ntroduction, Transmitters, Receivers, Antennas, Tracking 5} systems, Terrestrial interface. Contents 61 Introduction 62 Block Diagram of Earth System 63 Transmitters 64 Receivers 65 Antennas 66 Advantages and Disadvantages of Single and Dual Axis-symmetric Reflector Antennas 6.7 Antenna Steering and Mount Systems 68 Tracking Systems 6.9 Terrestrial Interface Seamed th CoS,2" Techn y % [EXE introduction The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of transm * The earth segi it ang receive earth stations. An earth station is any transmitting or receiving system that sends signal, 9 ’ a s or receives signals from a satellite. An earth station is a collection of equipment for communicating with the sate ite arth sta . regardless of whether it is fixed, mobile, aeronautical or marine terminals An earth station comprises an antenna, tracking system, receiver, transmitter multiplexer (combiner) and terrestrial links via a modem (or codec), a The communication is established to the satellite through earth station The earth station can be located on the ship at the sea, or it can be located on the Spacecraft or actually on the earth. The location of the earth station is decided depending upon the ease of control of satellite and the function of the satellite. The type of earth station depends upon the (a) Function of the station (b) Type of service (©) Frequency bands used (d) Transmitters (e) Receiver and ( Antenna characteristics. | | j | Qualification to be an ES 1. Specified G/T ratio must be achieved, Example : An ES owner has to Prove to INTELSAT that his ES have atleast 40.7 dB of G/T at 4 GHz and 5° elevation angle. 2. Typical values of T, (70 K to 2000 k). Earth Station Design Considerations ¢ Earth stations form an important part of the overall satellite system. In general, when designing an earth station, the following must be considered, including implementation restrictions. 1. System parameters : System parameters such as transmitter EIRP, receiver figure of merit (G=T), quality of received signal. System noise and other interference including site location, ensuring that the total interference level does not exceed the acceptable level. Interference to, from, and between satellite systems. aa Seamed ith Com SuesCommunications . — 7 Earth Station Technology 2, Tracking error ; Allowable tracking error relative to satellite drift ystem capacity and availability : Traffic channel capacity, service availability and cost ineluding cost of connection to telecommunic equipment fa Block Diagram of Earth System ations network or the customer's ¢ The four major subsystems of any earth station are, receiver, antenna, transmitter and tracking equipment. The special earth stations like TVRO (TV receiver only or direct broadcast satellite receivers) does not have transmitting function. Some other earth stations are very special, like tracking and control of satellite. Fig. 6.2.1 shows the basic block diagram of a satellite earth station. Transmitter High power amplifier (HPA) Low noise a Fig. 6.2.1 Basic block diagram of an earth station Antenna ‘e The baseband signal is applied to the encoder. Encoder converts the format ready for modulation. The carrier is modulated by the encoded baseband signal. The modulated carrier is then upconverted to the uplink frequency of the satellite. The amplifier then amplifies this signal to high power level, ready for transmission. The signal is then passed through the polarization feed of the antenna. The signal received from the antenna is of different frequency (downlink frequency) and is very small in amplitude. This signal is amplified by the low noise amplifier. It is then down converted to the intermediate frequency by the down converter. This signal is then demodulated and decoded to get baseband signal. fa Transmitters” * In the large earth stations many channels are required to be transmitted. The amplifiers used are High Power ‘Amplifiers (HPAs). These amplifiers have wide bandwidth at microwave frequencies. These amplifiers are normally lystron or Travelling Wave Tubes (TWT) based. The power capacity of these amplifiers varies from 500 to 2000 watts. TTECHINIGAL PUBLICATIONS” Anup trust for krowed® Seamed ith Cm Suestelite Communications eal ection of the ea; ows the bi Mth station 7OMHz IF = Modulator Divider Multichannel} baseband signal Divider Baseband signal Fig. 6.3.1 Block diagram of transmitter * The outputs of the HPA are ‘Upconverted. The configuratic carriers to be transmitted an, combined through bandpass filters, The 70 Miz 1p ig ion of HPAs to be employed depend on the number of type of multiplexing used, Ga Modulator/Demodulator * Modulator superimposes the audio-fre Cr extracts them from the IF carrier (d * In analogue transmi modulation is the digital transmission phase modulation (PSK) is us, (4PSk). ‘tuency signals on the IF carrier (modulators) lemodulators),, ission, frequency Rormal process, whereas for sed, frequently four-phase 4 biphase modula quency carriers common power amplifier, th amplifier subsystem, Upconverter (produced by the Converters) are amplified in a *Y are added in the input “ombiner of the power TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An un thn, Seanad ith Com Sunsf stn communes Gg Earth Staton Technology hese signals are then amplified by the power amplifi : 2 Te enon amplifier before being, transmitted a High Power Amplifier (HPA) «Squall garth stations are using solid state power amplifiers (0.25 watt) and large {portant considerations for HPA are : 1, Intermodulation noise arises during multicarrier operation. 2, Power requirements. 3, Method of combining of carriers and scope for future expansion. High power TWT amplifiers provide bandwidth of 500 Miz and maximum power upto 10 KW. Use of linearizer improves the lineatity of amplifier in multicarrier operation. | Klystrons are narrow band devices provides bandwidth of 40 MHz and maximum power upto 3 KW. When large bandwidth is required, multiple amplifier configuration is used. Klystrons have higher efficiency, longer tube life, lower cost, simpler to maintain and operate compared to TWTs. HPA Configurations For multicarrier opertin two types of configurations are possible i) Single amplifier configiration {i) Multi amplifier configuration amplifier configuratio amplifier configuration all the carriers are combined before amplif ‘only one HPA is required. HPA is operated on linear portion of cs to reduce intermodulation noise. Fig. 63.2 (a) shows high po Senn nth CoS“Mog Satellite Commune pATIONS 4 J fier configuration wy Muttipto amt lifior configuration each HPA amplifies one or fey slifier config} In multiple amy i rs are then combined at output of HPAS, The plified carriers 4 err, near to their full power rating which improve, ear to of total Tefore ors, Thy carriers, 8 Ove, » to operate HPAS i ie ia aa ee ty Fe But at the cost of large numbers of expensive Hpa, efficiency of earth sti Switch Wide band carrion Combiner System Narrow band carrier Stand by Fig. 6.3.2 (b) High power multi-amplifier Configuration As many earth station failure occurs d fa Pave) OM HPAs, sstannnuans i redundancy to improve the reliability, ‘The Standby HPA me - sco ae is erminate, into matched load. The switches at Mput/output can be operated IL ec manually or automatically, 2 Receivers * Fig. 64.1 shows the receiver noise amplifier (LNA), Seamed th CoS,er saelte Communications 6-7 Earth Station Technology 4.GHz Antenna Filter ‘Waveguide switch Power combiners Down converters Demodulators 70 MHz IF Single output Fig. 6.4.1 Block diagram of receiver amplifiers are used as front-end amplifier. These amplifiers provide bandwidth with low-noise temperatures at lower cost It uses devices like Gunn oscillators and thermo-electric cooling effects by peltier effect, \s FET is also a common choice for front end amplifier. it characteristics of various low-noise amplifiers are summarized in 64.1. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledge Sama nth CoSn Satellite ‘Communications 42 40 2 Parametric amp! = ~ uncooled 1-12 3. GaAs FET = cooled GaAs FET ee = uncooled 1-12 170 Table 6.4.1 Characteristics of LNAs (5) Antennas Different antenna systems are used for transmitting and receiving the RE signals that comprise the space links of the communications channels, The antennas of earth stations are common to transmission and Teception ang must have the following performance features : - High gain for transmission and reception, requiring reflectors which are relation to the wavelength and have high efficiency. large in nv - Low level of interference (for transmission) and of Sensitivity to interference (for ee ue or adintonaiagrams with low levels outside the main lobe (small side lobes). » Radiation with high polarization purity. = For reception, losses L Aperture Antennas * Antennas can be broadly classified by the frei i quency spectrum i commonly applied, or by basic mode of radiation, ‘a low sensitivity to thermal noise due to 8round radiation and various © In satellite communications, the antennas, reflector antennas and Main Types of Antennas Most common! pat ¥ used aperture antennas are hom 1. Prime focus axisymmetric Prime focus 2. Axisymmetric dual reflector Cassograin 3. Single offset Offset feed 4, Dual offset EE a ee Seamed ith Com Suneseet Fee Parabolic antenna 6-9 Axisymmetric type a Earth Station Technology Cassegrain antenna fed by 4-reflector beam waveguide | ae Features High efficiency and | Sub-reflector low noise temperature | concave (Gregory). over super-broadband | High efficiency Good-accessibility and low noise because feed and epee LNA can be installed | because reflector in the room tree from | shaping can be El and Az - rotations | applied. ‘No waveguide run Feed and LNA and rotary joint is can be installed in required, so transmit | the equipment power can be about | room behind the 2.4B higher at 6 GHz | main reflector, so band for 30 m. rather good diameter antenna. accessibility can — Good radiation i\wininis yi | ilngle voltietinn typ Walle a Vani a ite ite anata Sy toatly Via \ } {iw | \eouy UNA ss LV \ | eatin Hswohint radiation | ‘teacke a POOH ined Hany ‘ot Heitypeiintiie Weontiae it ne | Wohin Hovallant Vaiyie {hitsbtationary solellite without ‘HOH nyain Fetlecton at all Hoan aleeriiyy can We fivnte {NOVI OnIY the DHWNEY Fadiatoy apertiine wifey. Hathor poor Hthation patton Mullishoin sity wah Pan Dual teflectay type Canseyraln antenna Visine ent radiation | patlern because of No blocking High efficieney and low noise lomperature becatise of no blocking and teflector-shaping Uscellent VEwR Stall windload if limited Steerable: AMOUR If selected (ood acceusib itis “CANIN food a from ny = and Ay. HOlations, Small ang 4 Medi gi Station, "Y® earth, Stating, tay "thy % Gregory antenng Uxcellent radiation pattern because of no blocking. High efficiency and low noise temperature because of no blocking and reflector-shaping Excellent VSWR sinall windload if limited steerable Amount is selected, Good5S satelite Communications ea Horn Antenna Earth Station Technology « A hom antenna is an aperture antenna which is used to Properly match the waveguide or any guiding system to a large radiating aperture by shaping the transition gradually. The large aperture is necessary to improve directivity and to produce efficient radiation with proper matching with free space. Several horn configurations are configurations are ) Sectoral E-plane horn _ ii) Sectoral H-plane horn Pyramidal horn iv) Conical horn possible. Some commonly used hom is done in one direction only, then sectoral horn is produced. | E-plane horn the horn is flared out in the plane of electric field-E, then it is called as ral E-plane horn. Fig, 6.5.1 shows sectoral E-plane horn. Fig. 6.5.1 Sectoral E-plane horn Sanna nth CoSmoations 6-12 Earth | Station Techy Tectia, ii) Sectoral H-plane horn * When the horn is flared out in the plane of magnetic field-H then it jg Calle Sectoral H-plane hom, Fig. 6.5.2 shows sectoral H-plane horn * Fig. 6.8.2 Sectoral H-plane horn ill) Pyramidal horn * When the hom is flared out in both the Planes ie. in E-plane and H-plane of the sectanigin Wevepaide, then it is called as Pyramidal hom. Fig. 653 shows Pyramidal horn, Fig. 6.5.3 Pyramidal horn iv) Conical horn When the walls of circular waveguide is flared out, itis called as ¢ Fig. 6.5.4 shows conical horn. ‘al horn. TENA BLCO” Wi Midi woman a) Senn ath CoSRR tree 9 Hr Rr ae toe perennial HO rte » aap _w ‘ ~ ~ ‘ * a = ' Pig 08.8 Cross section of pyremata: horn wither Loplane on biplane. Let he lace angie |8 L 08 = L+5 mer ~ cos@/2° 2L -1a 6 = 2tan OL Abo sap = 17+(5) P+P+0s = 24% ‘8 is very small hence 8? can be neglected. 2L6 = Flare angles for half power beam width (HPBW) For HPBW the optimum flare angles are given as = degrees and where ly = Physical aperture ep eae fap = Aperture efficiency [ x] Fi For a rectangular horn A, = Ge Oy Seanad ith Com Sunes rec ——re satellite Communications Pe i 71 {EEA Parabolic Reflector Antenna/Pa Parabolic reflector antennas are based on the geometric optical principles. 4 metallic plate of parabolic curvature is referred as parabolic reflector or paraboloid. A typical parabolic reflector is shown in Fig. 6.5.6. Consider 2 uurce at focus (F) of abolic reflector. By " the property of parabola Bowne points can be noted i) All the waves originating from focus point Paraboloid Focus Si Earth Station Technology raboloid ‘a Aperture plane = Plane wavefront Parabolic reflector axis a Fig. 6.5.6 Parabolic reflector will be reflected by the parabola and the reflected waves are parallel to the parabolic axis regardless of 0 value. ii) All the reflected waves reaching the aperture plane are in phase. The above geometrical properties of parabola provides an excellent reflector at microwave frequency which leads to a concentrated radiation beam. * A paraboloid reflector antenna has nearly same characteristics both for transmission and _ reception. us it can act as high gain ional antenna. The radiation of a paraboloid reflector a very sharp main lobe and surrounding the main lobe are 1 lobes of very small size. The ation pattern of a paraboloid is in Fig, 6.5.7. Minor lobes Main lobe Fig. 6.5.7 Paraboloid radiation pattern Seanad ith Com SesSatellite Communications [ERED Analysis of Paraboloid Beamwidth between half-power points (BWHP) «The beamwidth between half-power points (6) is given as een where, D = Mouth diameter Beamwidth between first nulls (BWFN) BWEN (,) is given as % = 20 1400, 0 aE degrees W Half-power bandwidth (HPBW) HPBW for a circular aperture is given as HPBW = 5% D Directivity (D) p . 4A re Where A = Area of aperture. For a circular aperture A = ™D* 4 Seamed ith Com Sascations 6 4 q. wit Commu i Earth Station Tech “% 3 Food Systems for Paraboloid primary antenna (source radiation), The priasy focus of the paraboloid for best results in tran (source radiation) is known as fee secondary radiator, reflector and a antenna is usually placed at the ismission. ‘The Primary antenna ‘d radiator and the reflector is known as + In ideal feed system, the entire surface of the energy is spread out in any other directions, Various feed mechanisms used are - i) Dipole end-fire feed. reflector is illuminated and no ii) Spherical reflector feed, iii) Horn feed. iv) Cassergrain feed, i) Dipole end-fire feed + A small dipole array such as a yagi or an end-fire array is placed at the focus pointing towards the parabolic reflector. Fig. 6.5.8 shows dipole end-fire feed system. Paraboloid Dipoles le end-fire feed system 5s Fig. 65.8 Dipole on Biolodisqyn bine When sae used, the direct radiation of from feed tends to spread out in , all directic a i. ling the directivity. Many methods can be used to avoid this one or the is smal spherical reflector as shown in Fig. 6.5.9. the radiations which spreads out are redirected to the paraboloid. Thus the ion losses are avoided. Senn nth CoSEarth Station Pes x Molo y ‘Satellite Communications Paraboloid Spherical reflector Primary antenna at focus Fig. 6.5.9 Spherical reflector feed iil) Horn feed Paraboloid * A most common used feed system is with the help of a horn antenna Hom antenna pointing at the main reflector. A horn antenna has a highly directional radiation pattern from its mouth. Fig. 65.10 shows hom feed system. The obstruction caused by the feed antenna to the reflection from the paraboloid when the horn is placed at its focus can be ee Fig. 6.5.10 Horn feed iv) Cassegrain feed : Paraboloid Feed hom antenna. Focus of paraboloid = rd hyperbolic - Hyperboloig Seamed th CSc,igs communications Earth Station Technology assegrain feed uses hyperboloid reflector which is locate * incides with that of paraboloid reflector. The re reflected from the hyperbola surface colimates (Fenders) the electromagnetic wave into a from the antenna. Fig 65.11 shows cassegrain feed sy d such that its focus Tays from the feed horn antenna on to the parabolic reflector which Parallel planewave radiating ‘stem. E55 Lens Antenna Inoptics a lens for obtaining a parallel * eam of light from a point source is teas shown in Fig. 65.12 Collimated rays is located at the focus of at acti k tists Source the lens. The refraction takes place dges are refracted and the rays at the edges ‘more than those near the center. Thus Radiating <> a divergent beam is collimated. : Lens Similarly a parallel beam of light onverging at a point is also true. The {s true for electromagnetic waves The only difference is that the lens is not an optical glass, but a dielectric made of polystyrene or Lucite or artificial dielectric, Fig. 6.5.12 Lens principle e are several type of lens antenna. The two main types are plane metal plate lens (Delay lens) e metal plate lens (Fast lens) ‘plane metal plate antennas, the travelling wavefronts are delayed or retarded mediums shown in Fig. 6.5.13. Plane wavefront Source q Wavefront | Lens i Fig. 6.5.13 H-plane lens | “Th Eplane metal plate lens, the travelling wavefronts are speeded up or {_*elerated by the lens medium as shown in Fig, 6.5.14. Sanna nth CoS- Eart satellite Communications 6-20 th Staton Techn Plane wavefront Lens Fig. 6.5.14 E-plane lens « The thickness of lens antenna becomes excessive below 10 GHz frequency. To cure the problem of great thickness the zoning or stepping of dielectric lenses are. employed. The stepping or zoning dielectric lenses are shown in Fig. 6.5.15. Fig. 6.5.15 Zonned or stepped lenses The thickness of step is a function of wavelength, therefore stepping is to be done carefully. Stepping reduces absorption of energy contained in incident wave. * The disadvantage of zoned or stepped lenses is that it has a small frequency range and are costly because of precise stepping. Tey Seanad ith Com SesEar Station Technolog (A Advantages and Disadvantages of Single and Dual Axis-symmetric Reflector Antennas Samm ath CoSNo aperture blockage, hence better performance. With shaping efficiencies of 84 %. High polarization purity. . Convenient accommodation aspects for mounting various electronics boxe: PA's eR (redundant), power supply and | | switching units. | Load carrying capacity for | electronics boxes along feed | + arn > primary-feed aics in operation. Accessibilit and electro a . Application for VSAT and or HUI RUC eae Cl iecd 1. Slightly more expensive due to improved efficiency. A horn antenna fed by a rectangular waveguide with TE) mode having mouth height = 102. Calculate the following parameters. i) Length ii) Flare angle Solution : Given a = 10 i) For horn antenna length L is given by - ee er Lo = a8 | Typical value of 5 in E-plane = 0.2 = (100)? _ 1002? _ os ac OD) maattoNe ys ii) Flare angle Flare angle 0 is he Sand ath CoS(Ha-Dec mount) [EW Tracking Systems ¢ The tracking fem keeps the antenna pointing in the direction of the satellite in spite of the relative movement of the satellite and the station ¢ The performance required of the tracking system varies in accordance with the characteristics of the antenna beam and the satellite orbit. The antenna beam-width determines the type of tracking accordance with the particular characteristics of the satellite orbit. Tracking consists of maintaining the axis of the antenna beam in the direction of system used in the satellite in spite of movement of the satellite or station. Several types of tracking are possible and are characterised by their tracking error (pointing angle error). Choice of the type of tracking depends on the antenna beam-width and the magnitude of apparent movement of the satellite. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS™- An up thrust for knowiedge Sand ath CoSoe Earth Station 7, Satellite Communications 6-34 ae is (direct i « Tracking systems used for keeping the antenna beam axis (direction of Maximum gain) pointed towards the satellite are - 1. No tracking (fixed pointing) 2. Program tracking 3. Monopulse tracking 4, Step tracking 5. Tracking with beam scanning 1. No Tracking (Fixed Pointing) play © Tracking is not necessary when the antenna beamwidth is large in comparison with the station keeping box of a geostationary satellite or for the case of a system of satellites on inclined elliptical orbits when the antenna beamwidth greatly ~exceeds the solid angle which contains the apparent movement of the active orbiting satellite. ° Where no tracking system is needed is the simplest and most economical. In the case of small stations (eg, for rural communications, business systems or VSAT), system planners should strive to design stations with non-tracking antennas. 2. Program Tracking * Program tracking uses a computer program to calculate the satellite Position. * Permanent calculation of satellite orbital position (values of azimuth and elevation angles at each instant) at the station or transmission of local antenna pointing data by a control station is performed. ° These azimuth and elevation angles are calculated in advance for successive instants, taking account of the predicted apparent movement of the satellite and the values are stored in a memory. * Pointing is then performed in op error between the actual direction instant. en loop without determination of the pointing of the satellite and the aiming direction at each * There are three categories of program tracking. 1) The first method is to calculate the antenna Position of the satellite from the control sta parameters. Pointing Position using the orbital tion or using the Satellite position 2) The second method is to use stored previous tracking data (for example durin, 24 hours) of satellite coordinates and to estimate the present Position, e 3) The third method is a more intelligent or more accurate method than the second method and predicts the satellite position from recent data during a few, days. The Seanad ith Com Suesfiction algorithm is more. 9 pred ‘ore sophisticated and includes the ellite ea includes the daily satellite drift ; ee tracking is mainly used for earth station antennas of large 2./D ratio which thus have a large enough beamwidth that high pointing accuracy is not required. + If high pointing accuracy is required (a small 4/D ratio), used with non-geostationary satellites to Preposition the antenna in an area of the sky where the satellite will appear in such a way as to ensure acquisition by a closed-loop tracking system operating, on the satellite beacon 3, Monopulse tracking « In monopulse tracking, signals caused by azimuth and elevation misalignments are generated instantaneously in the antenna feed system and available at special “error” or “difference” antenna feed output ports. “Multi-horn monopulse system /¢ Multihor monopulse system uses four primary horns symmetrically located around the focus. These horns provide beams slightly offset_ from the antenna boresight axis, # Tracking signals are obtained by comparing the amplitude of the received signals between these beams. A one-dimensional explanation of the principle of this system is given in Fig, 68.1 (a). programmed tracking, is Amplitude LEA+B S=A-B6-96 Earth Station Tee, p96 EON Tet 5 ey, denoted as A and B, respectively, are symmes, us of the antenna. Their radiation patte Satelite Communications Oe + Two primary horns, positioned on both sides of the foc shown in Fig, 6.1 (b) ‘The angle difference between the antenna boresight axis and the satelite direction is obtained by coherently detecting the error signal (A signal) with reference t, the sum signal (2 signal), as shown in Fig, 6.8.1 (0), the two tracking signals made available at the output parts of a hybrid circuit in the feed system. 4, Step Tracking thod uses a servo-system) The antenna beam is steer ¢ The step-track met step-by-step so as to obtain a stronger signal from the satellite than that recs in the previous position as shown in Fig. 68.2. El angle det [oot [sin] angle det Antenna control unit Azaxis Motor cont Handle Fig. 6.8.2 Antenna drive and servo system * If the step-steering of the ant antenna beam has decr - Steptoe, ae will command the rg ane irection. The receive signal is us , red in the opposite beacon, “~~ > ually derived from the carrier~of a satellite ¢ In the step-track system, no speci i ‘i Y special tracking feed is ne beacon receiver and step-track processor are ee led and only a simple Seamed th CoS,satellite Communications 6-37 Earth Station Technology « A drawback of the system is that the tracking accuracy is directly affected by rapid variations of the incoming signal due to such effects as atmospheric scintillation, rain absorption and beacon instability Tracking with Beam Scanning e In tracking with beam system, the main beam of the antenna is shifted in two orthogonal planes, at two symmetrical positions in each plane. vj Satellite | % : Beam scanning amplitude @ : Satellite coordinates 9: Satellite coordinates Levels at points 1 and 3 give the misalignment along X Levels at points 2 and 4 give the misalignment along Y Fig. 6.8.3, Measurement of the signal level provides the amplitude of the antenna misalignment and the direction of the misalignment referred to the antenna coordinates system. Scanning of the main beam creates an amplitude modulation of the received signal. Signal processing gives two error signals at the output of the tracking Teceiver. The beam shift is achieved by adding, in the feed horn, a higher mode (example TMp, or TE>; in conical horn), whose level and phase relative to the fundamental mode, creates a phase gradient on the main dish aperture. The slope of the gradient is proportional to the relative level of the higher mode. The relative phase permits management of the plane of the beam shift. Seanad ith Com SeesSatellite Communications 6-38 Earth Station Technology This device requires a beacon receiver with a signal processing board and control of the amplitude and phase of the higher mode. « The system is tuned at the beacon frequency with a narrow-band RF filter so that the beacon shift is cancelled at every other frequency. [XJ Terrestrial Interface Terrestrial interface provides ! requirements of the terrestrial interface widely based on the application and user interconnection with terrestrial systems. The facility provided. Earth stations are a means of providing access to a satellite communication network of some type. An important part of their design deals with the interface between the station and terrestrial network infrastructure. Baseband data processing for converting the transmission formats of the terrestrial network into the satellite link formats (and reciprocally at receive) should be provided by the modem equipment. ¢ Following are terrestrial interface functionalities : a. Physical interface for the incoming /outcoming data streams b. Engineering service channel (ESC) equipment facilities c. Redundancy switching for secured links d. Data framing and synchronization e. Energy dispersion by scrambling. , 120 Mbit/s TDMA/DSI systems requis ' errestrial interface. This interface corresponds to a module of cee ete IM (terrestrial interface module) which is a DSI/DNI unit. eulbsellyetis| Q00 Seamed ith Com SasLow Earth Orbit and Geo- Stationary Satellite Syste™ Syllabus Orbit considerations, Coverage and frequency consideration, Delay and considerations, System considerations, Operational NGSO constellation designs throughpu Contents 7.1 Orbital Considerations 7.2 Coverage and Frequency Considerations 7.3 Delay and Throughput Considerations 7.4 System Considerations 7.5 Operational NGSO Constellation Designs Seamed ith Com SasSatellite Communication’ 7-2 Low Earth Orit and Geo-Stationary Satelite Sys, : on Er Ste Sytem [ERE orbital Considerations * The LEO and MEO satellites are referred as Non-Geo-Stationary Orbit (NGsoy satellites. Different NGSO orbits such as equatorial orbits, inclined orbits, elliptical orbits, Molniya orbits are used for scientific, military and commercial Satellite applications. Equatorial Orbit Coverage of LEO i N An orbit with etme satellite a plane parallel to the earth's equator y (inclination Equatorial LEO satelite angle=0°) is in an equatorial sig. 144 orbit. ig. 74. An equatorial orbit is directly above the earth's equator. Fig. 7.1.1 shows coverage of an equatorial orbit LEO satellite. * An apparent orbital period (P) to the observer on the equator is given as - [P= 247 (247) hows | Where, T is real orbital period of satellite * The plane of satellite's orbit must be in the plane of equator for the satellite to be in equatorial orbit. Direction of rotation around the earth * There are two ways in which a satellite orbit may be categorised : 1, Prograde : The rotation around the earth is said to be prograde when it rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the earth. 2. Retrograde : The rotation around the ear! k ‘ th is said to be retrograde when it rotates in the opposite direction to the rotation of the earth. Prograde vs Retrograde Prograde 1. Any orbit in which the spacecraft moves from west to east, 2. Usual direction of rotation in our solar system, 3. Only a handful of objets omit or rotate in the opposite direction ee Seamed ith Com Sansc=. satelite Communications 7-3 Low Earth Orbit and Geo-Stationary Satellite Systems retrograde }, Any orbit in which the spacecraft moves from east t s from east to west >, This is the less usual direction in the solar system; how : : cr, it is not impossible. For example, Venus has retrograde spin and some comets - notably comet Halle which was encountered by ESA's Giotto spacecraft in 1986 - also has a retrograde orbit - [EA inclined Orbits Inclination of orbit is angle between orbit and equator. There are advantages and disadvantages of inclined orbit Advantages The inclined orbit provides higher elevation angles to user locations at high northern and southern altitudes. + Indined orbit provides visibility in the polar regions. Disadvantages Users are required to track satellites. * Periodically users must switch from a setting to rising satellite (handover problem). © Number of orbital belts and satellites per belt is a complex function of many parameters such as coverage, elevation angle, viewing time requirements. Fig. 7.1.2 shows inclined orbit. Earth's axis of rotation ATS-3 Orbit \ 14 Equator Polar region Fig. 7.1.2 Inclined orbit ‘The coverage of an inclined orbit LEO satellite is shown in Fig, 7.1.3. Seamed th CoS,—_—_ © sotto Communications ———— yw Earth Orn —— ——_» Satenj lite gy e of inclined orbit Coe Nite (shaded area) LEO sale Inclined orbit LEO satelite Ss : P " Fig, 7.1.3 Coverage of an inclined orbit LEO satellite [BED Elliptical Orbit Ellipse is an elongated circle. Its eccentricity (e) is a measure of the amount of elongation. Ife = 0, the ellipse becomes 2 circle «If the speed of satellite is less than or greater than the necessary circular speed, then it will move on an elliptical orbit. Perigee = Point on elliptical orbit closes to earth. 1, = Distance from earth's center to perigee hy = Altitude of perigee (height above earth's surface) ‘Apogee = Point on elliptical orbit farthest from earth ., = Distance from Earth's center to apogee Altitude of apogee (height above earth's surface) * Fig. 7.1.4 shows elliptical orbit. A eee Perigee Fig. 7.1.4 Ellipti + Eccentricity determined by me IEE Ta +Ip (R+ha)+(R+h,) iin TECHNICAL BLIP inarinein Sand nth CoSisorf sotelite ‘Communications 7-5 Low Earth Orbit and Geo-Stationary Satellite Systems « With the highly elliptical orbit , the satellite has long dwell time over one area, but at certain times when the satellite is on the high speed portion of the orbit, there is no coverage over the desired area. « To solve this problem we could have two satellites on similar orbits, but timed to be on opposite sides of the orbit at any given time. In this way, there will always be one satellite over the desired coverage area at all times. ‘Slow moving long dwell time over desired area Orbit for satelite 4 Location of satellite 1 t time =1 ‘\ Location of satellite 2 atime = I Desired area of)! Me satellite coverage” / “Desired area of satellite coverage Fig. 7.1.5 Highly elliptical orbit Molniya Orbit The name Molniya is derived from the Russian word for "lightning" (as in "quick-as-lightning"). It is an earth satellite orbit designed for communications satellite service coverage at high latitudes, with an orbital period of slightly less than 12 hours (semisynchronous orbit), inclination of 63.4°, and high eccentricity (0.722), so that the apogee (where the satellite lingers over the service coverage area) is at 25,000 miles (40,000 kilometers) and the perigee is at only 300 miles (600 kilometers). ‘Because of its inclination, the perigee doesn't rotate so the satellite "hangs" over the northern hemisphere for nearly 11 hours of its 12-hour period before it whips "quick as lightning” through perigee in the southern hemisphere. Molniya orbit is 12-hour highly elliptical and inclined orbit. Because of the Earth's size, geostationary satellites are not visible north of 55 degrees, which includes much of Russia. Molniya orbits fill the gap. Their great eccentricity means they travel slowly at apogee, allowing long periods of contact. Three Molniya satellites allow continuous coverage. The 12 hour period means there is one apogee period over Russia, another over North America, making them also useful as spy satellites for both sides. The Sand nth ConSionr=_” 7-6 _ LowEarth Orbit and Geo-Stationary Satelite System 8 Satellite Communications . sults in zero precession of ¢ which result és clination is 63.4 degrees, aie os d above the northern hemisphere, axis of the orbit, so the apogee remains fixes 1. (Time in hours) The Russians used this orbit for their communications satellites because they didn't have launch vehicles large enough to put them into geosynchronous orbits from their far northern launch sites. Molniya orbits also offer better coverage of Fig. 7.1.6 Molniya orbit latitudes above 80 degrees north. | Features of Molniya Orbit 1. Covers northern polar areas for long periods of time. 2. Has a low launch-cost. 3. Requires continuous changing of antenna pointing angles. 4, Requires satellite station keeping. 5. Has a period of 12 hours. 6. Has an altitude of 40,000 km at apogee and an altitude of 500 km at perigee. 7. Covers the northern polar areas for a period of 8 hours. . Has an inclination angle of 63.14 degrees. 2 7; - Scanned wath CamSeannercommunications - 7-7 LowEarth Orbit and Geo-Stationary Satelite Systems pp sun-Synchronous Orbit (SO) A sun-synchronous orbit of the earth's satellite is a geometric orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that an object on that orbit ascends or descends over any given point of the earth's surface at the same local mean solar time, In this way the earth's surface illumination angle will be nearly in the same time. « In sun-synchronous orbit the plane of the satellite orbit is always the same in relation to the sun. It can also be defined an as orbit for which the satellite crosses the equator at the same local time each day (need to define local time). + Sun - synchronous orbit is circular, near polar and slightly retrograde orbits with inclinations of 90+ degrees. Orbits are chosen so precession of the orbital plane matches the earth's motion around the sun. When a sun-synchronous satellite passes southbound over the daylight side of the earth, it is always late morning. + Typical Sun-synchronous orbits are about 600-800 km in altitude, with periods in the 96-100 minute range, and inclinations of around 98°. Variations on this type of orbit are possible; a satellite could have a highly eccentric sun-synchronous orbit. +A typical polar, sun-synchronous LEO satellite takes about 90 minutes to completely circle the Earth. This gives it about 16 orbits per day- Atitude = 705 km (Nominal) Inclination = 98.2°- lOrbit period = 98.9 minutes Fig, 7.4.7 Sun synchronous orbit + Ofbits are also chosen to pass over the same tracks at regular intervals, generally 23 weeks, Sun-synchronous orbits are used by most Earth observation systems like Landsat. : TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" An up thus for knowledge Seamed ith Com SuesUnit Satellite Navigation and Global Positioning System Syllabus Radio and satellite navigation, GPS position location principles, GPS receivers and codes, Satellite signal acquisition, GPS navigation message, GPS signal levels, GPS receiver operation, GPS C/A code accuracy, Differential GPS. Contents 8.1. Introduction Global Positioning System (GPS) 8.2 Radio and Satellite Navigations 83 GPS Position Location Principles 84 GPS Receivers and Codes 8.5 GPS Navigation Message 8.6 GPS Accuracy and Limitations 87 Errors in GPS 88 Differential GPS (DGPS) Techniques Seamed ith Com Sas“= Global Positioning Sate, Of a constellation of stations, s to calculate positions accurate points to calculate positions accurate tg ¢ GPS can achieve centimetre accuracy), forn ect and becoming very economical and accessible to the lanes, construction equipment, movie making gear, farm wachinery Satellites Name : NAVSTAR (Rockwell Alltitude : 10,900 nautical miles (MEO) Weight : 1900 Ibs (in orbit) Size: 17 ft with solar panels extended Orbital period : 12 hours Orbital plane : 55 degrees to equatorial plane ternational) Planned Lifespan : 7.5 years . Current constellation : 24 Block II production satellites | . Future satellites : 21 Block IIRs (Martin Marietta) EZ] Radio and Satellite Navigations Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four general categories navigation, aeronautic navigation and techniques involve locating the navigator's or patterns. : Land navigation, marine space navigation. All navigational Position compared to known locations Radio navigation is the ap, Plication of radio frequencies to determine a position on the Earth. However, the basic concept of using radio Radio direction finding had been dev extensively during the war, A “tadio direction finder’, also known as a " tadio compass", used a mounted on the back of an aircraft. Ifthe plane of ‘his a signals for navigation was not new ? eloped before the war and was |te Communications 8 -3 Satellite Navigation and Global Positioning System be m, the signal strength was a maximum, w: induced voltages that canceled each other out, re: The loop antenna was connected to cockpit's control panel hile a signal facing the loop sulting in a weak or null signal. an amplifier, which drove an indicator on the + Satellite navigation systems can provide far higher accuracy than any other current tong and medium range navigation system. Specifically, in the case of GPS, differential techniques have been developed which can provide accuracies comparable with current landing systems. + The NAVigation Satellite Timin, radio based, satellite navi; 3-dimensional position, v 8 and Ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS is an all weather, igation system that enables users to accurately determine elocity and time worldwide. al Positioning System (GPS) * GPS is a popular application of spread spectrum. The GPS is now used in ship and aircraft navigation, geological surveys. GPS is used to determine location of any object on the earth within the accuracy of inches. Als for measuring the velocity of moving object. Typical applications of GPS are - 1. To pin-point locate the destination by delivery vehicle. the precise ‘0 it is used 2. To guide emergency vehicle through electronic map. 5. To monitor continuously the movement of cargo or any vehicle. 4. A GPS assisted navigation s ystems airlines can fly more direct routes, sav for passengers and fuel. ing time GPS Position Location Principles pproach, each satellite is sending out signals with the following content : I am satellite X, My position is Y and this information was sent at time Z. In addition to its own position, each satellite sends data about the Position of other satellites. These orbit data (ephemeris and almanac data) are stored by the GPS receiver for later calculations, * For the determination of its position on earth, the GPS receiver compares the ea when the signal was sent by the satellite with the time the signal was receiv an be From this time difference the distance between receiver and satellite calculated. ‘ition can be * If data from other satellites are taken into account, the Preetsstanen from eee 2 anaes calculated by trilateration (meaning the penn psa dil to determine the Points). This means that at least three sate Position of the GPS receiver on the earth surface nmi for knowiedge Seamed ith Com Sunespostion from 3 satelite signals is called 2D-pestion The calculation of a pos odimens! s s vo dimensional bee; mensional position determination). It is only two dimensional beea (two-dimensional pos ” se the me that it 38 located on the earth surface (ong py same that it is receiver has to a ane two-dimensional surface). satellite: absolute position in a three dimensional four or more satellites, an By means of four or be dotermined. A 3D-position fv also gives the height above the earth space can be dete . f surface as a result. In the following an explanation is given, how the position determination by G In the following an explana we Position, ae works. For simplification, in the first step we assume that the earth a hes for two-dimensional disk. This allows us to do some understandable sketch two-dimensional disk. This a : illustration. The principle can then be transferred to the model of a three-dimensional globe. Fig. 8.3.4 Position determination with two Im the example, the time needed by satellites to the receiver was determined satellites, (in a 2-dimensional world) @ signal to travel from the first of two to be 4 Ss. (In reality this value is far too high. As the signals travel with the speed of light (299 792 4580 m/s), the actual receiver lies in the range of 0.07 s.) time span for signals from the satellite to thecommu o Satelit © Navigation and Globay Positioning Syston she atea in the picture above whi ; ich shaded gre " jgnals ate Supposed to be “realistic’, aes Y is the region in which Gps Positions SIONS Outside this are; in this area are discarded, so qhis assumption replaces the third sat the process of trilateration. In this e from only two satellites. ellite Which wo, tld in theory be re xample quired for an unequivocal position is obtained , So we just need a third satellite for a third dimension and that's it? Well, in principle yes. But the problem lies in runtime the determination of the signals. exact runtime of « As explained above, satellites impose a sort of time sta data package. We know that all clocks of satellites are atomic clocks after all) Mp on each transmitted absolutely precise (they are but the problem is the clock in our GPS receiver, Atomic clocks being too expensive, our GPS receivers are based on conve ntional quartz. clocks which are comparatively inaccurate. What does this mean in practice ? Fig. 8.3.2 2D position determination with 2 satellites and clock error In this example suppose the clock in our receiver is 0.5 seconds early compared to clock in the satellite. The runtime of the signal seems to be 0.5 s longer than it ly is. This leads to the assumption that we are on point B instead of point A. circles that intersect in point B are called pseudoranges. They are called )" as long as no correction of the synchronisation errors (bias) of the clocks been performed. ‘ ing on the accuracy of the clock in the GPS receiver, the determined ition will be more or less wrong. For the practice of GPS based navigation this, would mean that no determined position can ever be of any use, as the runtimes Senn nth CoS8-6 Satellite Navigation and Global Positioning s, Satelite Communications of the signals are so short, that any clock error has an overwhelming influence ) a the result ‘A clock error of 1/100 second, which is difficult to imagine but quite commo, PS navigation lead to a mistake in fs ie from car races or skiing races, would in G position of about 3000 km. To achieve an accuracy of 10 m of the position, th runtime of the signal must be precise to 0.00000003 seconds. hee [As atomic clocks are no option in GPS receivers, the problem is solved in anoth er and quite elegant way * Ifa third satelite is taken i : taken into account f ee en eae t for the calculation of the positi ine. tained : In case that all clocks are absolute nen another corresponding to the actual postion of the weer le receiver. the receiver clock is shifted until the three ; clock error is corrected and the receiver eng tm clocks in the satellites. ie a Seanad ith Com Sens F Points B merge to A, the lock is ge é 1S synchronized with the atomic[ = site Communications 8-7 Satellite Navigation and Global Positioning System « The GPS receiver can now be regarded as an atomic clock itself. The distances to the satellites, formerly regarded as pseudoranges, now correspond to the actual distances and the determined position is accurate. + In our example - a two dimensional disc world - we therefore need three satellites for an unequivocal determination of our position. In the real world which has one additional dimension, we would need a fourth satellite. In practice you get a two-dimensional position determination (2D-fix) with three satellites. The position is bound to be located on the earth's surface. The fourth satellite is the geocenter; the distance to the "fourth satellite” corresponds to 6360 km (the radius of the globe). Therewith the fourth satellite necessary for the calculation is given, but the calculation is restricted to locations on the earth surface. However the earth is not a perfect sphere. The surface of the earth in this case means the earth geoid, corresponding to sea level. If the receiver is located on a mountain, the determined position again is afflicted with an inaccuracy, as the runtime of the satellite signals is wrong. * By constantly recalculating its position, the GPS receiver can additionally determine the speed and direction of a movement (referred to as "ground speed” and "ground track’). Another possibility of determining the speed is by using the Doppler's effect which occurs due to the movement of the receiver while receiving the signals. The principle is the same as for a moving siren on a police car : The tune is higher when the car moves towards the listener and it is lower when the car moves away. Position Determination with GPS The principle of position determination by GPS and the accuracy of the positions trongly depend on the nature of the signals. A variety of criteria was considerec the development of a suitable signal structure. ae the GPS signal is quite complex and offers the possibility « ining the following parameters : One-way (passive) position determinatio: distance and direction determination (Doppler effect), transmission navigation information, simultaneous receiving of several satellite signa provision of corrections for ionospheric delay of signals and insusceptibil! against interferences and multi path effects. In order to fulfil all th requirements, the signal structure described below was developed. Sand ath CoS8-8 Satelite Navigation and Global Positioning - a stem Satellite Communications EX] cps Receivers and Codes the GPS system can be divided into three basic segments. The space segment wp below, the control segment will be explained on a separate page be discussed 1. Space segment (satellites) Control segment (control stations) User segment (GPS receiver) 8.4.1 shows a GPS system with its components. Fig. 24 satellites/6 planes“. i =-=---=> Carrier frequencies L, = 1575.42 MHz L, = 1227.60 MHz EZR] cps Receiver * The GPS system uses 24 satellites in six orbital Control segment Fig. 8.4.1 GPS system planes at 22,200 km height from th station. All satellites and earth ! i time synchronization for generating EN code. Satellites continuously transmit this PN code and information about location and time. A GPS receiver on ground generates same PN code. The receiver PN code is delayed by a seconds (timing bias) compared to PN code of satellites. ¢ Four satellites are used to determine the exact location of a receiver. Fig. 8.4.2 shows block diagram of a GPS receiver. | Seamed ith Com SusCommunications 8-9 Satellite Navigation and Global Positioning System Position data from satellite Position estimator * The data received from satellite and the GPS receiver is given to position estimator. It computes the exact position of receiver. Antenna \/7 Range calculation algorithm Receiver |g. 8.4.2 GPS receiver EWA Role of L, and L, Carriers ¢ Data are transmitted from each satellite on two carrier frequencies designed as L, (1575.42 MHz) and L, (1227.6 MHz). The L, signal is modulated with 10.23 Mbps PN bit sequence called the P code. The precise positioning is obtained by Ly and Ly carriers. EEE C/A and P-Code « The carrier phases are modulated by three different binary codes : First there is the C/A code (coarse acquisition). This code is a 1023 "chip" long code, being transmitted with a frequency of 1.023 MHz. * A "chip" is the same as a "bit", and is described by the numbers "one" or "zero" The name "chip" is used instead of "bit" because no information is carried by the signal. By this code the carrier signals are modulated and the bandwidth of the main frequency band is spread from 2 MHz to 20 MHz (spread spectrum). Thus the interference liability is reduced. * The C/A code is a pseudo random code (PRN) which looks like a random code but is clearly defined for each satellite. It is repeated every 1023 bits or every millisecond. Therefore each second 1023000 chips are generated. Taking into account the speed of light the length of one chip can be calculated to be 300 m. ty Pseudo Random Numbers (PRNs) = numbers. Real GPS * The satellites are identified by the receiver te asa appear on Satellites are numbered from 1 ~ 32. These PRN-wUmPeF Og ho salt \ the satellite view screens of many (aa Seanad ith Com Sunes by means of PSatellite Communications 8-10 Satelite Navigation and Global Positioning Sy, network 32 different PRN-numbers are available, although only 24 satellites were necessary and planned in the beginning. For a couple of years, now more than 24 satellites are active, which optimizes the availability, reliability and accuracy of the network. The mentioned PRN-codes are only pseudo random. If the codes were actually random, 2 possibilities would exist. Of these many codes only few are suitable for the auto correlation or cross correlation which is necessary for the measurment of the signal propagation time. The 37 suitable codes are referred to as GOLD-codes (names after a mathematician). For these GOLD-codes the correlation among each other jis particularly weak, making an unequivocal identification possible. The C/A code is the base for all civil GPS receivers. The P code (p = precise) modulates the L; as well as the L, carrier frequency and is a very long 10.23 MHz pseudo random code. The code would be 266 days long, but only 7 days are used, For protection against interfering signals transmitted by an possible enemy, the P-code can be transmitted encrypted. During this anti-spoofing (AS) mode the P-code is encrypted in a Y-code. The encrypted code needs a special AS-module for each receiving channel and is only accessible for authorized personnel in possession of a special key. The P and Y-code are the base for the precise (military) position determination. Since January 31, 1994 the AS-system is operating continiously and the P-code is only transmitted as Y-code. Sand ath CoS——e as Orbital Effects in Communication System Performance Bl Doppler Shift ca + The Doppler effect in satellite communications is the change i electromagnetic signal that results from the relative Earth terminal. sh + When the satellite moves with respect to the Earth, the satellite to a point on the surface of the Earth ve * When the orbital parameters of a satellite are kn« determine the position of the Earth terminal. known, Doppler shift can be used to estimate the Sand ath CoSimportant consideration in satellite communications, * Doppler shift can be expressed mathematically as; My 1, (f= fy) / fp = AU/y = Vp Jp AC = Vipsfp/om Vip/A Where, fy = ‘Transmitter frequeney fy = Received frequency Vy Component of transmitter frequency directe 'd towards the Teceiver Vp = 6, phase velocity of light (3x 108 m/s) And }. = Wavelength of transmitted signal * The received frequency, fy is higher than transmitted frequency fy, Whey transmitter is moving towards the receiver. If the transmitter is moving away from, the receiver then Vis negative. This change in frequency is called as doppler shift. Ey Range Variation ° The vari * The range variations are more significant in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites, DERM solar Eclipse A satellite is in eclipse when the earth from reach 4 Prevents i e happens near equinoxes, ey oie During the equinoxes, the satellite asses through : experiences an eclipse. ‘ Bae es shad If the Earth's equatorial a the sun (the ecliptic ‘once each day. As ecliptic plane, and the year, as illustré Sand ath CoSOrbital Mechanics and Launchers N Spring equinox, 'n transit Position A Satellite in transit Autumn, equines Satelite in clear view of Sun Satellite in eclipse Fig. 2.5.1 Satellite eclipse EEG] sun Transit Outage * During the equinoxes ,the transit of the satellite between aa and Sun ae e the Sun comes within the beam-width of the earth-station antenna. a h the Sun appears as an extremely noisy source which completely pase out the al from. i satellite. This effect is termed Sun transit outage, and it the equinoxes. for short periods-each day for about 6 days around the equin erate The occurrence and duration of the Sun transit outage tg i in is ical. the Earth sf i outage time of 10 min is typ’ aaa Sand ath CoSORBITAL EFFECTS IN COMMUNICATIONS TEMS PERFORMANCE Doppler Shift~ Toa stationary observer, the frequency of a moving radio transmitter varies with the trar mitter’s velocity relative to the observer. If the true transmitter frequency (i.e., \quency fa is frequency that the transmi ‘ nsmitter Would send when at rest) is f;, the received frequenc¥ Jk © higher than f; when the transmitter is moving toward the receiver and lower than fx the transmitter is moving away from the receiver. Mathematically, the relationship [Eq. (2.44a)] between the transmitted and received frequencies is Sr _ Af (2.44a) tt ft or Af = Vrfr/e = V/A oa where V; is the component of the transmitter velocity directed toward the receiver, YD =e the phase velocity of light (2.9979 x 10* ~ 3 x 10° m/s in free space), and A is the wave- length of the transmitted signal. If the transmitter is moving away from the receiver, then Vy is negative. This change in frequency is called the Doppler shift, the Doppler effect, or more commonly just “Doppler” after the German physicist who first studied the phenome- non in sound waves. For LEO satellites, Doppler shift can be quite pronounced, requiring the use of frequency-tracking receivers. For geostationary satellites, the effect is negligible. Seamed ith Com SasRange Variations as Solar Eclipse A satellite is said to be in eclipse when the earth prevents ie fi pat ae is, when the satellite is im the shadow of the th For geostationary satelites. eclipses occur during two periods that begin 23 days before the equnones (shot March 21 and about September 23) aad end 23 days after the equinox penods Figse 221 from sefr- ence 11 and Figure 2.22 from reference 12 ilustrate the geometry and duration of the eclipses. Eclipses occur close to the equinoxes, as these are the times when the sex, the earth, and the satellite are all nearly im the same plane. During full eclipse, a satellite receives no power from ts sola. array and it must op erate entirely from lis batteries. Batteries are designed to operate with 2 mnumen depth of discharge; the better the battery, the lower the percentage <¢ discharped below its maximum depth of discharge, the battery may not i of discharge therefore sets the batteries, long the mainstay 2 10% depth of discharge and recover battery-conditionmng soning routines prior totelite in sun transit outage : Satellite in eclipse Geostationary orbit FIGURE 2.21 Eclipse geometry (Source: J. J. Spilker, Jr., Digital Communications by Satellite, Prentice Hall, p. 144, copyright © 1977, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ, reprinted with permission). During the equinox periods around the March 21 and September 23, the geostationary plane is in the shadow of the earth on the far side of the earth from the sun. As the satellite moves around the geostationary orbit, it will pass through the shadow and undergo an eclipse period, The length of the eclipse period will Vary from a few minutes to over an hour (see Figure 2.22), depending on how close the Plane of the geostationary orbit is with respect to the center of the shadow thrown by the earth, Day of the year Day of the year 90 00 7OMMSORESOTRISIOOMETIORIFE S| 9524011250 200.8 270) 200 ea ‘shadow 70 Half 70F shadow 60 60 E50 if E50 ® 2 cl ic & 30 — E 20 =a % wl hn a 4 ) _ i 10 = Samad nth ConSsnr2.0 ONDITAL EFFECTS IN COMMUNICATIONS YSTEMS PenFonnance BB thorefore monitored carefully by ground controllers, as this is when most of the equip- ment failures are likely to occur Sun Transit Outage During the equinox periods, not only does the satellite pass through the earth's shaderw on the “dark” side of the earth, but the orbit of the satellite will also pass directly in front of the sun on the sunlit side of the carth (Figure 2,23). The siin Is a “hot” microwave source with an equivalent temperature of about 6000 to 10,000 K, depending on the time within the I-year sunspot cycle, at the frequencies used by communications satellites (4.10 50. GHz), The earth station antenna will therefore receive riot only the signal from the satellite but also the noise temperature transmitted by the sun. The added noise temperature will cause the fade margin of the receiver to be exceeded and an outage will occur. These outages may be precisely predicted. For satellite system operators with moreSand ath CoS