Bonga University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

Lecture Notes

Geotechnical Engineering Design–II

Compiled By: Haile Belete

Dec,15,2022

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Geotechnical Engineering Design – II
1. Introduction to Deep Foundations
1.1 Need for Deep Foundations
1.2 Types of Deep Foundations
1.3 Relevant Ground Investigation Technics
2. Pile Foundations
2.1 Introduction and Classification
2.2 Single Pile Capacity
2.3 Negative Skin Friction
2.4 Pile Group Action
2.5 Pile Settlement
2.6 Design of Pile Caps
2.7 Laterally Loaded Piles
3. Retaining Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Rigid Retaining Walls
3.2.1 Gravity Walls
3.2.2 Cantilever Walls
3.3 Flexible Retaining Walls
3.3.1 Sheet Pile Walls
3.3.2 Braced Cuts
3.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls
3.5 Shoring Pile Design
3.6 Cofferdams

4. Geosynthetics

4.1 Types of Geosynthetics

4.2 Properties of Geosynthetics

4.3 Design Applications

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CHAPTER ONE

DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations are typically less expensive than deep foundations. Therefore, it is economically
prudent in most cases to start by investigating whether a shallow foundation can be used. Only if it is
shown to be insufficient should the design proceed with deep foundations. It is nearly always possible to
use a shallow foundation to carry a vertical load, but the area required may be excessive or unavailable.
For example, a building with a column spacing equal to s has a limited amount of room between
columns to place the footing. Typically, if the area B2 required for the footing is more than one-half of
the area available (s2), then it is better to use a mat foundation or a deep foundation (Figure 1). In other
words
B ≤ 0.707s.
where B is the footing width and s is the column spacing. A typical deep foundation consists of a cluster
of piles installed down to a certain depth in order to transfer the load to a more competent bearing layer
or to distribute the load over a larger depth. Piles come in many different shapes and are made of many
different materials. The cross section can be circular and full, tubular, square, or hexagonal. The
diameter varies from 0.15 m for micropiles to 3 m for some of the bored piles and offshore pipe piles.
The length may be as short as a few meters (bored piles for a house foundation) to more than 100 m for
offshore piles (pipe piles to anchor offshore platforms). The material may be steel for pipe piles and H
piles, concrete for bored piles or driven concrete piles, wood for timber piles, or even plastic (more
recent installations).

figure :1 maximum area for shallow foundation

These piles may be prefabricated in a factory or cast in place. The installation process may consist of
driving the piles into the soil with either impact hammers or vibratory hammers (driven piles), or the
installers may proceed drilling a hole in the ground, lowering a reinforcing cage, and filling the hole
with concrete (bored piles, also known as drilled shafts or drilled piers). There are many variations of
these two basic installation techniques, but driven piles and bored piles remain the two major
installation categories. The names end-bearing piles and friction piles are used to refer to the load
distribution in the pile. End-bearing piles carry the load mostly at the pile point, whereas friction piles

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carry the load mostly in friction along the pile shaft. Battered piles are piles installed at an inclined angle
in order to better resist horizontal loads.

PILE INSTALLATION

Installation of Bored Piles

Bored piles are also known as drilled shafts or drilled piers. Bored piles are installed by drilling a hole in
the ground, removing the drilling tool, inserting the reinforcement cage, and filling the hole with
concrete. In more detail, the sequence is as follows: First the hole is drilled with a drill rig. The diameter
of the hole varies from 0.3 m all the way to 3 m. If the soil is free standing over the depth drilled, the
hole is drilled dry. If not, slurry is placed into the hole to help prevent caving of the hole. The level of
the slurry in the drilling hole must always be higher than the groundwater level, to ensure a positive
flow from the drill hole to the soil through the borehole wall. Slurries can be mineral slurries or
polymers. The most common type of mineral slurry is bentonite slurry, prepared by mixing bentonite
particles with water. The consistency of this slurry is very liquid. When the slurry stands in the open
hole, the slurry starts flowing horizontally into the soil; during this process, the bentonite particles
accumulate on the wall and form a thin cake that seals the hole from incoming or outgoing water. This
minimizes the sloughing of the soil into the hole that is often caused by entrainment of the incoming
flow of water.

Polymer slurries are viscous, but they do not form cakes on the wall; rather, they simply continue to
flow into the soil, so new slurry must be added continuously. The unit weight of a bentonite slurry is
between 3 and 10% higher than the unit weight of water, whereas the unit weight of a polymer slurry is
less than 3% higher than that of water. The chemical composition of slurries should be checked before
use (Brown et al. 2010).

If slurry is insufficient to keep the hole open, a steel casing can be lowered in the open hole and
advanced as drilling progresses, to prevent collapse. After the hole is drilled, the casing may be left in
place permanently or retrieved. Once the hole is opened, a steel reinforcement cage is lowered in the
center of the hole. Then a tremie pipe is lowered to the bottom of the hole and concrete is poured into
the hole from the bottom up. Because concrete is heavier than bentonite slurry, the concrete displaces
the slurry upward, to overflow in a desanding pit, for example. It is very important to keep the bottom of
the tremie pipe below the concrete level to prevent contamination of the concrete by the slurry. If the
bottom of the tremie pipe is raised above the concrete-mud interface (called burping the tremie) during
concreting, there is a possibility that some slurry or soil may become trapped in the concrete. This
would create a weak inclusion or defect in the bored pile. Onshore, the slurry is recirculated, but for
offshore drilled and grouted piles, the slurry is wasted on the ocean floor. Once the hole is full of
concrete, it is allowed to cure; thereafter, the bored pile is complete.

In summary, there are three main procedures for placing a bored pile (Brown et al. 2010):
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 1. Dry method (Figure.2)

2. Casing method (Figure.3)

3. Wet method (Figure.4)

Note that often a bored pile is constructed by using a combination of two or three of the methods listed
here. In addition to those methods, two other techniques are sometime used for bored piles: base
grouting and underreams (also called bells). Base grouting consists of injecting grout under pressure at
the base of the bored pile after the concrete is sufficiently hard (Figure 18.5). This increases the pressure
at the base by reaction against the side friction of the bored pile. This increase in pressure stiffens and
strengthens the soil under the pile point and actually prestresses the pile against the soil. This technique
aims at decreasing the settlement and increasing the capacity of the pile under load. Underreams or bells
are created by lowering a special drilling tool to the bottom of the hole before concreting takes place.
This tool expands sideways and creates a cone-shaped opening by rotation (Figure 18.6). The angle of
the cone with the horizontal is commonly in the range of 45 to 60 degrees.

The purpose of an underream or bell is to increase the point resistance of a bored pile or the uplift
capacity without having to increase the diameter over the entire length of the pile.

Figure 2 Installation of bored piles:Dry method Figure 3: Installation of bored piles: Casing
method

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Figure 4:Installation of bored piles: Wet method

Nondestructive Testing of Bored Piles

Nondestructive testing (NDT) can be used on any deep foundation member. However, it is most often
used in conjunction with the evaluation of onshore bored pile foundations. Several methods can be used
(Figure 18.7):

1. Cross hole sonic logging

2. Gamma-gamma logging

3. Sonic echo

4. Impulse response

Cross Hole Sonic Logging

The cross hole sonic logging technique requires that at least two access holes and casings be left in the
bored pile during construction. This is achieved by attaching the casings to the reinforcing cage. The
casings are typically around 50 to 57 mm in diameter and should be very well connected to the bored
pile to avoid loss of signal across the interface. A source transmitter is lowered in one of the access
casings while a receiver is lowered to the same depth in another casing. The source emits a compression
wave signal and the time t needed to receive the signal across the bored pile at the receiver is monitored.
The compression wave speed is calculated as:

v =d /t

where v is the wave speed, d is the distance from the source to the receiver, and t is the travel time. The
compression wave speed v in sound concrete is about 4000 m/s, in water is 1500 m/s, in air is 300 m/s,
and in soils is anywhere from 400 to 2000 m/s. Therefore, any values much lower than 4000 m/s will be
an indication of a problem with the bored pile. Table.1 gives an indication of how to rate concrete for
various velocity readings. It is also possible to place the source and the receiver at different depths in the

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bored pile and across different horizontal paths. The data are then inverted to get a three-dimensional
rendition of the bored pile. This is called cross hole tomography (Hollema and Olson 2002).

Table.1 Concrete Rating from Wave Speed Compresion Wave Speed Concrete Quality

3600 to 4000 m/s Good

3200 to 3600 m/s Questionable

< 3200 m/s Poor/defective

The gamma-gamma logging technique requires that an access tube be left in the bored pile during
construction. A gamma ray source and a gamma ray detector are placed in the same cylindrical probe
and lowered in the access tube. Gamma rays are beams of photons; some of the photons bounce back to
the detector and are counted upon arrival. The gamma ray arrivals are recorded in counts per second
(cps). There is a reasonably linear correlation between the concrete density and the log base 10 of the
cps: γconc = a log(cps) + b (18.7)

where γconc is the unit weight of concrete, cps is the gamma ray count recorded at the detector per
second, and a and b are calibration constants. The radius of influence of the gamma ray test is about half
the distance between the source and the detector on the probe. In most cases, the radius of influence is
less than 0.2 m. The result of a gamma-gamma logging test is a profile of unit weight along the bored
pile. This profile gives many values of the unit weight, thereby allowing one to calculate a mean and
standard deviation. Any unit weight value that is less than 3 standard deviations below the mean reading
for the pile is considered anomalous (Brown et al. 2010).

Sonic Echo Method

The sonic echo technique does not require any access tube in the bored pile. Thus, it can be used even if
plans were not made ahead of time to NDT the bored piles. However, it is not as reliable as the more
rigorous cross hole or gamma-gamma testing. The sonic echo test consists of hitting the top of the bored
pile with a carpenter-size hammer and recording the return signal at a geophone glued to the top of the
pile. The departure and arrival of the compression-tension wave are recorded and the distance travelled
is calculated according to a known wave speed. If the wave encounters a necking defect (reduction in
concrete cross section), then it returns as a tension wave. If the wave encounters a bulb defect (increase
in cross section), then it returns as a compression wave. Hence, the sign of the return wave indicates
whether the defect is a necking or a bulb.

The reason for the return wave being a compression or a tension wave is explained as follows: If you hit
a set of billiard balls lined up in a row (Figure 18.8) with a hammer, the last ball will leave the row. The
reason is that the compression wave you generate with the hammer propagates through the balls and
gets to the end. Finding no resistance, it tries to go back as a tension wave, but because there is no
tension capacity between the balls, the last ball leaves. Some of the limitations of the sonic echo method
are:

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1. The soil strength affects the intensity of the return wave. Pile length-to-diameter ratios larger than 10
in rock are unlikely to give satisfactory returns. In soft soils, however, length-to-diameter ratios of up to
50 can give satisfactory returns.

2. The interface of soil layers with contrasting strengths can create some return waves that must be
distinguished from defects in the bored pile.

3. The smallest defect that can be detected improved from about 50% in 1993 (Baker et al. 1993; Briaud
et al. 2002) to 10% in 2001 (Iskander et al. 2001).

4. An important distinction must be made between an anomaly and a defect. What may be detected as an
anomaly may not represent a defect that would make a bored pile unusable.

CAISSON and DRIVEN PILES

 Deep foundations transfer loads far below the substructure.

 These foundations penetrate incompetent soil until a satisfactory bearing stratum is reached.
 Used to reach deeper layers with greater bearing
 Used to avoid obstacles in ground (vs walls)

Caisson Foundation

 Piers are dug and then filled with concrete.

 Concrete cylinders poured into drilled holes
 Differs from Columns in that it reaches through strata of unsatisfactory soil beneath the substructure
of a building until it reaches bearing stratum, such as Rock, dense sand or gravel.

Caisson Constructed
 Constructed by Drilling a hole in ground.
 Temporary cylindrical steel casing is usually lowered around drill as it progresses down to support
soil.
 Bottom of caisson is "Flared" out to achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole with
concrete.
 Hand excavated or use "Belling bucket" with retractable cutters.
 Diameters can range up to 8' and more or as little as 18 inches.
Types of Caissons
 Belled Caisson
 Bottom of caisson is "Flared" out to achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole with

concrete.
 Socketed Caisson
 Drilled into rock at the bottom rather than "belled"

 Bearing capacity comes from end bearing on rocks and friction between caisson on soil or rock

BORED CAISSION PILING

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 Piles up to 600mm diameter can be constructed using crane or lorry mounted rotary auger rigs.
 Tripod piles are formed by percussive boring within a temporary casing which supports unstable
ground and seals off water.

Augered Cast-In-Place Pile

 An augered hole is bored into the ground to a specific depth or criteria determined by the engineer.
 Once the criteria is met, fluid concrete grout is pumped through the hollow auger stem
 The auger stem is withdrawn while positive pressure is maintained to the surface.
 The top of the pile is formed and reinforcing steel is inserted.

Auger cast Cutoff Wall

GROUT INJECTION PILE
 Consists of a steel pipe casing attached to a patented drill trip.
 The casing is used as a lining for the concrete, which is placed after the pile has been installed.
 The casing is usually used as a structural element of the pile.
 The drill tip serves as an installation aid, as well as provides the means through which grout is
injected to produce a soil-cement mixture around the pile.

STEEL PIPE PILES

 Steel pipe are used for piling and drilled shaft projects.
 The pipe is produced to ASTM A-252 in Grade 2 and Grade 3 and with 50,000-psi minimum yield, in
sizes ranging from 8 5/8" OD to 144" OD.
 Lengths to 100‘ and the ability to attach end plates, conical points, reinforcing bands and other
fabrications.

Steel Pipe Pile

DRIVEN PILES
Pile Types
 Distinguished from caissons by being "driven" into the earth rather than drilled
 Classified by Pile material, method of placement, and method of load transfer
Pile Drivers
 Drop hammer
 Hammer drops on piling

 Mechanical
 Piston actuated by steam or compressed air

 Vibratory hammer
Load Transfer Characteristics
 Bearing Piles
 Transfers load through the unstable surface soils to the denser soils below such as bedrock

 Friction Piles
 Depends on friction resistance between the soil it passes through and the surface of the pile.

 Used in clay soils

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  Driven Piles & Concrete Caissons use this methods
 Sheet Piles
 Designed to resist Horizontal pressures

 Used to hold back earth embankments and sides of excavation

Bearing Caps
Pile Materials
 Wood Pile
 Steel H-Pile
 Steel Pipe Pile
 Site cased pile
 Precast Concrete Pile
 Composite Piles (Wood & Steel)
Pile Materials
Timber piles
 Were the first tapered piles.
 Using the trunk as a pile must have come easily to ancient pile drivers
 Placing the small end down was obviously a better way to drive a tree trunk into the ground.
DRIVEN PILING
 Precast top driven piles.
 Large crane or restricted headroom (5.0) rigs are available for 200mm and 250mm square

sections.
 Driven Tube
 Full ranges of permanently steel cased piles are available from 150mm tp 405mm diameters.

 These can be top or bottom driven.

 Pile size can be varied to provide the most economical solution for different pile loads.

 Depth to 80 feet
DRIVEN PRECAST
 10‖ x 10‖ square precast
 Depth 60 feet
Permanent steel cased
 Concrete in filled bottom driven piles.
Driven Piles
Tapered Pile
 Most of the tapered products produced as tubular steel piles
 They are filled with concrete after installation
 Configured with a 25‘ long tapered section having a bottom diameter of 8‖, top diameter of 18‖
 A cast steel point was welded to the bottom of the taper, and the polygonal shape was mechanically
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 circularized at the top of the taper.

Advantages of a tapered Piles

 Some soil conditions that would otherwise not carry much load using a straight-sided pile will carry a
substantially higher load when the pile is tapered.
 The combination of bearing and frictional resistance produced by the wedge shape of the taper is
greater than the side friction and end bearing of a cylindrical pile.

Tapered pile
 A 25‘ bottom section can easily be matched, on the job, with a 50‘ top section to produce a 75‘ pile
and no over length trucks or permits are required.
 A large diameter tip can be used to take advantage of weaker soils while retaining a smaller diameter
upper portion of the pile.
For instance, a pile using an 8‖ tip 25‘ long and tapering up to 18‖ could be extended with a 14‖ top.

Screw Pile
 A circular hollow section of steel (shaft) with one or more tapered steel plates (helix's) strategically
welded to the shaft which is in turn wound into the ground using rotary hydraulics for the purpose of
compression piles and tension anchors.

Screw pile Technology

 Screwpiles work in both sand or clay conditions.
 Screwpiles are screwed into the ground much like giant self tapping screws through the use of rotary
hydraulics attached to earthmoving equipment such as mini excavators, bobcats, proline crane borers
or large excavators depending on the capacity and size of screwpile required.
 During and at completion of the Screwpile installation the installer monitors the installing torques to
ensure that sufficient load capacities are achieved.

Advantages of Screw piling

 Vibration free installation
 Very fast installation
 No de-watering
 No concrete
 No Reinforcement
 No spoils
 No liners
 Versatile
 Re-Usable
 The Environmental Choice

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CHAPTER TWO

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

2.1 Introduction

Deep foundations are employed when the soil strata immediately beneath the structure are not capable of
supporting the load with tolerable settlement or adequate safety against shear failure.
Two general forms of deep foundation are recognized:
1. Pile foundation
2. Pier, caisson or well foundation
The main components of the pile foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender
members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of
low bearing capacity. The main types of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles
made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. Piles
can be driven into the ground or cast-in-situ.
Piers, caissons or wells are larger, constructed by excavation and are sunk into the required depth; these
usually permit visual examination of the soil or rock on which they rest. They are normally used to carry
very heavy loads such as those from bridge piers or multi-storey buildings. These are discussed in chapter
3. A sharp distinction between piles and piers is impossible because some foundations combine features
of both.

2.2 Uses of Piles

Piles are commonly used for the following purposes (Fig 2:1):
1. to carry the super structural load into or through a soil stratum
2. to resist uplift, or overturning forces
3. to compact loose deposits
4. to control settlements by bridging over compressible stratum
5. to stiffen the soil below machine foundation
6. in offshore construction to transmit loads above the water surface through the water in to underlying
soil.
7. below bridge abutments particularly if scour is a potential problem

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Fig 2:1 Uses of piles

2.3 Classification of Piles

Piles may be classified based on
1. function or use
2. composition and material
3. installation

2.3.1 Classification Based on Function or Action

Piles may be classified as follows based on function or action (see also Fig 2:1 above):
End-bearing piles: These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth
below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration
resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be
designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be
considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. Some of the load is
transmitted to the soil through friction (cohesion).

Friction piles: are used to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional material by means of skin friction along
the surface area of the pile shaft.

Tension or uplift piles: - used to anchor structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure (in
buildings with basements below water table, aprons of dams, buried tanks) or to overturning moment due
to horizontal forces (in towers, bulkheads, walls and dams).

Compaction piles: are used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase the bearing capacity.
Since they are not required to carry any load, the pile material may not be required to be strong; in fact,
sand may be used to form the pile. The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and
sand is filled in its place thus forming a ‗sand pile‘.
Anchor Piles: - used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling or water.
Fender Piles: - used to protect water-front structures against impact from ships or floating objects.
Sheet Piles: - are commonly used as bulkheads or cut-offs to reduce seepage and uplift in hydraulics
structures.
Batter Piles: - used to resist horizontal and inclined forces, especially in water front structures.
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Laterally Loaded Piles: - used to support retaining walls, bridges, dams and as fenders for harbor
constructions.

2.3.2 Classification Based on Material and Composition

Piles may be classified as follows based on material and composition

Timber Piles: are made of timber of sound quality. Length may b e up to about 8m; splicing is adopted
for greater lengths. Diameter may be from 25 to 30cm. Timber piles perform well either in fully dry
condition or submerged condition. Alternate wet and dry conditions reduce the life of a timber pile; to
overcome this timber is treated with preservatives. The tip may be provided with a metal driving shoe
when the pile is to penetrate hard or gravelly soils; otherwise it may be cut either square or with some
point.
Steel Piles: are usually rolled H-piles or pipe piles. Wide flange beams or I beams may also be used;
however, the H shape is especially proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile
may be subjected. Steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively
small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They
can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is
a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar coating or
cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works, it is common to allow for an amount of
corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way t he
corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5 mm/year
and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year.
Concrete Piles: These may be pre-cast or cast-in-situ or pre stressed.
Pre cast Concrete Piles: are formed in a central casting yard to the specified length, cured, and then
shipped to the construction site. They can be made using
Ordinary reinforcement (-reinforced to resist handling stresses, bending moments from lateral loads,
vertical loads and tension forces developed during driving- min =1%) or they may be pre stressed.
Cast-in-Place Piles: are formed by drilling a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete. The hole ma
y be drilled (as in caissons), or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground. The casing ma y be
driven using a mandrel, after which withdrawal of the mandrel empties the casing. The casing may also
be driven with a driving tip on the point, providing a shell that is ready for filling concrete immediately,
or the casing may be driven open-end, the soil entrapped in the casing being jetted out after the driving is
completed.

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Composite Piles: These may be made of either concrete and timber or concrete and steel. These are
considered suitable when the upper part of the pile is to project above the water table. Lower portion
may be of untreated timber and the upper portion of concrete. Otherwise, the lower portion may be of
steel and the upper one of concrete.
2.3.3 Classification Based on Method of Installation
Based on the method of construction (installation), piles may be classified in to the following categories.
1) Driven Piles: Piles can be driven in to the ground by means of hammers or by using vibrator
driver. Such piles are called driven pile. In some special cases, piles are installed by jetting or
partial auguring. The following methods are commonly used for driving:
a. Hammering- It consists of hoist mechanism, a guiding and hammer device.
b. Vibratory pile driver
c. Jetting techniques
d. Partial auguring –(which is followed by hammering)
2) Driven and Cast-in-Situ Piles : is formed in the ground by driving a casing with a plug or shoe at its
bottom. If the casing is removed after concrete has been placed, it is known as uncased or shell less pile.
On the other hand, if the casing is left in the ground after concreting, it is called cased pile. In uncased
piles, the concrete comes in direct contact with the soil. The concrete may be rammed or vibrated after its
deposition. A pedestal may be formed at the lower end of the shell-less pile if required. Thus cast in situ
driven concrete piles can be broadly classified in to three types: i) Cased piles ii) Uncased piles, and iii)
Pedestal type.
3) Bored and Cast-in-Situ Piles: are constructed after making a hole in the ground and filling it with
concrete. The following methods are used for drilling of the holes:
a) Hand auger: - a hand auger can be used for boring without casing in soil which is self supporting, such
as firm to stiff clays and silts and clayey sands and gravels above the water table. T he depth of the hole
is generally limited to about 4.5 m. The diameter of the hole is usually not more than 350mm.
b) Mechanical auger: - for piles of diameter more than 350mm or depth greater than 4.5m, a hand auger
becomes uneconomical. In such a case, a mechanical auger is used. A mechanical auger can be of rotary
type or bucket type. It is power driven. The soil in this case must be self supporting with or without
bentonite slurry. The soil should be free from tree roots, boulders, and cobbles. A continuous flight auger
is also used to drill the bore hole.
c) Boring rig: - it is used to sink the hole in the ground where a hand or mechanical auguring is not

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possible. Such as water bearing sand or gravels, very soft clays and silts and the soils having cobbles and
boulders. A specially designed boring rings, known as grab- type bored piling rig, is sometimes used. In
this type of rig, the casing is given a continuous semi rotary motion which causes its sinking as the hole is
advanced by percussion drilling.
d) Belling bucket: - undreamed piles are large diameter bored piles with enlarged bases. Excavation for
the undreamed piles is done by a special type belling bucket.
4) Screw Piles: these piles are screwed in to the soil.
5) Jacked Piles: these piles are jacked in to the soil by applying a downward force with the help of the
hydraulic jack. Similarly, based on the volume of the soil displaced during installation, piles are
classified as:
a) Displacement piles – e.g. driven piles
b) Non displacement (Replacement piles) piles- e.g. bored piles

2.4 Pile Capacity

The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile is the maximum load which it can carry without failure or
excessive settlement of the ground. The allowable load on a pile is the load which can be imposed upon it
with adequate margin of safety; it may be the ultimate load divided by a suitable factor of safety, or the
load at which settlement reaches the allowable value. The bearing capacity of a pile depends primarily on
the type of soil through which and/or on which it rests, and on the method of installation. It also depends
upon the cross sectional and length of the pile.
The pile shaft is a structural column that is fixed at the point and usually restrained at the top. Buckling
rarely occurs because of the lateral support of the soil; it may occur only in extremely slender piles in
very soft clays or in piles that extend through open air or water. Therefore, the ordinary pile in sand or
clay may be designed as though it were a short column.
The pile capacity can be determined using the following methods:
1. Static Analysis
2. Dynamic Analysis Analytical methods
3. Load Tests on Pile
4. Penetration Tests Field methods

2.4.1 Static Analysis

The ultimate load capacity, PU, of a single pile is generally accepted to be equal to the sum of the

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ultimate shaft and base resistance; that is,
P u = P s u + P bu
where
P s u = ultimate shaft resistance
P bu = ultimate base resistance
P su and P bu may be analyzed separately; both are based upon the stress around the pile and on the shear
patterns that develop at failure.

1. The Ultimate Base Resistance(P bu ) : It is usually accepted that P bu can be evaluated from:

• The value of N c usually used for design is that proposed by Skempton (1951) for a circular area,
which increases from 6.14 for a surface foundation to a limiting value of 9 for length to width(diameter)
ratio > 4 [Fig 2:2]. N c=9 has been confirmed in tests and is widely accepted in practice.

: 17
• The factor N q is related to the angle of internal friction of the sand in the vicinity of the pile tip (several
pile diameter above and below the pile tip), and the ratio of the pile depth to pile width. Values of N q
presented by different investigators are shown in Fig 2:3 above. N q values of Berezantzev et al (1961),
which take into account the effect of z/B ratio, are believed to be most applicable for the most commonly
encountered field conditions. For driven piles to obtain N q
Use Φ = 0.5 Φ1+ 20, Φ1 = angle prior to drive. These values of Nq are based on the assumption that the
soil above the pile tip is comparable to the soil below the pile tip. If the pile penetrates the compact layer
only slightly, and loose material exists above the compact soil, an N q value for a shallow foundation will
be more appropriate than a value from Fig 2:3.

18
box is replaced b y the same material as the pile surface. Representative values of the coefficient of
friction between sand and various pile materials are shown in Table 2:1.

19
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2.4.2 Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic analysis aims at establishing a relationship between pile capacity and the resistance offered to
driving with a hammer. This is appropriate for piles penetrating soils such as sands and hard clays that
will not develop pore water pressures during installation. In saturated fine- grained soils, high pore
pressures develop due to vibration caused by driving; in such cases, the predicted capacities from
dynamic analysis will be different from that value attained after the dissipation of excess pore water
pressures.

22
The allowable load will be determined by dividing the ultimate dynamic resistance by a factor of safety
of 3 to 6.

23
24
2.4.3 Pile Load Tests
Load test on a pile is the most reliable method of determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. It may
be conducted on a driven pile or cast-in-situ pile, on a working pile or a test pile, and on a single pile or a
group of piles. A working pile is one which forms part of the foundation, while a test pile is one which is
25
used primarily to check estimated capacities (as predetermined by other methods). A load test on a pile
group is expensive and may be conducted only in the case of important projects. Loading tests are carried
out to: (1) determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile (2) determine the settlement at working
load (3) check the soundness of the pile. Both cohesive and cohesionless soils will have their properties
altered by pile driving. In clays, the disturbance causes remolding and consequent loss of strength. With
passage of time, much of the original strength will be regained and porewater pressure will be dissipated.
The effect of pile driving in sand is to create a temporary condition wherein extra resistance is developed,
which is lost later by stress relaxation. Hence, the test should be conducted only after a lapse of a few
weeks in clays and at least a few days in sands, in order that the results obtained are more meaningful for
design. Load may be applied by using a hydraulic jack against a supported plat form (Fig 2:7a), or
against a reaction girder secured to anchor piles (Fig 2:7b).

Either of the following test procedures can be used.

1. the most common procedure is the test in which the load is maintained slowly. About 5 to 8 equal
increments are used until the load reaches about double the design value. Time settlement data are
recorded for each load increment. Each increment is maintained until the rate of settlement becomes a
value < 0.25mm/hr. The final load is maintained for 24hrs.
2. Another approach is the constant-strain rate method. In this method, the load is increased such that the
settlement occurs at predetermined rate such as 0.5mm per minute. This later approach is faster.
3. Cyclic loading where each load increment is repeatedly applied and removed. Settlements are recorded
at every increment or decrement of load. These help in separating elastic and plastic settlements, and also

26
point bearing and frictional resistances. The load settlement curve is obtained from the data. Often the
definition of ‗failure load‘ is arbitrary. It may be taken when a predetermined amount of settlement has
occurred or as the abscissa of the point where the curved part of the load-settlement curve changes to a
steep straight line (Fig 2:8a). Alternatively, the ultimate load is the abscissa of the point of intersection of
the initial and final tangents of the load settlement curve (Fig 2:8b). Another method in use for the slow
test is to plot both load and settlement values on logarithmic scale.

27
28
29
30
2.5 Negative Skin Friction
‗Negative skin friction‘ or ‗down drag‘ is a phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer surrounding a
portion of the pile shaft settles more than the pile. This condition can develop where a soft or loose soil
stratum located anywhere above the pile tip is subjected to new compressive loading. If a soft or loose
layer settles after the pile has been installed, the skin-friction-adhesion developing in this zone is in the
direction of the soil movement, pulling the pile downward, as shown in fig 2:10. Due to the consolidation
process of the compressible layer, the soil strata above this layer move downward. The principal effect of
the negative skin friction is to increase the axial load in the pile. It may result also increased pile
settlements due to the axial shortening of the pile under the increased axial load. It can produce large
tension stresses when the effect is from expansive soils-especially if no or insufficient gap is left between
soil and pile cap and the soil expands against the cap.

31
32
33
34
Fig 2:12 typical pile-group patterns (a) for isolated caps; (b) for foundation walls

Fig 2:13 Stress isobars of single pile and groups of piles

35
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37
38
39
40
41
42
43
 Sheet Pile Walls

CHAPTER THREE
Sheet Pile Walls
Introduction
Sheet piles are a temporary structures used to retain a soil or water for a specific period
of time, to build a structure in the other side of this wall. For example; if we want to build
a structure with three basement floors (underground) and this structure surrounded by
other structures, when the excavation process starts, if the soil under the surrounding
structures doesn‘t retained by a sheet pile, this soil will fail and will moves to the
excavation site, and the structure above this soil may collapse suddenly, so before
establishment of excavation process, sheet pile must be constructed to retain this soil and
prevent it from fails and after completion of constructed the structure , we can remove
this sheet pile because it‘s function was end.
Another example; if we wanna build a structure in the sea (waterfront structures) we can
use sheet piles to retain sea water from flowing to the required area, and then withdraw the
water confined between sheet piles andthereby build the required structures, finally remove
sheet piles because there functions were end.
The following figures are some explanation of the applications of sheet piles and the shape
of sheet pile itself:

Sheet Pile in basement Sections of steel Sheet Piles

44
 Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet Piles in Waterfront structure

Notes:

1. Sheet piles may be made from steel, concrete or wood.

2. As seen in the above pictures, sheet piles must penetrates a specified distance in
earth (from both sides) to be stable against applied lateral loads, this depth called depth
of penetration, and the following figure explain the main parts of sheet piles:

The line at which the sheet pile starts penetrating in soil from both sides is known by
dredge line, and the depth of penetration of sheet pile under this line is D: depth of
penetration.

45
 Sheet Pile Walls

Designing of sheet piles mainly is to calculate the depth of penetration D and determining the section of
sheet pile as will be discussed later.
Types of Sheet Piles
There are two main types of sheet piles:
1. Cantilever Sheet Piles.
2. Anchored Sheet piles.
Now, we will learn how to analyze and design each type.

Cantilever Sheet Piles

Cantilever sheet pile walls are usually recommended to use for walls of moderate height
(≤ 6m) measured above the dredge line. In such walls, the sheet piles are act as a wide
cantilever beam above the dredge line.
The main step in analyzing cantilever sheet pile is to knowing the deflection of cantilever
sheet pile with depth, and knowing (from deflection shape) the type of LEP (active or
passive).
The following figure clarifies the deflection of the cantilever sheet pile dueto lateral earth
pressure:

46
 Sheet Pile Walls

As you see, due to the lateral earth pressure the wall will pushed out the soil above the
dredge line so the type of LEP above the dredge line is active pressure and no passive
pressure because there is no soil exist in the other side (Zone A) in the above figure.
Below the dredge line there exists a soil in both sides of the wall the wall and the wall
still moves out (left side) till reaching point O (point of rotation) after point O the wall
will moves to right side as shown.
So, soil below dredge line can be divided into two zones; zone B between dredge line
and point O, in this zone the wall moves to the left, so the soil on the right exerts active
pressure and the soil on the left exerts passive pressure. Zone C between point O to the
end of sheet pile, in this zone the wall moves to the right, so the soil on the right exerts
passive pressure and the soil on the left exerts active pressure as seen in the figure above.
There are three cases for cantilever sheet piles:
 Cantilever Sheet Pile penetrating in Sandy Soil.
 Cantilever Sheet Pile penetrating in Clayey Soil.
 Cantilever Sheet Pile penetrating in C − ϕ Soil.
Before discussing each type, the following notes are very important:
 The first step in designing the sheet pile is to draw the net LEP distribution with
depth along the sheet pile, the net LEP is the difference between passive LEP and
active LEP at every change in soil with depth
i. e. net pressure = Δσ = σpassive − σactive
 Designing a sheet pile consists of the following two steps:
1. Calculation the depth of penetration (D).
M
2. Determining the section Modulus (S) where: S = max
𝜎all

Mmax = maximum moment along sheet pile

σall = maximum allwable flexural stress (for sheet pile material).
 Always in this chapter we will use Rankine LEP theory.
The most important one, is drawing the LEP distribution along sheet pile (especially
below the dredge line) correctly (If you did, completion of designing process will be
easy), so now we want to learn how to draw the LEP distribution for all cases of
cantilever sheet pile.

47
 Sheet Pile Walls

Cantilever Sheet Piles Penetrating Sandy Soil Consider the following example:

ϕ = 30°

ϕ = 30°
Dredge Line

ϕ = 30°

The first step always is calculating Ka and Kp for each layer, but here all layers have the
same friction angle, so:

2 ϕ 2 30
Ka = tan (45 − ) = tan (45 − ) = 0.333
2 2
ϕ 2 30
2

Kp = tan (45 + ) = tan (45 + )=3

2 2
Now we calculate the LEP at each depth:
σh,a = (q + γH)Ka − 2c√Ka σh,p = (q

+ γH)Kp + 2c√Kp

@ z = 0.0 (above dredge line → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 0) × 0.333 − 0 = 0.0
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0.0

@ z = 2m (above dredge line → active pressure only) just before =

just after because Ka is the same
σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2) × 0.333 − 0 = 10.65kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 10.65 = −10.65 kN/m2

The negative sign means we draw this value at right side (side of active pressure
because is the largest pressure at this depth.

48
 Sheet Pile Walls

@ z = 5m (just before → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2 + (19 − 10) × 3) × 0.333 − 0 = 19.65 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 19.65 = −19.65 kN/m2 (Don′t forget,
effective pressure always)
@ z = 5m (just after → active pressure at right, passive pressure at left)
Since Ka is the same before and after, the pressure will be the same σh,a = (0 + 16
× 2 + (19 − 10) × 3) × 0.333 − 0 = 19.65kN/m2
σh,p = (0 + (19 − 10) × 0)3 + 0 = 0.0
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 19.65 = −19.65 kN/m2

@ z = 5 + D (passive pressure at right, active pressure at left) Note that at this

depth the types of pressure changes as explained aboveActive pressure at left side:
σh,a = (0 + (19 − 10) × D) × 0.333 − 0 = 3D
Passive pressure at right side:
σh,p = (0 + 16 × 2 + (19 − 10) × 3 + (19 − 10) × D)3 + 0 = 177 + 27D

∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = (177 + 27D) − 3D = 177 + 24D

Note that the value of (177 + 24D)is positive which means we draw thisvalue as a line
in the passive zone at this depth (right side).
Now, we draw the LEP distribution along the wall:

49
 Sheet Pile Walls

Now, under dredge line the net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increase by the value of
γz′(Kp − Ka) where z′: depth below dredge line at any point. And since Kp is always
larger than Ka (when ϕ > 0) the increase in pressure will always in the direction of
passive zones. So, at the specific point (point O) the pressure will changes from active to
passive (right side) and thereby the LEP distribution will tend to moves in the direction of
passive zone as shown.

Cantilever Sheet Piles Penetrating Clay

Consider the following example:

γ = 16 kN/m3
ϕ = 30°

γ = 18 kN/m3
ϕ = 35°

Dredge Line

γ = 17 kN/m3

C = 40 kN/m2
ϕ = 0.0

The first step always is calculating Ka and Kp for each layer:

Ka = tan2 ϕ
(45 − )
2
Ka 30
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.333
1 2
35
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.27
Ka 2
2

Ka3 = tan2(45 − 0) = 1

50
 Sheet Pile Walls

Kp = tan2 ϕ
(45 + )
2
Kp 30
= tan2 (45 + )=3
1 2
35
= tan2 (45 + ) = 3.69
Kp 2
2

Kp3 = tan2(45 + 0) = 1
Now we calculate the LEP at each depth:
σh,a = (q + γH)Ka − 2c√Ka σh,p = (q

+ γH)Kp + 2c√Kp

@ z = 0.0 (above dredge line → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 0) × 0.333 − 0 = 0.0
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0.0

@ z = 2m (above dredge line → active pressure only)just before

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2) × 0.333 − 0 = 10.65 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 10.65 = −10.65 kN/m2just after
σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2) × 0.27 − 0 = 8.64 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 8.64 = −8.64 kN/m2

@ z = 5m (just before → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2 + 18 × 3) × 0.27 − 0 = 23.2 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 23.2 = −23.2 kN/m2

@ z = 5m (just after → active pressure at right, passive pressure at left)

And there is a value for cohesion( C = 40) below the drege line σh,a = (0 + 16
× 2 + 18 × 3) × 1 − 2 × 40 × √1 = 6kN/m2
σh,p = (0 + 0) × 1 + 2 × 40 × √1 = 80
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 80 − 6 = 74 kN/m2

The positive sign means we draw this value at left side (side of passivepressure because
is the largest pressure at this depth.

51
 Sheet Pile Walls

@ z = 5 + D (passive pressure at right, active pressure at left)

Active pressure at left side:
σh,a = (0 + 17 × D) × 1 − 2 × 40 × √1 = 17D − 80
Passive pressure at right side:
σh,p = (0 + 16 × 2 + 18 × 3 + 17 × D) × 1 + 2 × 40 × √1 = 166 + 17D

∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = (166 + 17D) − (17D − 80) = 246

Note that the value of (246)is positive which means we draw this value as a line in the
passive zone at this depth (right side).
Now, we draw the LEP distribution along the wall:

Now, under dredge line the net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increase by the value of
γz′(Kp − Ka) . But here since (ϕ = 0) → Kp = Ka = 1.
So, the increase in pressure will be zero till reaching point O (i.e. the pressure will be
constant at this depth). At the specific point (point O) the pressure will changes from
active to passive (right side) and thereby the LEP distribution will tend to moves in the
direction of passive zone as shown.

52
 Sheet Pile Walls

Cantilever Sheet Piles Penetrating C − ф Soil

Consider the following example:

γ = 16 kN/m3
ϕ = 30°

γ = 18 kN/m3
ϕ = 35°

Dredge Line

γ = 17 kN/m3

C = 40 kN/m2
ϕ = 20°

The first step always is calculating Ka and Kp for each layer:

Ka = tan2 ϕ(45 − )
2
Ka1 30
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.333
2
Ka2 35
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.27
2
20
Ka = tan2 (45 − ) = 0.49
3 2

Kp = tan2ϕ (45 + )
2
K1 30
= tan2 (45 +
)=3
2
K2 35
= tan2 (45 + ) = 3.69
Kp 2
20
= tan2 (45 + ) = 2.04
3 2

53
 Sheet Pile Walls

Now we calculate the LEP at each depth:

σh,a = (q + γH)Ka − 2c√Ka σh,p

=(q+ γH)Kp + 2c√Kp

@ z = 0.0 (above dredge line → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 0) × 0.333 − 0 = 0.0
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0.0

@ z = 2m (above dredge line → active pressure only)just before

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2) × 0.333 − 0 = 10.65 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 10.65 = −10.65 kN/m2just after
σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2) × 0.27 − 0 = 8.64 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 8.64 = −8.64 kN/m2

@ z = 5m (just before → active pressure only)

σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2 + 18 × 3) × 0.27 − 0 = 23.2 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 23.2 = −23.2 kN/m2

@ z = 5m (just after → active pressure at right, passive pressure at left)

And there is a value for cohesion( C = 40) below the drege line
σh,a = (0 + 16 × 2 + 18 × 3) × 0.49 − 2 × 40 × √0.49 = −13.86 kN/m2
σh,p = (0 + 0) × 2.04 + 2 × 40 × √2.04 = 114.3 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 114.3 − (−13.86) = 128.12 kN/m2

@ z = 5 + D (passive pressure at right, active pressure at left)

Active pressure at left side:
σh,a = (0 + 17 × D) × 0.49 − 2 × 40 × √0.49 = 8.33D − 56
Passive pressure at right side:
σh,p = (0 + 16 × 2 + 18 × 3 + 17 × D) × 2.04 + 2 × 40 × √2.04

= 200.26 + 34.68D

∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = (200.26 + 34.68D) − (8.33D − 56)

= 256.26 + 26.35D

54
 Sheet Pile Walls

Note that the value of (256.26 + 26.35D )is positive which means we draw this
value as a line in the passive zone at this depth (right side).
Now, we draw the LEP distribution along the wall:

Now, under dredge line the net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increase by the value of
γz′(Kp − Ka) . And since ϕ = 20 → Kp > Ka →the increase in pressure will be in the
direction of passive zones. So, after the value of
128.12 the stress will be increased gradually in the direction of passive zone till reaching
(point O) the pressure will changes from active to passive (right side) and thereby the
LEP distribution will tend to moves in the direction of passive zone as shown.
Now If we draw the net LEP distribution correctly, we can calculate the depth of
penetration D by applying equilibrium equations:
∑ FX = 0.0 (Along the sheet pile)

∑ M = 0.0 (At the bottom of sheet pile)

Note:

If Mmax is required always take a section with distance (x) above point O Because in
cantilever sheet piles the maximum moment always above O.

55
 Sheet Pile Walls

Anchored Sheet Piles

When the height of the backfill soil behind a sheet pile exceeds 6m, the deflection on the
sheet pile will be great and thereby the depth of penetration and the section of sheet pile
will be large to meet this large deflection. To reduce this deflection, sheet pile should be
supported from its upper edge (usually at distance 1m-2m from the top), this support is
called anchor and the sheet pile with anchor called Anchored Sheet Pile.
There are two ways for analysis of anchored sheet piles:
 Free Earth Support Method.
 Fixed Earth Support Method.
In our discussion we will mainly discuss free earth support method. The
following figure shows anchored sheet pile:

Anchored Sheet pile (Free Earth Support Method)

In this method, the soil is assumed as a simply support (pin support) at the end of sheet
pile, and also the wall is simply supported from its upper edge by anchor. So the
deflection of sheet pile will be similar to the deflection of simply supported beam as
shown in the following figure:

56
 Sheet Pile Walls

Important notes on the above figure:

1. As you see, the deflection of the sheet pile is similar to the deflection of simply
supported beam, so if we need Mmax we take a section above the dredge line (at point
of maximum deflection ―zero shear‖).
2. Note that the soil in right side at all depths pushes the wall to the left side, so the soil
in the right side will exerts active LEP at all depths of sheet pile and no inflection point
(as in cantilever sheet pile), also, under the dredge line, the soil on the wall will pushed
into the left side soil, thus the LEP of the left soil is passive pressure to the end without
any inflection (‫)إﻧﻘﻼب‬.
3. Depending on note(2), when we drawing the net pressure distribution under the
dredge line, the increase in pressure will be always in the left side (passive side) to the
end without any inflection.

Now, we will sketch the pressure distribution for anchored sheet pile using free earth
support method when the sheets pile penetrating in different typesof soil.

57
 Sheet Pile Walls

Anchored Sheet Piles Penetrating Sandy Soil

Consider the following example:

The net pressure distribution along the sheet pile will be as following:

58
 Sheet Pile Walls

Below the dredge line:

The net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increased by the value of
γz′(Kp − Ka) . And since the soil is pure sand (ϕ > 0) → Kp > Ka →the increase in
pressure will be in the direction of passive zones. So, below dredge line, the stress will
be increased gradually in the direction of passive zone till reaching the end of sheet pile
because there is no inflection point (no change in LEP types) below the dredge line.

Anchored Sheet Piles Penetrating Clay

Consider the following example:

The net pressure distribution along the sheet pile will be as following:

59
 Sheet Pile Walls

Below the dredge line:

The net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increased by the value of γz′(Kp − Ka) . But since the soil is
pure clay (ϕ = 0) → Kp = Ka →the increase in pressure will zero till reaching the end of sheet pile
because there is no changes in the type of LEP.
Anchored Sheet Piles Penetrating C − ф Soil
Consider the following example:

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 Sheet Pile Walls

The net pressure distribution along the sheet pile will be as following:

Below the dredge line:

The net lateral pressure ∆σhalways will increase by the value of γz′(Kp − Ka) . And since the soil is C −
ф soil (ϕ > 0) → Kp > Ka →theincrease in pressure will be in the direction of passive zones. So, below
dredge line, the stress will be increased gradually in the direction of passivezone till reaching the end of
sheet pile because there is no inflection point (no change in LEP types) below the dredge line.

Problems1.
For the anchored sheet pile shown below, do the following:
1. Draw the lateral earth pressure distribution with depth.
2. Calculate the depth of penetration (D).
3. Calculate the anchor force per unit length of the sheet pile.

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 Sheet Pile Walls

4. Calculate section modulus if σall=175 MPa.

q = 70 kN/m2

Solution
The first is calculating Ka and Kp for each layer:
Ka = tan2 ϕ
(45 − )
2
Ka1 33
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.29
2
Ka2 28
= tan2 (45 − ) = 0.36
2

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Ka = tan2 (45 − 22) = 0.45

3 2

Kp = tan2 ϕ(45 + )

2
The required value of Kp is the value of the third layer (layer below thedredge line)
Kp 22
= tan2 (45 + ) = 2.2
3 2
Now we calculate the net LEP at each depth:
σh,a = (q + γH)Ka − 2c√Ka σh,p = (q

+ γH)Kp + 2c√Kp

@ z = 0.0 (above dredge line → active pressure only)

σh,a = (70 + 18 × 0) × 0.29 − 2 × 17 × √0.29 = 2 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 2 = −2 (2 in active direction)

@ z = 3m (above dredge line → active pressure only) just before (Ka

= 0.29 , C = 17)
σh,a = (70 + 18 × 3) × 0.29 − 2 × 17 × √0.29 = 17.65 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 17.65 = −17.65 kN/m2just after (Ka
= 0.36 , C = 27)
σh,a = (70 + 18 × 3) × 0.36 − 2 × 27 × √0.36 = 12.24 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 12.24 = −12.24 kN/m2

@ z = 9m (just before → active pressure only)(Ka = 0.36 , C = 27) σh,a = (70 + 18

× 3 + (19 − 10) × 6) × 0.36 − 2 × 27 × √0.36
= 31.68 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 0 − 31.68 = −31.68 kN/m2

@ z = 9m (just after → active pressure at right, passive pressure at left)And(Ka = 0.45 ,

Kp = 2.2 , C = 50) below the drege line
Active pressure (at right)
σh,a = (70 + 18 × 3 + (19 − 10) × 6) × 0.45 − 2 × 50 × √0.45
= 13 kN/m2

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Passive pressure (at left)

σh,p = (0 + (19 − 10) × 0) × 2.2 + 2 × 50 × √2.2
= 148.3 kN/m2
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = 148.3 − 13 = 135.3 kN/m2

@ z = 9 + D (Active pressure at right, Passive pressure at left "no inflection")

Active pressure at (at right):

σh,a = (70 + 18 × 3 + (19 − 10) × 6 + (19 − 10) × D) × 0.45
−2 × 50 × √0.45 = 13 + 4.05 D
Passive pressure (at left):
σh,p = (0 + (19 − 10) × D) × 2.2 + 2 × 50 × √2.2
= 148.3 + 19.8 D
∆σh = σh,p − σh,a = (148.3 + 19.8 D) − (13 + 4.05 D)

= 135.3 + 15.75 D
Note that the value of (135.3 + 15.75 D ) is positive which means wedraw this value as
a line in the passive zone at this depth (left side).
Now we draw the net stress distribution along the sheet pile:

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 Sheet Pile Walls

As you see, there are two unknowns (D and F). The

most suitable method to find D and F is:
To find D → take ∑ M@F = 0.0

To find F → take ∑ FX = 0.0

Assume forces 1 ,2 ,3 and 4 are positive and force‘s F , 5 and 6 are negative. We prepare
the following table (to simplified the solution):
Force Magnitude Arm from F Moment about F
P1 2 × 3 = 6 (+) 0.0 0.0
0.5 × (17.65 − 2) × 3 3
P2 1.5 − = 0.5 11.74 (+)
= 23.48 (+) 3
P3 12.24 × 6 = 73.44 (+) 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 330.48 (+)
0.5 × (31.68 − 12.24) × 6 6
P4 6− + 1.5 = 5.5 320.76 (+)
= 58.32 (+) 3
P5 135.3 D (−) 7.5 + 0.5 D 1014.75D + 67.65D2 (−)
0.5 × (15.75D) × D 2
P6 2 7.5 + D 59.1D2 + 5.25D3(−)
= 7.88 D (−) 3
F F (−) 0.0 0.0

∑ M@F = 0.0 → 11.74 + 330.48 + 320.76 = 1014.75D + 67.65D2

+59.1D2 + 5.25D3
→ 5.25 D3 + 126.75 D2 + 1014.75 D − 663 = 0.0

By trial and error or by calculati → D = 0.606 m ✓.

∑ MFX = 0.0 → 6 + 23.48 + 73.44 + 58.32 = 135.3 × 0.606

+7.88 × 0.6062 + F →→ F = 76.35 kN ✓.

Now to find section modulus:

Mmax

S=
σall

So we need to calculate Mmax, and we mentioned previously, the maximum moment in

anchored sheet pile will be above dredge line (at point of zero shear), so we can make a
section above the dredge line and calculate Mmax as following:

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Now, to calculate the areas 3 and 4 in terms of X we must calculate the pressure at the
distance X (σK) by interpolation.
@X = 0.0 → σ = 12.24 , @X = 6 → σ = 31.68 @X = X → σ = σK
31.68 − 12.24 σX − 12.24
=
6−0 → σX = 19.44 X + 12.24
X−0
Now we can calculate the force 3 and 4 in terms of X:
P3 = 12.24 X
P4 = 0.5 × (σX − 12.24)X
= 0.5 × (19.44 X + 12.24 − 12.24)X = 9.72 X2
Now at distance X, summation forces must be zero (point of zero shear) to get
maximum moment:
F = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 (F, P1 and P2 are taken from table above) 76.35 =
6 + 23.48 + 12.24 X + 9.72 X2

→ 9.72 X2 + 12.24 X − 46.87 = 0.0

→ X = 1.65 m
→ P3 = 12.24 × 1.65 = 20.2 and P4 = 9.72 × 1.652 = 26.46

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Now to get maximum moment, take summation moment at point E (point ofzero shear):
Mmax = ∑ M@E3

Mmax = 76.35 × (1.5 + 1.65) − 6 × (1.5 + 1.65) − 23.48 × ( + 1.65)

3
−20.2 × ( 1.65 1.65
) − 26.46 × ( )
2 3

→→ Mmax = 128.2 kN. m

σall = 175 MPa. = 175,000 kPa. (kN/m2)

Mmax 128.2
= 0.73 × 10−3 m3/m ofwall ✓.
S= =
σall 175000

Important Note:

In the above problem, the water table is at both sides of sheet pile, so pore water pressure
will canceled from both sides, however if the water table is at one side of the sheet pile
(right side) as shown in the following figure:

When calculating the pressure at right side (active pressure), pore water pressure must
be added as following:
σh,a = (q + γH)Ka − 2c√Ka + γw × hw (at each depth below the GWT)

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 Sheet Pile Walls

2.
For the anchored sheet pile shown below, do the following:
1. Draw the lateral earth pressure distribution with depth.
2. Calculate the depth of penetration (D).
3. Calculate the anchor force per unit length of the sheet pile.
4. Calculate Maximum moment.

γ = 17
3
kN/m ϕ =
36°

γ = 17

kN/m3 ϕ

= 32°

γ = 18

kN/m3 ϕ =

20°
C = 30 kN/m2

Solution
Note that there is no water table in this problem.
Solve the problem by yourself with the same procedures in the problem
above.
Final Answers:
D = 2.06 m F = 149 kN Mmax = 351 kN. m

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 Sheet Pile Walls

3.2 Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining walls

Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability of earth or other material where conditions
disallow the mass to assume its natural slope.

Common Types of retaining walls

1.Gravity walls:-
- made of plain concrete or stone masonry
- depends upon its weight for stability
- trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of the wall.
- no tensile stress in any portion of the wall
- economically used for walls less than 6m high

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 Sheet Pile Walls

2. Cantilever walls
- made of reinforced concrete material
- inverted T-shaped in section with each projecting acts as a cantilever
- economically used for walls greater than 6 to 7.5m high

Vertical stem

Toe

Heal

3. Counterfort walls
- made of reinforced concrete materials
- consists of cantilever wall with vertical brackets known as counterfort placed behind face of
wall
- ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0m

Counterfort

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 Sheet Pile Walls

4. Buttress walls
- same as counterfort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the backfill

Vertical stem

Toe

Heal

Common Proportions of Retaining walls

The usual practice in the design of retaining walls is to assign tentative dimensions and then
check for the overall stability of the structure. In figures shown below the common proportions
based on experience are indicated for the three types of retaining walls.

30cm to H/2
i) Gravity Wall

50

lt = Df/2 to Df lh = 10 to 15cm H

Df = H/8 to H/6

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 Sheet Pile Walls

B = H/2 to ⅔ H

ii) Cantilever wall

Min. 30cm

50

bs = H/12 to H/10 H
lt = B/3

Df = H/12 to H/10

B = 0.4 to 0.7H

i) Counterfort wall

Min. 30cm

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 Sheet Pile Walls

50
H

Min. 30cm
Df = H/14 to H/12
H/14 to H/12 H/14 to H/12

B = 0.4 to 0.7H

Forces on Retaining Walls

The forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls include

i) Active and passive earth pressures

ii) Dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of soil mass that is
considered to act on the retaining structure
iii) Surcharge including live loads, if any
iv) Water pressure, if any
v) Contact pressure under the base of the structure

PA

WS
WC

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Fr
qh
qt

Rs

Fr = Rstan + CB , Rs = WC +Ws +PA sin

= ⅔  to  (of foundation soil) , C= ½ C to ¾ C (of foundation soil)

Stability of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls should be designed to provide adequate stability against sliding, overturning,
foundation bearing failure and overall or deep foundation failure.

1. Sliding stability

Horizontal resisting force FR

Factor of safety = 
Horizontasliding force PAh
Factor of safety  1.5 for granular soils

Factor of safety  2.0 for cohesive soils

2. Overturning Stability

Sum of moments to resist overturning M s

Factor of safety = 
Sum of overturning moments Mo

 PAv
PA

W


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 Sheet Pile Walls

PAh

h1

b1
B

Ms = Wb1,

Mo = PAhh1-PAvB

Factor of safety  1.5 for granular backfill

Factor of safety  2.0 for cohesive backfill

If the line of action of the resultant force on wall acts within the middle third width of the
base, wall is safe against overturning

3. Foundation stability

W PA

Rv

Rh
qh

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 Sheet Pile Walls

qt

qt Rv  6e 
 1  
qh B  B
Where e= eccentricity of Rv

qt  qall , qall = qult/F.S

F. S = Factor of safety = 2 and 3 for granular and cohesive soils, respectively.

4. Deep foundation failure ( Overall stability)

If layer of weak soil is located within a depth of about 1 ½ times the height of the retaining
wall the overall stability of retaining wall should be investigated. E.g. using Swedish circle
method

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 Sheet Pile Walls

CHAPTER FOUR

GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics have been to geotechnical engineering what computers have been to humankind in
general: a revolution. The use of these planar synthetic materials in soils to reinforce, to drain,
and to separate has grown remarkably over the past 50 years to the point where it is a huge
industry today. According to ASTM D4439, a geosynthetic is a planar product manufactured
from polymeric material (plastics) to be used with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical
engineering-related materials as an integral part of a humanmade project, structure, or system.
There are many types of geosynthetics, including geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids,
geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geonets, geocells, geobags, and geocomposites. Geotextiles
and geomembranes are the two largest groups of geosynthetics. In 2013, the cost of
geosynthetics was between $1 and $7 m2. The book by Koerner (2012) is an excellent reference
on geosynthetics.

TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Geotextiles (Figure 4.1) are textiles made of synthetic fibers. The fibers are either woven
together or tied together (nonwoven). Weaving consists of standard interlacing with textile
machinery. In nonwoven fabrics, the fibers are tied together by heating, gluing, or needle-
punching. In needle-punching, short needles with barbs are punched through the fabric to
provide a mechanical interlocking. Geotextiles are flexible and porous to liquid flow. They are
used mainly for separation, reinforcement, filtration, and drainage.

Geomembranes (Figure 4.1) are relatively thin, impervious sheets of plastic material. They are
made by first preparing the polymer resin and its additives. The actual forming of the membrane
takes place by extrusion through two parallel plates or rollers. The resulting sheet is between 1
and 3 mm thick and can be smooth or roughened. Geomembranes are used mostly as nearly
impervious barriers to contain liquids or vapors.

Geogrids (Figure 4.1) are plastic grids that have a very open configuration; they have large holes
between ribs. They are formed by bonding rods together, by weaving and then coating, or by
stretching. Their main use is reinforcement.

Geosynthetic clay liners or GCLs (Figure 4.1) are made of a thin layer of bentonite clay
sandwiched between two layers of geotextiles or geomembranes. GCLs are manufactured by
feeding the bentonite on top of a conveyor-belt-style geosynthetic and covering it after the feed
point by a top geosynthetic. The two geosynthetic layers are kept together by needle punching,
stitching, or gluing. The bentonite will expand dramatically when wetted. GCLs are about 4 to 6
mm thick when the bentonite is hydrated at water contents of 10 to 35%. They are used mostly as
nearly impervious barriers to contain liquids or vapors.

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Geofoams (Figure 4.1) are extremely light blocks made of polymer bubbles. They are fabricated
by thermal expansion and stabilization of polystyrene bubbles. The density of the

blocks is about 2% of the density of soils, but 3 to 4 times more expensive per unit volume. They
are stacked together to form lightweight fills, and are used as compressible layers behind
retaining walls, as vibration dampers for seismic protection, and as thermal insulation in
foundations.

Geonets (Figure 4.1), like geogrids, are open netting geosynthetics made of plastic. They are
different from geogrids that they are thicker; they are sometimes called spacers as they provide
space for fluid to flow within the structure. Also, the openings are more like diamonds than the
squares of geogrid openings. They are used primarily for drainage purposes.

Geocells are a form of geogrid in the sense that they have a very open configuration, but their
purpose is to reinforce by confining the soil within the cells. The cells may be 1 m × 1 m in plan
view and 1 to 2 m high. The soil is placed within the cells, which provide lateral confinement
and thereby significantly increase the bearing capacity of the soil layer. Geobags are literally
bags made of geosynthetic material; they are usually filled with sand and used for erosion
protection in lieu of rip rap. Their size is in the range of rip rap, and can be as large as 5 m3.

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 Sheet Pile Walls

Figure 4.1 Examples of geosynthetics. (Photographs compliments of the Geosynthetic Institute.)

Geocomposites are combinations of the previous geosynthetics that are intended to maximize the
usefulness of a geosynthetic layer. They are used as filter layers, for example. Geosynthetics are
useful in a number of geotechnical applications, as shown in Table 4.1

PROPERTIES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

The parameters used to characterize geosynthetics are much more numerous than and often
different from those used for soils. The reason is that the material and the applications are quite
different and more versatile than those associated with soils alone. Also, the field of
geosynthetics is quitea bit younger than the field of geotechnical engineering. Although very
significant progress has been made, some of the properties‘ definitions, the tests used to
determine their value, and the design guidelines are still evolving.

Properties of Geotextiles

Physical Properties

The unit weight of typical plastics varies from 9 to 13 kN/m3. The unit weight of dry, clean
geotextiles is between 3 and 7 kN/m3—but that is not the way it is typically given. Instead, it is
quoted as mass per unit area (ASTM D5261) with values between 150 and 750 g/m2 (Koerner
2012). The thickness of commonly used geotextiles is between 0.5 to 4 mm (ASTM D5199).

Table 4.1 Applications for Some Geosynthetics

Mechanical Properties

Stiffness is usually defined as the ratio between the force applied and the resulting displacement,
as in stiffness of a spring. The stiffness of a geotextile is defined in a very different way; it is
obtained from a laboratory test (ASTM D1388) in which a 25 mm wide strip of geotextiles is
gradually pushed over the edge of the crest of a slope under controlled conditions (Figure 25.2).
The slope is 41.5o with the horizontal and when the strip touches the slope, the length L of the
overhanging strip is recorded. The stiffness of the geotextile is defined as:

G = ML2 3 (25.1)

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 Sheet Pile Walls

where G is the flexural stiffness (g.m), M is the mass per unit area (g/m2), and L is the overhang
length (m). The G values for geotextiles are in the range of 0.01 to 1 g.m. The average modulus
of deformation of geotextile under tension stresses varies widely. It can be 60 MPa for some
nonwoven, needle-punched geotextiles all the way to 400 MPa for some woven monofilament
geotextiles (Koerner 2012). Because the evolution of the thickness during the test is not certain,
this modulus is not commonly quoted for these products. Instead, it is more commonly presented
as the ratio of the force per unit length of fabric over the normal strain

Figure 4.2 Flexure stiffness test for geotextile.

generated. Numbers in the range of 30 kN/m to 150 kN/m are common. The average tensile
strength of geotextiles (ASTM D4632) is in the range of 50 to 100 MPa; again, however, that is
not the way it is typically cited. Instead, the average tensile strength is quoted as the force St per
unit length of fabric that creates rupture; average numbers are in the range of 25 to 60 kN/m. One
of the problems is that the thickness varies during elongation of the geotextiles. Another problem
is that the strain to failure is much larger than in soils, with values around 25% for some woven
fabrics and up to 70% for some nonwoven fabrics. As a result, the tensile strength is usually
quoted together with a value of the strain at failure. The tensile strength of the seams (ASTM
D4884) is typically 50 to 75% of the tensile strength of the intact fabric. The compressibility of
geotextiles is generally not a concern except when they are used to convey water or other liquids
in the in-plane direction. In this case it is important to make sure, by testing, that the small
conveyance tubes within the geotextiles will not collapse under the in situ compression.

The puncture strength is important and may be quoted as an impact puncture strength or a static
puncture strength. The impact puncture strength is tested by dynamically puncturing the fabric
with a pendulum test (energy to puncture) (ASTM D256) or a drop cone (penetration distance).
The impact puncture strength of a geotextile is quoted as the energy that leads to puncture.
Common values of geotextile impact puncture strength vary from 25 Joules to 300 Joules. It is
named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule who contributed in the middle to late
nineteenth century. The static puncture strength (ASTM D6241) is determined by slowly pushing
a 50 mm diameter beveled plunger into the fabric and recording the puncture failure load P. The

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 Sheet Pile Walls

following empirical relationship between the puncture load P (kN) and the tensile strength St
(kN/m) has been proposed (Cazzuffi and Venezia 1986):P = Stπd (25.2)

where d is the diameter of the punching plunger.

The interface shear strength between a geotextile and a soil can be very important in design and
should be measured using site-specific materials. The accepted test (ASTM D5321) is a variant
of the soil direct shear test in which the top part of the soil is replaced by a geotextile-covered
block (Figure 4.3).

The interface shear strength is typically in the range of 75% to 100% of the soil shear strength.

Figure 4.3 Direct shear test for soil-geotextiles interface shear strength.

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 Sheet Pile Walls

REFERENCE AND LITERATURE

Bhatt et al. (2014). Reinforced Concrete Design to Eurocodes: Design Theory and Examples

Bond, A. and Harris, A. (2008). Decoding Eurocode 7

Bowles, J.E. (1996). Foundation Analysis and Design

Budhu, M. (2011). Soil mechanics and foundations. New York: Wiley.

Das, B.M. (2014). Principles of Foundation Engineering

Jean-Louis Briaud. (2013). Geotechnical Engineering: Unsaturated and Saturated Soils.

Hoboken, USA, New Jersy: John Wiley & Sons.

Mosely et al. (2007). Reinforced Concrete Design to Eurocode 2

Murthy, V.S. (200). Advanced Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Engineering Series

Reese, L.C. and Van Impe, W.F. (2011). Single Piles and Pile Groups Under Lateral Loading

Tomlinson, M. and Woodward J. (2015). Pile Design and Construction Practice

Xiao, M. (2015). Geotechnical Engineering Design

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