed Me Declariion asserted ha every individual anor society has the TBM 0 alga, easton wee solidarity, fleedom fom poverty and any form of const ving andar” NY MEE HMO let uy, moons of precintaing Sargon. AX he begin ‘stands been eonnidred to ensure as ee am ht he evel of thes challenge are much higher in Ae 1 the po epee lated 0 sociological hues, anc Nah Ahan Me 12 Overview of Sociology ‘The discipline of sociology was intended to Se ees eames rs intended to addres among oes such problems. Mote pei, sociology mas founded asthe sinc of human ets, social institutions. 1 was based on the proposition thatthe way societies are organized and the way tlaed ‘social institutions function determines substamill the nature and the level of human challenges problems. ‘Accordingly, it was envisaged that socio Accordingly, wos envisged that sociology would bs a more appropriate discipline to adress the way soles are organized and he way related view to reduce (or eliminate) human challenges or problems and to maximize those that have potential to improve the well being ofthe societies (or natural potentials of humanity as emphasized by Comte) _More specifically. it has long besn considered that some ofthe problems that flict scites rise largely fom ether the way societies are organized hey way any of the various institutions function Suc problems inlie abies to exit mean of veliood from nt, aati om natural rights, inequalities and disparities in societies, instabilities and disruptions in socieies, among others, Its instruetive (0 note that these challenges have persisted throughout the history of the human societies; «struggle against nature and their respective socal organization, ‘The founding scholars called for and degreed use of positive method inthis di orga + use of positive method in this discipline for the study of human societies, social organizations and related social institutions (Declaration of Positive Method by Comte and Rules of Sociological Method by Durkheim), The postive method, x8 in ‘sciences, refers to the process that must involve rational, observable, validated (demonstrated) procedures and the resulting conclusion (resolution ofa given issue); in short a scientific procedure. 13. Evolution of Knowledge and Address Challenges 11 will be noted that Comte advocated and called for sociology as a science ofthe sovities and social organizations in 1848 to address problems that hhad been witnessed over the years, Comte reviewed historical developments and outlined social progress that consisted of four stages of ‘advancement: (1) social learning based on environment and culture, 2) the religious doctrines, (3) the metaphysical, and (4) the positive thoughts and forces. He subsequently advocated for sociology as a science of the societies and the use of positive method, ic. 4 and rejected the other thee as not ie and methodology. While the theological phase involved reference to religious doctrines in assertions without appropriate and/or useful for scientific disciplin addressing issues and challenges of the societies, the metaphysics phase involved reference to ideological andor philosophi evidence and included Plato Republic, Aristotle’ logic and propositions. More specifically, Comte rejected explanation andior assertions related to Gods, Demons, Mythological Beings or explanation of realities in tems of itence, Substance and/or Accidence jods that covered dominance of religious Indeed, itis important to note that Comte took this firm stand based on his review of the historical pei jence and related positive forces. More specifically, he reviewed religion and philosophy of essary and imperative for doctrines, emergence and development of philosophy, the ancient enlightenment, medieval period and the 15® century enlightenment and concluded that postive method was ns the science ofthe human societies. a abstract views that included: Essence, EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. 2.1 Development of Philosophy sd ovor 1 considerable period of time. Some versions of the ional thoughts and religious doctrines andthe founder of formal philosophy. To a large in the ancient enlightenment: rs peeces andlor ea perspesives/ doen in adening mE ee hod by Comte Thales is reporte ive vi of philosophy emerged and develope Ics instructive to note that various versions of philosophy emerged ht Ot philosophy emphasized observation (science), rational pure thou Thales (624 46 BC) is considered by many extent, his version of philosophy emphasized observation science). He rejected reg challenges. This rejection came to be the central principle fox posive mete the general principles of knowledge and science thereby becoming the "Father o inger of Poseidon, Imagine, ata time when the common Greek belief was that carn were cone singe supposed to earthquesoscured largely because ofthe dstrbancss nthe Seu ALA on stand pi student, Anaximander, proposed clouds being split up by God ofthe sa, Thales proposed tht ‘pe caused by the anger of ZEUS,J philosophy’ for Pythagoras (590498 1C) was lcs eee oF exit plilsophe, 8 version of soy ‘mixed up. While he is cons of phileson ready i aa models and rligous dunes tndea en Matha moons oveies copay eased ational ur ing his famous theorem, Sete discovers in he Feld oF musi, aoe 24 Sle as the * tstonomy, and medicine Bor est Coors ee mente he sins of Pythagoras revoled ‘ne phosophy and secs of sound the gen oma fw the many be dstine of erations (or since of number). Although the {heer of the one evolving and perv Sorrel tt atonal a discovery was kept as oficial tee for a subsanal pegs et HEN tt, Pythagoras doc (apes oda e hnmet ee i ead of ine Pyare wre yay te mgr ae! gy mae yi ry nate pat ‘teeny edd set 2 ee ee 23 a ea Sete ale Win be onphnat mt £0es tough a series of reincamations othe transmigration of oak ory Sees The atc tet wt ‘The schol, istutfecademy (more of monastery) established by Pythagoras to cach divinity and si ir theories of astronomy from Pythagorean tnupt te heliocentric sytem, the spherical shape ofthe earth, the propesitinth the moon as a met one Miky Way. Moe thn @ usan yeus ar es oes ee ‘renews ‘he vein of piso fr Hira (0-370) was uch mre obsrton (xene) H : cee) Hippos emis one of emo stand scholars inthe history of medicine and referred to as the father of medicine in recognition of hs lasting contibutc o scare ogtn oh asin contest elds endo Wen des cing epilepsy) were suppose 0 be cased by he as, Hiporas se td hat“ sms ome at slow hasenaura cms, just oer dees ave. Men hike mal bens dt ndenan Boreas viet the i ot understand here would be no end vn igs I you wach he lows tetig le daca a oe ow an ys it Sibeftesuhnotnd mgie—Vot fy wr us a) cach tality ds forthe ee ithe gs who dois. I does nol ely mater wher you call sch ngs vn or mot. In Natu ings weal i nes et betncl to presding cies 40 BC) Ines te Hippocratic dts etc the pilosophrs fr being to ready with postulates and hypothe, nd not puting eu int etl osenaton. Those dtr insite on cei senate csevaon im desng dese ad el oie oe ora relevant and what was merely coincidental. Of cours, this approach isthe right one inal sciences. ‘The version of philosophy for Democriis (460 8C - 370 8C) emphasized both ational thought and observation (science). He ha ben described as laughing a philosopher from Abdera. Democritus and his teacher were svt determinsts and through materilits who believed that everthing was «result of natural laws. In their thought everything was composed of “atoms"(even the soul). Accordingly, they propesed the earliest views on te Shapes and coanectivityof atom and reasoned that the Slidness ofthe material coresponded othe shape ofthe stoms involved. In summary, Democritus and his colleagues attempted to explain the world without reasoning to celgious bells. Democritus observed and maintained thatthe Earth was round, and stated that originally the universe was composed of nothing but tiny atoms churing inchs, unl hey collided together to form larger wnits—including the earth and everything on it He observed that there are many world, ome growing, some decaying, some with no sun of moon, some with several. He held that every world has a beginning and an end, and tha world could be cestoyed by collision with another world anarchic and animal sort of lie, going out to forage individually and living of the most Democritus thougbt thatthe first humans lived palatable herbs and the fruit which grew wild on the trees. According ‘o Democritus human societies were driven together ino societies by wild ‘animals and environment. He presented the early period of mankind as one of learning by trial and eror, and says that each step slowly led to more discoveries. In the 4° century B.C, the philosophical version of Plato and Aristotle (his student) dominated ancient enlightenment to the medieval period; a historical period fully underway by the Sth century and lasting to the 1Sth century BC and preceding the early modern era. Their versions of ‘philosophy emphasize rational thought, some observation and religious doctrines similar to those ofthe Pythagoreans which later were rejected by Comte, amoog others, in calling for positive methods. lato (428-348 BC) was mixed up with rational thought, religious doctrines ‘mathematician and (0a considerable extend a mystical scholar. lato ‘In away largely sila tothe Pthagoreans, the version of philosophy for Pl ordered it. As ndated he maintained a gel abst view and some degree of observation. Indeed, he was an aitora, philosopher, ‘maintained that the universe was created by a rational god, who took chaotic mater an ‘of philosophy and science, similar to tha ofthe Pythagorean. it it compulsory for thos 0 manage Inthe book on the Republic, Plato indicated the importance of the knowledge of numbers and the need to make it compulsory for toss masa the fas of tate o study mathematics, "ot in common way, bu tly ineligence ise ey rv he survey of he nature of amber” TH science, he assures us, should not be used merely for buyin and selling but "or facility m the energtes ofthe sou ise with our senses is les impor al senses. This view led him to downgra iytical, mathematical approach J th anderying word fpr ea fms res Yomgrae he inporacs of esenaon eet In particular, Plato maintained that the world we apprehend Berceive with our reason or nels, as opposed 10 our phys particularly in astronomy at that time, and to emphasize the anal ea wide ange of challenges related ea retically constructed republic/soci ha the very best people ave avaible Ienders shuld inclade a sro grounding i na tie andr ise, again sie of won reach eo re logic, ethics and dealing wit Although he was a philosopher and mathematician, Pl included a just governance of a city and men ("Plato Republic” a thor social structure. His primary problem was to establish ways to ensure stale. He recommended that the best possible taining for these future abstract ideas.suc) was # stent of Pla, & phiotopher, and th tencher of Alerande inal Boosh ited observation and sme dei of rigs dcr thal were nets, YEON of pies rome tas week coveted any ras clung phys, metic. oly eon ba egy cams tens athe ca ms Hs forma sty of lope came tobe incorporated i the ate 19M eenay modern frwah ga BETO, Nc, ngees ‘Ariolle etal, a Hee respective times, school no Pay ad ablihed, a he espe . choos, the Academy and the Lyceum sespetvly, tng and tracted loops and scien om al over Greece According Arle neal sega Me AY he i GaPSRacs te ntl wold icles eds that wou presently be conde a ye, bony an se logy Yor perspectives Of Arise had fad ‘he woe, views ano persed re «ce un ssa part of them were replced by he Neate eee a Da ee cera he 14H ce 7 Se Neral vit os ico eiivly drm philosophers hat iichided René Descas (1506-1650), moe man toner ee ove i) 25'S yin the ee pes As ne es toe ny to ia Seis fa ann meni man sy dg ds mre ene: de ‘Riper method the ky to scientific advancement. i, the father of modern empiricism and as the father of liberalism. He had Lake ey esi 0 Be th ee pilot of al odimenalinoeace on Time and Kant ic fied the ponte of eet of abseraton, experience tnd empires philosophy to equal or Mier ronal though (atonalsm) of Descartes. Locke wa intended to set the foundations of human knowledge within a slentfe ramework ak rected the raonalst philesophy and indiaed that there could be not innate knowledge le gud tha everything we Know dvr fom experience of, in other words, the actions ofthe physical world on our senses Kant was a philosopher of the European enlightenment and consiued pat of th constituted part of the philosophers that phased-out the last uaces of the medieval ‘ovlview fom moder philsophy. He mainiained the view tht human Beings can discover and ive up to the basic principles of knowledge and ‘action by the use of our own retson in its broadest sense without outside assistance, above al without divine suppor of intervention. He reconciled use of rational thought and observation into a powerful modeVmethod of science and eritcized use of only pure thought. fnftence on scholars ofthe medieval petod (idle age), pancuary on Slences, some of his observations John Locke (1632-1704), and Immanuel Kant (1724 1801) came to iat Comte came to cll postive methods,” "ste to launch 22. Development of Natural Sciences (Positive Forces) 1x will be noted that natural sciences emerged and developed side by side with philosophy and at some period suppressed b ide by side with philosophy and at some period suppressed by negative forces that included religious doctrines. Although with varied emphasis, Thales, Democritus, Arstarchus, Descartes, Locke and Kant among others were also scents, Indeed, Arisarchus (310230 BC) demonstrated heliocenic principle (as against geocensi doctrine) that was later proved agin by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543 AD) leading to futher scientific revolution. With his heliocentric model, Copernicus demonstrated that the sun atthe each ‘was center of the solar system. This remarkable observation precipitated further scientific developments and became a landmark inthe history of selene: ie: Coperican Revolution Eratosthenes (276-195 BC) estimated the sie of the earth with remarkable acuracy at his time and by the present standards. He observed tha the sin appear asa disk located a finite distance fom the cath instead of as a pint source of light at an infinite distance. He als calculated accurately the distance from the earth othe sun and invented the leap day. ‘Apollonis of Perea (262-190 BC) influenced many later scholars including Ptolemy, Isaac Newon, and René Descartes He proposed the present taming ofthe ellipse the parabola, andthe hyperbola; and the hypothesis of ecceti orbits to explain the apparent motion of the planes and the ‘aryng speed of the Moon, His work came tobe instrumental to the astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD) that came to identify the orbits of the planets. Bacon msntained that scientific knowledge reveals power over nature, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) called and advocated use of science to solve practical problems and became the "Father of Modem Science”. He justified ‘expanded use of scence and technology in production and dlivery’of services with a view that natural philosophy (science) could be applied tothe Solution of practical problems, and so, the idea of modern technology was bor. The challenge that Bacon addressed “was how could man enjoy perfect freedom ifhe had 1 constantly labor to supply the necessities of existence"? And hs answer was machines. However, in many ways, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) reinvented science of Tales and Aristarchus among others that were before him. He hasbeen ‘widely considered the founder of the modem science particularly wih experiment and observation methods in astronomy. In fat more fundamental ways, be discovered the four (4) satellites (moons) ofthe Jupiter that are presently known as lo, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto that created 8 revolution in astronomy to the present day. This observation of a plant with smaller planets did not conform to the principles of Aristotle's Cosmology. ‘A century later, Sir Isaac Newton (1643 -1727), a physicist, mathematician, astronomer and natural philosopher laid dsc mechani, te sve puvaon rgd I of motion ht came dominate sites fhe physi univers fe ‘ulin in the “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”; usually called the Principia), published in 1687 the foundations for most of urs; all in philosophy and natural sciences ame scientific manner as the world 23. Evolution of Social Sciences wre inspired by the progress made Initially, he called the societies must be studied in the s ‘even though it presents added complexities. of positive methods. ILis instructive to note that development of social sciences and sociology particularly between 1500 and 1700 AD. Indeed, Comte maintained that hums of nature. He argued that itis subject to basic laws just as the rest ofthe cosmos, new social science "social physics" to be modeled after natural sciences withthe userales (469-399 BC) gave ‘consider ‘moral plosophy and examination of mor) able tention to the principe ves ot ones sch a the ood aad ste Meg ser or Pail ir ekg (oe wo wenn ne ea eas fe ery ete Wa eo so ee we os ronl sonra toma ee comma gs a Rule « wy dose nc pace sau tee OM S290 sedis md pti as, ‘Moat vw to eheve prac goo Te sted a ee Sif in id the ok EY ani le ise mena deo mF teh woud avin etre Iw ei tha Khldoun (19-106 AD) bs ben acknowedged penatee on cvlzaen eee wher soles fore caoive rope andor rcs, le wre come advanced, reach spontancously in groups andor societies and can be ng their high point, followed iene nal Ahesin, “rou slay” an moe "ntensified and enlarged by religious ideologies, ‘tat pursued religious reforms with effect =n man and God, Is these ofthe 1700s industrial revolution, {As indicated, Rent Descartes (1896 -1680), John Locke (1oi2-10 sciences and methods, Descartes emphasized rational though, ‘intervention in addressing any challenges and/or problem ‘equal or higher than rational thought rational ‘model/method of scence and erticized usc of onl eeaetmanve Kant (1724-18) tad the foundations fr the mar sci importance of {cinco and rejected among others any appeal (ges de Dvn ede ingens of bran expences Pre haste Kan ecocled se of ronal hough nd sberen ea powerful ly pur though ‘Locke went futher and launched socal and politica beam wth emy iphasis on “natural and inalienable rights" a the pus of happiness” that le him to develop a social contact fe mecel ne, influenced the operations of the modern democracies includ in respect to "lf, prope, liberty, consitaton) to regulate human societies that eventual rb pian and United Stats. For thi, he i widely remembered asthe faa or ‘bse, Locks aud tht people ar born with cern nau of “inal” righ od cieei ‘tore Instead, Locke argued that people are the source of pursuit of happiness" constituted that bass forthe phrase in @ Lyte we thet whereas the philosopher of he ancient elgtenmen dese pli sciene (the Republic and Laws by Pato and the “D Nicomcnean ais by Arse among oes), Thomas ostee (san 1679) and John Locke (162-1704) laid the foundation fr the modes pole sess lowed by Alexander Hamiton (15-180), Benjanin Fanlin 110670) and Thome Jetta a 18) 1m addition, Locke Ini the foundations for psychology andor ind {able wth no inbom ideas, as most people believed a tha ie. ‘human beings ony from sense experiences thet are made Droposition that Kings had a divine right owe, Rt kings. I wl be noted that his emphasis on “lie propery, ther a ‘he Americen Declaration of Independence, eed sociology when he asserted human mind stats asa tabula rasa (smoothed He mainiained the view that over the lifetime, ideas accumulate inthe rand sic ‘pon its surface. AS indicated these views had fundamental influence on Hue sod Rag be experience "dogmatic sumbers" ‘In summary, although psychology existed in ancient en fehtenment, it became independent discipline in Germany andthe United States in 1879 Ce aes Fito and Aro adres issues elated to peycholgy. Carly modem psychology mis ee eee stay ofthe soul Pe eigenag Sense of the tm, However, philosophers John Locks, David Hume and iohn Stat Mil iol evelopment of modem psychology Bee Sit (172-179), soci philosopher, proved impetus to economics wih An nr ino the Naie and Cases of the Wealth of Nations ‘nd to sociology withthe theory of moral sentiments which he considered tobe his major contribution re 193), «British philosopher, made substantial contribution the society. John Stuart Mil, (1806 — to socal theory, political theory, and politcal economy. His principles of liber justified the feedom ofthe individual in opposition to unlimited state control, 3. OVERALL METHODS OF SCIENCE 3.4 Deduction Method one ybovs, deduction and induction methods developed with science fom the begining and coninus to aac debate a to wich of hemi ‘mote appropriate method of science Deduction method subjected to observation Stas a ceeds with pure logical thought (premise o ative aa given contusion (knowledge) that animay be subject st si ck tv, em pate ane sgn Ss ws Ra TNS Oa Rend Descanes (159-1650), 32 Induction Method Induction method proceeds with slosacted into a theoretical pri (460-370 80), Avistrehus (1 (171-176) and Joba Sut Systematic experience and observation to ar validated and a given conclusion (knowledge) that canfmey be af inp. As noted ebove, th main proponent of ths mths nde Tue (245th Des, (1632-1709), David Hume 10230 BC), Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1843 AD), Galileo Gaile (164-161), John Locke (162-17), Mill, 1806-1873) In essence and in pact ison of knowledge inwum in development, validation and rev ce these two methods constitute two opposite extemes ofa ont ‘summarized below,we ees D pene putes eet rosea crac (190 BC) ts tO cred the ptophers fr bi port serra Taos doo sited oe se A on meey conden Of eeurse mi oo ready with postulates and hypotheses, an Syslematie observation in diagnosing dase ans eel sain atin <8 ‘he right one inl aclencex, roe ‘on he ter hand the phvonher Sie Kal Poppet (982.199) argued thts impossible to prove a sleet Beene no amount f evidence mses us that conta evidence wll not He found, Instad, Rall Pen ee eae induction, cramped by deductive proces becaue i invalves alien and hype Per ropes a page muon, 33. Hypothetico-Deduction Method ypothetico-dedoction method is presently used in most of the scientific activites and ‘nd validation. This middle ground emergod in 1700s courtesy of Wi proceed withthe concept-sincple>hypothsis>observation n Whewell (1794-1866) on his review of the history ofthe inductive sens Immanuel Kant (1724-1208) (08 andthe phulsopy of the inductive Stenes (10), Leading proponents inde Sit ten Newton (le) “i ‘and Davi Emile Durkheim (188 Deduction method: hypothetico-deduetion method >. “= Induction method Presenily Sciences vary in emphasis from deduction to hyp set slnes va in othetico-deducton (o induction method in ther effors to resolve various challenges elated FOUNDERS OF SOCIOLOGY ‘We have noted that in ancient enlightenment, sociology remained within philosophy, particularly the study of justice, morality, ethics and governance (Socrates, Plato and Aristotle). In the Medieval and Early European Enlightenment kemerged es part of socal scienee be ktelaoae David Hume and Immanuel Kant) ae ightenment, it emerged as part of (ibn Khaldoun, John Locke, However, in the 18th and 19th century, Sociology emerged as an independent discipline with emphasis on the use of scientific methods (Joseph Sieyes, Henri de Saint-Simon, Auguste Comic, Herbert Spencer, Karl Heinrich Mare Emile Durkheim, Georg Simmel and Max Webs ‘While Sicyes caried-out applied sociology and Saint-Simon provided the agenda, Comte provided the philosophical standpoint that influenced “Herbert Spence, Kari Heinrich Mar, Emile Durkheim, Georg Sime and Max Weber who then coneenraed on the subject mater and the methods sociology. 4.1. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes has come to be acknowledged thatthe term sociology (derived from Latin), to refer to human associations andor social contracts was used first in 1780 by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes (1748-1836), a constitutional theorist and one of the principal theorists ofthe French Revolution, His concept of popular sovereignty guided the National Assembly in its struggle against the monarchy and nobility durin the French Revolution. He later played ‘major roe in organizing politcal changes that brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power (1798), ‘He was educated for theological and priesthood for the Catholic Church, became a viear-general (1780) and chancellor (1788) of the diocese of (Chartres. During his education, Sieyes became familiar with, impressed and was influenced by the teachings of John Locke and Etienne Bonnot Je ‘Conaillac despite his theological and Catholic background, ‘Sieyes published in 1789 “What is the Third Estate? that became the manifesto of the revolution and transformed the Estates-General into the ‘National Assembly in 1789. With “What Is the Third Estate?” he identified the unprvileged Third Estate with the French nation and asserted tha it alone had the right to draft a new constitution. Sieyes was elected in 1789 as a representative of the Third Estate to the Estate General. While he was supposed tobe in the Ist Estate by vitue of his Driesthood education and qualification, Sieyes remained among the 3rd Estate debating and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, ‘expanded to the theory of national sovereignty, popular sovercignty, and representation. Sieyes challenged the hierarchical order of society by redefining wi represented the nation. Whereas the aristocracy defined themselves as an élite ruling class charged with maintaining the social order in France, Sieyés saw the Third estate as the primary mechanism of public service 42 Henri de Saint-Simon Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) had far more fundamental influence and impact on the foundations of the various 19th century philosophies that included most notably socialism, positivism and the discipline of sociology. While he is acknowledged as one of the founding fathers of Christian socialism, Simon i also considered tobe frst scholar to try to bring together physics, physiology, psychology, history, polities and economics in the study of humanity and society. He advanced various versions of te historieal progress of social thoughts and human societies In part of his work, he expressed optimism that 1500s-1600s enlightenment ideals and the application of the scentifie method wil bring about ‘ertalnty and socal order in morality and polities (Letters fom an Inhabitant of Geneva to His Contemporaries, 183) Although he was bor an aristocrat, Saint-Simon declared that the problem was exploitation of persistently starved proletariat atone level; war, ‘egotism and anarchy at another level; andthe spirit of obedience and devotion enforced by the religion at another level Saint-Simon bad imagined tat the emerging wave of industaliation woud influence a new soil organization; partially new pois of ot Cpportnies and rersentatn He believed that the emergence of he instil Soiey would ring gt ne pls Be nde hve ‘eutalization of the power by itself, from is dispersion. He maintained the perspective that new polite, the *non-power Pavecl AI indusilization, scence and even new religion, would bring social improvement that would culminate ina socialist society opportunites. ined 8 ive absence of aristocracy. Accordingly, he maintained acknowledged, however, that the thoughts of Saint Simon He vas impressed by the adoption and implementation of the USA constitution with es conviction that society should be based on meritocracy, science and related principles. tis 7cients Fei ite tape taunt cap TSM eb Com yn pps nna 43, Auguste Comte Auguste Cnt (o0- ai sheen one eins un fe disp scan rc 7 sae el pn nd nig een lcs pe ean 88 Ae Lense nen nip a ee ae eae addressing is and chal Of the societies, the metaphysics 1 Weogea combi a gee ne aa weg tions raed 1 Gs, Demons, Mythological Bags or Sr Exe, Subic anor Acne MONE Ben elnino ea atm of a t ste Con ak ley ie ofthe pee covered ominane of los dots, emergence cape, metal 0 tnd te 1 ena cage MO scaly. he rved gen Sas em saighcane, met Se Sw clgenent nd conlied hpstive met was esr and impee e e 4 and rejected the other three as not Wed reference to religious doctines in ‘andor philosophical assertions without As indicated, Comte rejected explanation an abstract views that included! Comte emphasized use of positive method (or ros Jatin Locke 162-76 nd Immanuel Ran rs neta etnies of ken tight fom Tal 2 46 re tt i ; René Descartes 15961630; eatetincaae jective was to establish the science of human Societies that would address det and progress, He believed inthe progress of mankind toward a superior ane of In rejecting the religious andthe met forces that coalesced from the Midi Revolution (1785-1795); therefore to re-engineer taphysical doctrin tle Ages to his time, led to increased feed 8 period of radical social and political transformat ‘he French society to desirable ditection and levels oe ick ives including atceacy), he emphasized and advocated the postive thoughts and fom and enlightenment of ordinary people resulting tothe French min France and Europe. In his view the science ofthe society was Seats feet Progress, Comte maintained a view that polis could e raised othe rank ofthe sciences observation” and woul enable the ‘open for diecinee o qitete, to replace religion. He hel the view tet adscpine bsed on postne method il uiieaels ener ‘blueprint for directions of change, reforms and progres (e-orgeizing socieues to minint ae problems); to maximize more promising iastuions, ‘conditions and activities; and to direct societies towards “natural” tendency for humanity to modify nag to men te eens Be guilined factors tat inuence andor caused transition to postive to include Marin Luther's declaration of feedom of conscience and the ‘Subsequent religious reforms; separation ofthe monarchy and the church; the invetion of the printing pes nthe ffesnthcetey ie abd ‘scientific discoveries to spread and subverted theological dogma, particularly the idea that humanity was athe cea of the waver Although inspired and mentored by Saint-Simon, the publication of Systtme de Politique Positive, volume 1, part and the subtle Plan forthe Ssientfic Wark Required for Sovety's Reorganization in 172 led to divergence of approach Ssint Simon emphasized immediate pace! eons {in sdvance of theoretical development. Comte, on the other hand, maintained that theory had tobe pu in place before the refurms eed stuck with te idea that scientists had to have equal, or even greater, authority than the industrial clas. srpued of society would (Conte argued that reforms driven by a theory would lead to successful socal transformation and that a truly positive understanding of sci facilitate desired social changes. He asserted that social scientists would be responsible for providing the Blueprint forthe nev society. reasons angers of anew scientific lite wielding wbitary He reasoned that since scientific theories are always open to revision and dlsproof, there were no dangers of i shi authority lke the elites ofthe past. He argued that development of the sciences became positive in an orde related Wo thee distance fom humanity ‘Accordingly, astronomy was the frst to become positive, followed by physics, chemistry and physiology. He mnie hat socio was behest and eats ofl sins wd on tat would opr nd int al hens okt detec mor nse soci opoatons,eobsion and eb, ode ed peg won eee He aphys ‘uthortes and explanations. (In essence replacing religion with stience inthe management of human so ties tenn eines ib nts at Pith wt te er fs ht dma a mate pn i fc ha ence fue ote wo a bet Spec 90), Mas ew) mane ein 44° Herbert Spencer Herbert 8) with extending Be univers! naturel silos, and ibe pola thst hasbeen creed with ening te wie mi ce Sree (i) pop, oat oi a Pl a a = ‘ur! wot htop epson ham me me amen itso er, oft ivi soitng by Come He ed torres wpe of i. oe oe cepa im ‘social science in terms of evolutionary Cont ams athe conse tobe cope Le. widout vides) an fora, evolution.evi hal he nd it of he vttony proces woul ete cen of the pret mani he pret ny n whch aman Sap tecone completly adapted ose ie However ts nese nied ea he ae iCpatcnmosicr atest happiness forthe greatest number He cavsaged tat endpoint of the evolutionary process ‘absolute ethics will have been achieved though a scenieally-rounded moral system supported by elatve eis’ (cout systems) to address residual imperectins. According to Spencer such level af evalinee wil chen ea ‘perauraly-baed ethical systems ofthe pst ‘These perspectives of Spencer have witnessed varied nd extensive criticisms. It hasbeen a articolay the 1a of the survival of the fitest tot Interfere with dhe nature's laws, including the seta st raved that the application of the socil Darwinist model, the societies meant that no interventions for human challenges would be permissible: Le. no irvpale for existence ‘Others claimed that Spencer used evolution ta justify economic and social inequality, and to support exteme political conservatism. Others have argued hat the usc of the survival of the fits, Spencer advocated the kind of socal completion closer to the one used by economists, where ceampeting individuals or firms imarove the wel being ofthe vest of society 45) Karl Heinrich Marx Kat Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) reformulated the issues of labour, socal structure and surplus value into substantive and compelling theoretical [erspectives. Marx reformulated. advanced and outlined the theory of labour, surphis labour, emergence of the social structure. (lass stucire), émplayment,wagss, varied level of surplus value, varied levels of aenaticn, problems and solitons (ropes) based on successive dialectical ‘rces around production f the immediate material means aa piven period an re esleng sol organ aon Inded, labour, surplus Iabour and social structures are central tothe sociology of Marx. The principle of the surplus labour refers to excess effort beyond necessary to produce the means of livelihood at any given time. In most eases, it also part of unpaid labour and/or under-paid labour. According to Marx, the principal question, throughout history, has been how surplus labour is used. Marx wrote that “It was only after men have raised themselves above the rank of animals, when therefore their labour was socialized {0 some extent that a state of things arose in which the surplus-labour of one becomes a condition of existence for the other. At the dawn of civilization the productiveness of labour was small, but so too were the wants which develop with and by the means of satisfving them. Further, at that early period, the portion of society that lived on the labour of others was infinitely small compared with the mass of direct producers. Along with the progress in the productiveness of labour, that small portion of society increased both absolutely and relatively. Besides, capita with its accompanying relations springs up from an economic so that isthe product of a long process of development. The productiveness of labour that serves as its foundation and starting-point, is a gift. not of nature, but ofa history embracing thousands of centuries.” In principle, Marx argued thet societies have been organized and perpetuated around surplus labour with contentions andlor dialectics about how such labour should be used. Diaetics ten from Hegel isa process of overcome the negatives ina world where the mode of existence of men and thing i made up of contradictory relations, so that any particular conten! canbe unfolded ony though passing ita ts opposite. The late sam mtgral par ofthe ormer, and the whole content is the totaly ofall conradictory relations implied tn it. Logical, the dilece has ts begining when aman ‘understanding finds itself unable to grasp something adequately from is given qualitative or quantitative forms. The given quality or ant seems ‘tobe a egaton ofthe thing thar possesses ths quality or quanti. According to Marx, progress and evolution to higher levels ofthe social organization have been driven by the dialectical process revolving around ‘hese fundamental factors. He argued thatthe production of the immediate material means and resulting social organization at any given peiod laid the foundation forthe subsequent phases ofthe historical development of the human societies. Accordingly, those phases, prevailing production ‘modes and resulting socal organizations ar the subject matter for sociological studies ‘He maintsined that among the fundamental phases of social organization in the evolution of societies included aristocracy, feudalism, capitalism, socialism and eventual communism. Marx therefore provided the special law of motion governing the capitalist mode of production, and the sccompanying bourgeois organization, ‘The theory of surplus labour and/or value provided a universal law in social science (sociology) that presented light on the relation between capitalist ‘mode of production, bourgeois, management and the workers. He observed that as soon as a permanent surplus product was produced, the moral- political question arose as to how it was to be distributed, and for whose benefit was such surplus labour was being carred-out? According to Mars, this as been the contested issue through-out the history of the human societies. ‘As pur of the challenge Lo he deories of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, Marx published volume 1 of Das Kapital 1867 at included the bear of Surplus value and analysis of the capitalist process of production. Volumes If and I of Das Kapital were published posthumously. In Marx view, ssience was a historically dynamic and revolutionary force, Indeed, he was keen with the discovery of immediate revolutionary changes in industry, ‘and in historical development in general Above all Manx was a revolutionist. His mission was to contribute, in one way or another, to the overthrow of capitalist society and the institutions brows it ino bing: nd aloo conibute tothe leratn ofthe wader plea 46 David nite Durem a Seri J metas of te die of avi nile Dum (141-117), Fone Philosopher and silos outine he hae amok and he mead of Oe SS aya he sins af th sot nd soul gaan One ina goals wa 1 nih Sosy « icp. He ued ht Scoogy ig ten not an iy any er scene Ws e/a °es re ae : : els ante ee tne strata cee ee me Ci Re fate nib gepen irae pee cfs prte tee) mtn anes JP Si Suit iron ad Cue ain he ed logy ad npc Seige ct (isd Sica ta, wid steceion Dame“ sn of Cae See ad ents Europea deprnt trciogy ae 28 My of suede rates amonge Calc snd Poe tot Se alto established we fast. European department of sociology at the University of Bordenee as mone é Ie -will be noted that our, surplus labour, sociological stay for Marx. For Durkheim, the ivision of abour and collective conscicnecicon area er SUP value, economic advancement, consiousnesss and confit were areas of slousnnegs Bet sty revolved sound cohesion, solidarity, specialization and erdspenionc, erecta odgreat i nefNaton that "ine ete improvements inthe prodcive powers of Ibou, andthe, greatest pr of the Sion of aor ck ae eh SHEE raped scem to have been the cleat of he Ser a insisted thatthe ean popersy ts hana eee of ny human wisdom ofp aes, was Wenseeaury ae ss radu, consequence of viewed ts ne ofthe deer hor ens OPES tock, bare, and exchange one thing Wy anodes Gate ee however, Durkheim Wend stan” ofthe division of labora applying nat only to human societies, bul bioewea neem Durkheim emphasized that collective eoncicncweonsciousnesses xls soit (rots and he division of bout (DOL) aneesary ‘condition to increase the reproductive capacity and work skills. The rs levels ofthe division of labour will influence the levels specialization and of soelpblens Acedia Saari and cohesion, social and moral orden tm infec eae eae range ion rabouespeceng study of suid was to demansateeneme soil problem aring how ie poder level) ofthe ‘vision of lbour, specialization and interdependence, solidarity and cohsaee hens eae seed eas tes f suicide, and observed that they varied by county, religion, gender, marital sai, and rl Secale oe tach algo. He refered to hase ats asic ose fa te Ye ion a labour, ‘specialization and interdependence, economic advancement an indeaon,toldaiy and case oe He used those social facts to demonstrate thatthe conditions of psychological or individual dimensions andor fact, He mat ‘hey constitute a wide range of realities external Societies (Sociological issues) can be addressed without resorting to biological, ined that while culture and conditions of the society are reflected by individuals, individuals (and therefore sociology not psychology). india (nd sor netted (1995, Ducks emphasize the pope method forthe study offs, conditions andor actor external a fetngs case A OECAD: apoyo Fes or aes) that preset very special chara elgg te oy of actions, thoughts, and See imal te individuals and invested with coercive power by vin of which iey execs contol one woe legal sanctions and/or moral and religious belief Ferpattion of sociological issues, be rejected Conte's “istorcal” method, and emphasized experimental and comparative method arguing that obecrvalion a sage ani applicable to sociology, In adtion, Durdeim proposed thre methods of compara, 1) to lit settee Resp tin. a single, unigue society 2) to carying-out observation wih several societies of the same socal oe re ‘comparison {43} examine stensformatin of given socal instiuion/lation oer various phases of the same andlor pedceiand see 47 Georg Simmel Sg Sime! (886-191), German sociologist philosopher and ric, was a founder of oilzaton, urban sociology, symbols inteactoiam, Rend asa etwork analysis, He applied neo-Kanan approach to emphasize clue and "he elsvaon of indians treweh de an ot extemal forms which have been objectified in the course of history” Us Semel is nt regarded as influential in sociology as were Mars, Durkheim and Weber, he influenced several ofthe ery sociologists nthe Unite Sates paiculry those that later developed the symbolic interaction aproach including writers inte Chiao seheeh i onthe problem ovine weed by Hegel and Kan and he adresed social stetres, the city, mney, and moder society wih to Dusen ( oben fe nna oe), Weber onthe effets of rlonalzation, and Mar (on th acnatn. Sine uid oie be scion of tar alta and argued tha could not be sued inthe same way he pylori hoeilogy ime thane deanery tht govem human interaction social interaction atthe ‘Meeting the sociology of Simmel is diffrent to that of Spencer, Mar and Durkheim because of the emphasis on social nrct ‘individual and small group level, and viewing the study ofthese interactions asthe primary tsk of sociology sum of separate individuals irins gH considerable emphasis o sociability that he used to seferto "al he forms of association by which a mere sum fs ‘wih into fogethemess, a union there? ino & society" “higher unity") composed of individuals, i. solitarness of the individuals 1s resolved into 10JBPireorti Snel society exits whee a numberof dvi ence it interaction interaction isthe Key to everthing with Simmel) that arises ‘on the basis of certain drives or forthe sake of certain purposes: ndlidee ne nistenee of sockets thd ales ie some soi when ty a tes Ivar ea sere relies for nrlon ed exes e So 48 Karl Maximiian lax" Weber Pre roe pata German sociologist and politica economist made even more fundamental contributions to sociology. Weber and Simm Poe erceY of sosial action through interpretive means based upon understanding the meting and purpose that individuals aac to their own 'setions, However, he i most famous forthe economic sociology oulined inthe Protestant Fhe and te Spirit of Capt ‘Re brincipl of “methodological individualism,” which holds that socal scientists should seek to understand coletiviis (auch as nations, cultures, governments, churches, corporations, ct.) solely as the result and the context ofthe actions of individual persons, has been attributed to Weber, particularly in the Economy and Society, in which he argued that only individuals “can be treated as agents in & course of subjectively understandable However, rather than reject the importance of material factors/socilized Iahour as Marx emphasized and rather than reject the importance of social facts extemal to individuals as Durkheim emphasized, Weber added the importance of cultural values, ideas, charisma and the way these aspects Contribute to organizations of societies, social progress and industrial development Industrlization witnessed in 1700 was not so much because ofthe historical progress or the division of labor but much more because ofa radical ‘hangs in cultural values and ides. According to Weber this was manifested inthe Protestant Reformation, and the preaching of protestant leaders, Darticularly John Calvin, in opposition to the prevaling thoughts and practices of the Catholic Church at the time ‘Among the various valves advocated by the protestans, were ideas of Self sufficiency, prodeney and independent relations with God instead of through priest. Pudeney was an essential attitude needed to encourage saving and investment, an important element of capitalism and the instil ‘evolution. The Protestant Reformation, according to Weber, was the main cause ofthe industrial revolution and the rise of capitalism, a very different approach from that of Marx “Max Weber was paiculrlyconcemed about the rationalization and bureaueratztion of societies that contributed to industrial revolution and tobe ‘made increasingly important by industalization, According to Weber, bureaucracy was a type of organizational or institutional management rooted in lgal-ratonal authority. Bureaucracy was precipitated by increased need to manage increasingly complex social intfutionslorganizations and include necessary roles and regulations, pattems and procedure for effective functioning and performance ‘Weber observed that “The decisive reason forthe advance of bureaucratic organization has always been its purely technical superiority over any former organization. The fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine with non- ‘mechanical modes of production.” 5. SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE OF THE SOCIETY/SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS. 51 From Joseph Sieyes, Saint-Simon to Comte ‘1 canbe said that from Locke to Comte the foundations for sociology were established. However, more directly, rom Joseph Sieyes, SintSimon to Comte sociology was established. As indicated Comte launched sociology andthe principle of positive methods in 1848 with the principal objective to establish the science of human societies that would address problems related o social organizations, cohesion and stability, order and progress. (Comte argued that reforms driven by a theory would lead to successful social transformation and that a truly positive understanding of society would facilitate desired social changes. He asserted that social scientists would be responsible for providing the blueprint for the new society andlor social organizations. +e reasoned that there were no dangers of a new scientific elite wielding arbitrary authority like the elites of the past because scientific theories are ‘always open to revision and dsproof. He argued that development of the sciences became positive in an order related to their distance from hurnanity. ‘Accordingly, astronomy was the first to become postive, followed by physics, chemistry and physiology. Comte maintained that sociology was to be the last and greatest ofall sciences and one that would incorporate and integrate all other sciences to Address desired and/or necessary social organizations, cohesion and stability, order and progress without reference to theological and/or metaphysical authorities and explanations. [In essence replacing religion with science inthe management of human societies] Positive philosophy was therefore a general method of science that included quantitative and mathematical applications. $82. Establishment of Sociology by Emile Durkheim As indicated Emile Durkheim (1856-1917) outlined the theoretical framework and the method of sociology asthe science ofthe societies and social ‘organizations. One of his primary goals was to establish sociology asa recognized academic discipline. ‘According to Durkheim, sociology was the science ofthe society and socal institutions withthe objective to discover and to establish laws related to structural “social faci", He re-emphasized the importance of positivism, induction method ad the hypothetico-dedutive model, ‘We have noted that labour, surplus labour, class structure, surplus value, economic advancement, consciousnesses and conflict were areas of sociological study for Marx. The areas of sociological study, for Durkhsim, revolved around cohesion, solidarity, specialization and interdependence, division of labour and collective conscience/consciousnesses, The area of study for Weber was rationalization and bureaucratizalio of societies that ‘contributed to industrial revolution and to be made increasingly important by industralization Durkheim wrote “The Rules of Sociological Method” (1898) specifically to outline the subject mater of sociology the scope and the methodology. In {HE Rules he emphasized sociology asthe scent study ofa realty su generis, a clearly defined group of conditions andr issues diffrent rom ‘hose studied by all other stiences including biology and psychology. that have independent (physical objects) oF rkheim gave considerable emphasis to the importance of the socal facts, sui generis, (unique in their cheractristi ‘xistence greater and more objective than the actions ofthe individuals that compose society. Social facts ean be materi 1inmate ee ae eee ee Sep ee cree Sel fr tnt ey a nine SEES Ge bic a Shen seme remem (meanings, sentiments, ete.) and endowed with a power of coercion, ty reason ot wich the Sedo cxpain esuling socal conditions and/or ations ih they conte indviduas. Only sch socal fats Sea anaemia oe es cere as ur, ed ey ec irl lt eed ein em erin a Durkin emphasized that harmony, rather than confit, defined society and examined social conitonsasutions with reard to function in producing or fuclitting social cohesion. This i in contrast to Marx and Weber who emphasized confer ass ceatneed ne essential proves in groups andor societies and that socal order involved regulation of opposing interests, 53. Aren of Study/Practice We have noted that sociology was founded to adress incqualies, relied soil oranzaion and structures in the sciis Joseph Sieve, Hen SuinSimon, Auguste Gas) was aso founded adress the aus of proresocll evolution (augste Come Hetbex Seca Ker eng Marx, Emile Durkin). We have aso noted that labour, supus labour, class structure, suplus value, economic advancement, conciousness and cont were aes of Sociological sty for Mare, The wes of sociologiel ty, fr Duke revolved around cohesion, slide, speciation and icaeperdene division of lou and eallective enscencelconscoutnesses, The afen of uy fr Weber was cll valUes and radial changes, ealanen nd bureucaiatin of seis that contrite onus evolution adobe made inreasingly important by indus Whichever way sociology proposed and established as the science of the human socicties. It is based on the fundamental axiom that collective consciousness and power that arises through unified sentiments, thoughts and culture compel or drive individuals to take certain actions and to ‘constitute certain social organizations (culture) including ways to address certain challenges. Essentially an individual is a micro reflection of the society or indeed the culture (collective consciousness) of a given society Accordingly, sociology takes a broad axiom that wherever there is action or motion there must be some force impelling or causing it with primary ‘eoncem on the forces that organize and perpetuate societies. Part ofthe work of sociology therefore is to understand, explain and predict those forces that are operating in the human societies resulting to certain organizations, actions, incidents and even confit, ‘The subject matter ranges from the micro level of agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and social structures $4. Relation between Individual and Society ‘As indicated Durkheim maintained that while culture and conditions of the society are reflected by individuals, they constitute a wide range of realities extemal to individuals (and therefore sociology not psychology). In the division of labour, Durkheim maintained that individuals are inherently egostic and insatiable but norms, belie{S and values (collective consciousness) establishes the moral basis ofthe society, resulting in so integration Durkheim argued that the infinite desires of an individual can only be held in check by external controls, that is, by societal control, Society imposes Jimits on human desires and constitutes "a regulative force [Which] must play the same role for moral needs which the organism play for physical needs." When social regulations break down, the controlling influence of society on individual propensities is no longer effective and individuals are let to their own devices resulting to anomie, aterm that refers to a condition of relative normlessness in te society ‘Anomie does not refer to a state of mind, but to a property of the social structure. It characterizes a condition in which individual desires are no Tonger regulated by common norms and where, as a consequence, individuals ate let without moral guidance inthe pursuit of ther goals, 5S The Method of Sociological Study ‘The method of sociological study remains largely combination ofthe rational though, observation and validation. We recall that Comte emphasized postive method and Durkheim emphasized imporince of Hypothetico-deducton method, objectivity and observation even though 2 “perfectly objective observation” may never be attained, : ion and ‘Comte emphasized thatthe methodology of sociology should be the same as that ofthe natural sciences; namely observation experiment comparison. By observation Comle meant the direct observation of the social organizatiosfinsitutions over the various phases ofthe historical evolution and progress guided by a preliminary theory on the necessary areas fr observations. ve substantial Himittions, He acknowledged, however, that the application of experimentation in social sciences (sociology included) will hay Ti he rake 3 artiulry in areas dat may result wo ethical problems, For example, it wil not be ethical to induce a war, deat, sickness, ee Fi framing incpal method forthe social ‘According to Cont, the principal complementary method to observation is comparison. He emphasized that the prince ale Oe Scientist "consists in a comparison ofthe diffrent co-existing sales of human sotety on te various pars ofthe ers sues Te completely independent of each other. By this method, the different stages of evolution may all be observed dbstratum ofthe science..Sociology i Comparison of the consseuive states of humanity isnot only the chief scientific device it constitutes the sl sohing ifm informed by a sense of historical evolution ara ricable to sociology. Comparative Durkdicim aso emphasized experimental and comparative method arguing that comparative method wes largely #90 Gpservation wih Ietod consisted of three approaches, namely 1) to limit scilogeal observation toa single, Uigu® SEC 2 oa on elion ver ‘several societies ofthe same social type ~ a more extensive comparison and 3) to examine a transformation of 88 various phases ofthe same and/or predetermined society 12Nes contd empnasison devotion moods a varies versons meee met ee a ortive methods that apply typical andor situation) cases i YF Weber, Simmel and Giddens). fr. 6. BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY (MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY) 1s of sociology ince bat not limited fo the following: Fa Cation and Perpetuation Of Socitics 2 Culture and Socialization 3. Age, Roles and Social Responsibilities 4 Population and Demography 53 Social Insitutions 6 2 5 Social Orde, Stability and instabilities ‘Noms, Deviance and Crime Social Change, Popes and Development 9. Education, Health and 10. Labour and Utilization 1, Division of Labour, Social Structure and Stratification 12° Technology and Technical Capobility 13. Social, Industrial and International Relations 14, Industrial Organization 15. Digital Organization 7. POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL. ISSUES ‘The policy and implementation of the sociological issues include and not limited tothe following 1. Development Plans 2 Sessional Papers 3. Vision 2030 4. Constitution and devolution 5. Intemational Relation Programmes 6 Organizational Policies and Programmes 7. Human Resource Development Programmes 8 Labour and industrial Relations 9. Entrepreneurship Development Programmes 10, Health and Environmental Programmes 11, Community Based Initiatives 8, RESEARCH EXPERIENCE AND OUTCOMES: 8.1 Research Outcomes From Locke to Joseph Sieyes various experiments were made with promising outcomes. The social contract (a model modern constitution) of Locke resulted to fundamental reforms in Britain and establishment of a remarkable constitution in the United States, In addition, it has influenced the ‘operations of most of the modem democracies, It also precipitated emergence of the welfare state including in Britain and United State Joseph Sieyes transformed Estates-General into the National Assembly in France in 1789 and established the 2 remarkable constitution inthe world after that ofthe United States. Joseph Sieyes, Saint-Simon, Comte to Marx made predictions, implicit and/or explicit ofthe progression ofthe societies ftom aristocracy Feudalism, ‘capitalism, socialism and eventual communism. There have been mixed results with most ofthe states resorting to welfare states ‘While other states have assumed the primary responsibility for the welfare of is citizens, Le. viral universal welfare issues as part of the citizens "rights", other have opted for a creation of "social safety net" or minimum standards of varying forms of welfare. USSR, China, and Cuba among other have pursued varied visions of socialism with mixed outcomes. Marxism-Leninism is practiced by most communist partes across the world. It was adopted in the Soviet Union and was proclaimed as a path to building communism through a massive ‘rogram of industrialization and collectivizaton, ‘Scandanavian countries and others have pursued varied versions of the modem welfare state (the Nordic model) with direct transfer of resources from ‘the public sector to varied welfare recipients. United States and other countries have pursued the principle of a welfare society with a joint responsibility of the state private ent ‘voluntary organizations various citizens to meet minimum standards of welfare. erprises and 82. Way forward 9, REFERENCES Recommended readings will consist but not limited 1 the following: z Jonathan H Turner (2002); The Structure of Sociological Theory; Wadsworth Publishing Company Emile. Durkhiem (1893) 1933; Division of Labour in Society. 1 a 3. Karl Heinrich Marx (1862), Theory of Surplus Value, 3 volumes 2 4. Max. Weber 2003; Protestant Ethies and Spirit of Capitalism; Translated by Taleott Parsons 5. lan Craib (1992); Modem Social Theory, Heinenmann; From Paerons to Habrmas; New York 6. LP Gibbs (1972); Sociological Theory Construction; USA 13KENYATTA UNIVERSITY XAMINATIONS 2015/2016 /ARNING BACHELOR OF ARTS UNIVERSITY E° DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LE. DEGREE OF SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION FOR THE ASC 190; __ INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY : 4.30 p.m. - 6.30 p.m. DATE: ATE: Wednesday, 27" April, 2016 INSTRUCTION: Answer " T question ONE and any other TWO questions. 1 eemnatect i ‘xplain sociology, and describe two of its theoretical approaches. (30 marks) 2. Citin; eg pel 1g examples, describe the importance of social research in sociology. (20 marks) 3. Outline the problems that have been associated with capitalist organization of societies. (20 marks) 4. Write notes on the following: i) _ Labour and social development. ii) Socialization and social mobility. ‘ee. iii) Dependency relation and systems theory aa (8 marks) 5. Identify any three social institution: i , and describe their roles in the development of your (20 marks) society.