Module 3- forensic serology,

dna and drugs

Introduction

Forensic Serology and DNA analysis are closely aligned sciences, often dealing with the same
evidentiary samples which are handled by the same forensic teams. Serology is used to find evidence of
an identifiable body fluid, while DNA analysis seeks to accurately match those fluids to a specific
individual. In reality, Forensic Serology is a branch of forensic investigation that is considered as the
heart of crime-solving. When combined with the incredible science of DNA analysis, forensic serology
often provides the indisputable piece of evidence that places a suspect at the scene of a crime and
ultimately puts them behind bars.

On the other hand, forensic analysis of drugs is primarily used to determine if an unknown
sample is an illicit drug or not. Drug analysis consists of comparing the chemical analysis of unknown
sample submitted to the laboratory to a known standard. This can be done by conducting colorimetric
tests to see if a positive response occurs. The chemical composition analysis is usually performed using
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), infrared (IR) spectroscopy, or liquid chromatography-
mass spectrometry. Moreover, microscopic tests can be used to identify the type of drugs from plant
material.

Module 3 covers forensic serology specifically the study and analysis of blood and semen to legal
matters. It also includes the study on how DNA analysis is importance in solving crimes and the adverse
effect of prohibited drugs. Discussion on how drugs can be determined is incorporated.

50
 Lesson 1- Forensic Serology-Blood and Semen
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson the
students will be able to:
1. describe the characteristics
and importance of blood and
semen as evidence in solving
crimes;
2. differentiate the types of
bloodstain;
3. explain the types of test for
blood and semen and
4. Illustrate the investigation
process, collection,
preservation of evidence.
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Luminol: A Magic Powder
Luminol is a powder made up of
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon that
glows blue when it comes into contact with
the hemoglobins in blood. This
chemiluminescence is the same process that
causes fireflies to glow. Luminol can detect
minute amounts of blood even after an area
has been washed, even years later. The glow
only lasts about 30 seconds but can be
captured with long-exposure photography.
It is often used as a last resort, since
the chemical reaction can destroy the very
evidence it reveals, but it can still prove
incredibly useful. For example, it might reveal
an assailant‟s shoe prints or show
investigators where to look more closely.
Blood on carpet that may be invisible to the
naked eye can be revealed, prompting
investigators to look for much larger, visible
stains in the wood beneath. Those working
with luminol must be wary of false positives,
however, as it also reacts to the presence of
urine, copper, and horseradish sauce.
https://listverse.com/2014/05/29/10-fascinating-facts-about-
forensics/
1.1 Characteristics of Blood
Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid, plasma, and cells. The cellular components of
blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs), and
thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the RBCs constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma
about 54.3%, and white blood cells about 0.7%. Platelets make up less than 1%. Although it
consists of cells suspended in fluid, blood is still considered a tissue as it is technically a type of
extracellular matrix.
Blood enables transport of cells and molecules between parts of the body. Oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and glucose are among the most vital molecules transported in blood. Blood cells are
essential for normal metabolic and immune system function.

https://www.oneblood.org/about-donating/blood-donor-basics/what-is-blood/

a. Red Blood Cells or ERYTHROCYTES- contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to

various cells in the body. The shape is circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.

b. White Blood Cells or LEUKOCYTES – are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It

defends the body from invading microorganisms. WBC help fight infection.

c. Blood Platelets or THROMBOCYTES- Cells that are produced by the bone marrow
and are necessary for proper clotting of blood. They are responsible for the retraction of blood
clot.

d. Plasma- is the liquid portion of your blood. Plasma is yellowish in color and is made
up mostly of water, but it also contains proteins, sugars, hormones and salts. It transports water
and nutrients to your body‟s tissues.

The perishable natures of blood are the following;

 Blood is type of evidence, which undergoes a rapid change in its character with the
passage of time, as the process of clothing and drying commence almost immediately on
exposure to air.

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  Blood offers little resistance to decomposition, especially when exposed to certain
conditions and influences, which if prolonged, will cause the specimen to lose its identity.

 It is therefore extremely important that blood samples be sent to the laboratory as soon as
possible after their discovery or scientifically preserve.

 Prior to the general search of the crime scene, the floor should be examined carefully in
order to minimize the danger of loss or destruction caused by being walked upon by
persons otherwise engaged in the investigation.

1.2 Importance of the Study of Blood

Blood is the most common, well-known and perhaps the most important evidence in the
world of criminal justice today. Without serologists, thousands of crimes may go unsolved due to
blood roles in identifying suspects.

 As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator.

 For disputed parentage.

 Determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack.

 Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.

 Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.

 Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

Blood evidence is found most often in “crimes of violence such as homicide, assault and

sexual assault”. It may be in the form of fresh liquid, coagulated, dried, or as a small drop or
stain, and each form involves different method of preservation and collection.

Before you proceed …...

1. Why does blood evidence considered as well-known and most important evidence in
modern criminal justice system?

2. Which is more significant as blood evidence: wet blood or dry blood? Why?

1.3 Types
3. How do of
youStains
categorize blood evidence?

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 Bloodstains are classified into three basic types: passive stains, transfer stains and
projected or impact stains.

a. Passive stains include drops, flow and pools, and typically result from gravity acting
on an injured body.

This is an example of passive stains because the

gravity acts on the blood dripping down from the
knife which creates a pool of blood.

https://jeffsciencefair.weebly.com/types-of-stains-and-bloodsplatters.html

b. Transfer stains result from objects coming into contact with existing bloodstains and
leaving wipes, swipes or pattern transfers behind such as a bloody shoe print or a
smear from a body being dragged.

This is an example of transfer stains because

this is an imprint of a bloody shoe that has been
printed on the floor so it has left behind pattern
transfers.

https://jeffsciencefair.weebly.com/types-of-stains-and-bloodsplatters.html

c. Impact stains result from blood projecting through the air and are usually seen as
spatter, but may also include gushes, splashes and arterial spurts
1.3 Problems in the Study of Blood
 Where blood has to be searched for, collection, preservation and transportation of
specimen suspected to contain blood.
 Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
A. Preliminary Test (a.k.a.: Presumptive or Color Test) – a positive result is not
conclusive that the stain is blood but a negative result is conclusive that the
stain is not blood.
REASON: Other substances may yield the same reaction as blood. This includes: sputum,
nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, etc. Commonly employed tests are Benzedrine test
and phenolphthalein test.

54
 B. Confirmatory Tests – The actual proof that a stain is blood consists in
establishing the presence of characteristic blood pigment, hemoglobin or one
of its derivatives.

1. Teichmann or Haemin Crystal Test – dark brown rhombic crystals arranged

singly or in clusters .

2. Takayama or Haemochromogen Crystal Test – large rhombic crystals of salmon-

pink color arranged in clusters, sheaves and other forms.

3. Wagenhaar Test or Acetone-Haematin – small dark, circular crystals .

 If the stain is that of blood, is it human or animal?

C. Precipitin Test (human antiserum)
– The formation of grey precipitation ring at the interface of the two layers within
20 minutes indicates that the stain is human blood.
 If the stain is of human blood, did it come from the victim, the accused or from other
persons?
D. Gel diffusion – using agar
E. Electrophoresis
1.4 Color Reaction Tests

Test Color Reaction

Benzidine Test (Benzidine Solution and Hydrogen Blue color

Peroxide)

Guaiacum Test (Van Deen's , Day's or Schonbein's Blue color

Test)-Guaiac and hydrogen peroxide

Phenolphthalein test (Kastle-Meyer test) Red-Pink

(Phph & H2O2)
Leucomalachite Green test (Leucomalachite green & Malachite green with a bluish
hydrogen peroxide green or peacock blue color

Hemastix Test Green color production of

Luminol Test light
Hemastix Test- is designed as a urine dipstick test for blood. The strip can be moistened
with distilled water and placed in contact with a suspect bloodstain.

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 Luminol Test- its reaction with blood results in the production of light rather than color. By
spraying luminol reagent onto a suspect item large areas can be screened for the presence of
bloodstain.

1.7 Semen and Seminal Stain

Seminal fluid is a complex mixture of secretions from at least four male urogenital
glands. The seminal vesicle gland contributes approximately 60% to this mixture, the prostate
gland contributes approximately 30%, and the combined contribution of the epididymis and
bulbourethral glands account for the remaining 10%. Dave Corriher & Jennifer Pietila, Human
Biology Presentation (UNC-Asheville, 2008).
The examination of semen and seminal stain is an important part in the routine
investigation of sexual offenses like; rape, adultery, sodomy, bestiality, and sexual homicide.
Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic fluid that contains spermatozoa. It is
secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic
animals and can be fertilize female ova.

Semen –refers to the fluid produced by the male sex

organ. It is usually white to yellowish in color,
consisting of two parts:
a. seminal plasma or fluid
b. spermatozoa or sperm cell
There are 70,000,000 to 150,000,000 sperm cells per
millilitre of semen.

1.5 Examination of Semen

A. Wet Specimen
Suspect semen may be found undried having alkaline odor characteristics for seminal fluid.
Examination
1. Place a drop of fluid in a glass slide.
2. Add a drop of distilled water.
3. Cover it with a cover slip.
4. Examined under high power microscope to determine the presence of sperm cells.
B. Dried Specimen
1. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

a. Make a visual examination for greyish white or yellowish stain. (when dry semen
imparts a starchy stiffness to cloth)

b. Inspect it to an ultraviolet light. (seminal stain fluoresce in UV and produces blue

color.)

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 2. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
a. Florence Test- dark brown, crystal rhombic or needle- shaped
b. Barberio‟s Test – slender yellow-tinted rhomboid needles with obtuse angles
c . Acid-phosphate test – orange red

3. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

- only specific test for semen identification under a microscope

Difficulty:

a. Nature of cloth

b. Age of stain

c. Condition to which the stain is exposed

d. Handling of the specimen

Note: The presence of sperms cells proves that the stain is of semen. However,
with the absence of sperm cells it cannot be concluded that the stain is not of a
seminal origin.

Sperm cells – seen under a microscope, consist of a head,

a neck and a tail approximately 10x as long as the head.
During deterioration the bacteria attacks first the tail,
making identification difficult.
An average male ejaculate measures around 3.5 milliliters.
Each milliliter can contain between 10 and 50 million
sperm cells. This number can vary with the age of the
male, and can be negatively impacted by medical conditions, genetic background, diet, and other
habits such as smoking and illicit drug use. Some males in the population have a condition
known as oligospermia, which defines an abnormally low sperm count. Aspermia refers to
another condition where the affected male produces no sperm. Deficient sperm production may
be affected by factors such as radiation and other environmental toxins, undescended testis,
varicocele, trauma, drug effects or other factors. Randine Lewis, Ph.D., Male Factor Infertility,
ACU-Denver Medical Article #RL-05 (2003).

1.6 Collection, Handling and preservation of Semen and Semen-Stained Evidence

a. When clothes or fabrics are washed, traces of semen are lost. It is imperative that the
suspect‟s clothes
b. Air dries the material on a clean paper.
c. Put the inside material in a paper bag. Ensure that there is no fiction against the stain.

57
 d. Do not fold or roll over the stain.
e. Materials that have semen stains should be treated individually.
f. Fluid semen should be places in a test tube. It may be preserved using a few drops of
10% formalin during hot weather to avoid putrefaction.
g. Collect a comparison standard from both suspect and victim.
1.7 Where Semen Can Be Found
a. As Fresh – from vaginal and rectal contents of the victim
b. As Wet or Dried Condition – from hair, and skin around the genitals
c. As Dry stains – from underclothing and beddings
1.8 Testing for Seminal Stains
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a glycoprotein produced in the prostate and secreted
into seminal fluid. PSA is one of the major proteins in seminal fluid with concentrations
of 0.2 to 3.0 mg/mL. Its main function is to liquefy the seminal fluid. This high amount
makes PSA a useful marker in forensic science for the detection of even small amounts of
seminal fluid.
The advantages of a PSA determination are:
 Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) or p30 is an accepted marker for detecting semen in
criminal cases.
 The PSA test is not presumptive like Acid Phosphate (AP) Semen Detection Test.
 The detection PSA is possible in cases where no spermatozoa can be found (for
example vasectomized or azoospermic men).
 PSA can be recovered at detectable concentrations in 30 year old semen.
 Semen samples can show positive PSA results even at a dilution factor of 1:200,00.
 PSA is detectable in post-ejaculate urine and male urine from adult men and can be
detected in urine of eleven year old boys.

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CONCEPT CHECK A

1. The study of blood applied to crime scene is called ________________________.

2. Red blood cells are called ____________________________________________.

3. What part of blood is 90% water? ______________________________________.

4. What test is used to determine if blood is human? _________________________.

5. Only presumptive test is used to determine if an evidence sample is actually

blood. (a). True (b). False

6. Apart from blood, what bodily fluid is usually found in rape cases? ___________.

7. The fluorescence examination of the seminal stains indicates __________ color.

8. Wet semen specimen is examined under low power microscope to determine the
presence of sperm cells. (a.) True, (b). False

9. Oligospermia is a medical condition where the affected male produces no sperm.

(a) True, (b) False

10. The sperm tails are most susceptible to damage and will break down first. (a)
True, (b.) False

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 Lesson 2- DNA: As Biological Evidence and Its
Analysis

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson the

students will be able to:
1. Describe DNA;
2. Discuss the two types of DNA
used in forensic analyses; and
3. Enumerate the uses of DNA
analysis in forensic chemistry
Here are some interesting facts about
forensics and DNA:
-New Zealand was the second country in the
world to establish a databank of DNA
profiles.
-our DNA is unique from your brothers and
sisters because trillions of different
combinations of your parents‟ DNA are
possible.

-Identical twins have identical DNA profiles

because they develop from a single fertilised
egg that splits into two.

-DNA profiling was used to identify the

bodies of the Russian royal family who were
murdered during the Russian Revolution in
1917.

-DNA from a person‟s body, from their skin,

blood or saliva, is always the same.

-DNA is often found on half-eaten snacks or

https://www.mynewlab.com/blog/why-hair-analysis-could-
become-an-alternative-to-dna-testing/
drink cans left behind at house burglaries.
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2038-forensics-
interesting-
facts#:~:text=DNA%20from%20a%20person's %20body,s
ame%20way%20that%20fingerprints%20are.

60
 The past decade has seen great advances in a powerful criminal justice tool:
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA can be used to identify criminals with incredible accuracy
when biological evidence exists. By the same token, DNA can be used to clear suspects and
exonerate persons mistakenly accused or convicted of crimes. In all, DNA technology is
increasingly vital to ensuring accuracy and fairness in the criminal justice system.

2.1 What is DNA?

DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and transmitting the
hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from parents to offsprings. It is a double helix of
about 6 billion paired nucleotides, one set from each parent, forming that familiar twisted ladder.

https://byjus.com/biology/dna-structure/

The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is
composed of three different components, such as sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogen bases.
The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar group, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides
together to form each strand of DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
are four types of nitrogen bases. These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A
with T, and C with G. These base pairs are essential for the DNA‟s double helix structure, which
resembles a twisted ladder.
The material in the cells of biological evidence is so tiny, that it must be enhanced in
order to essentially „see‟ it well enough for analysis. Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction

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(PCR) is used to amplify the DNA strands so that they can be used.

2.2 Types of DNA

According to FBI Handbook of Forensic Services, 2007, there are two types of DNA
used in forensic analyses. Nuclear DNA (nDNA) is the more discriminating of the two types
and is typically analysed in evidence containing blood, semen, saliva, body tissue, and hairs that
have tissue at their root ends. The power of nDNA testing done by the DNA Analysis Unit I
(DNAUI) lies in its ability to potentially identify an individual as being the source of the DNA
obtained from an evidence item to a reasonable degree of scientific certainty, as well as the
definitive power of exclusion. Additionally, where appropriate, the DNA-typing results from
evidence items (including items related to missing persons) examined in the DNAUI may be
uploaded into the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) database.
The other type is Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), found in the subcellular structure of
human cells, the mitochondria are small energy factories found in each cell and have their own
genetic material. The mtDNA is a hardy molecule that is sometimes the last biological vestige
for molecular analysis. Unfortunately, it has a far weaker ability for individualization than with
nuclear DNA for several reasons:
1. Inherited only from the mother during reproduction
2. Some nonrelated sequences repeat
Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA differs in important ways. While each cell contains only
one copy of nuclear DNA, it may contain up to 10,000 copies of mitochondrial DNA. In
addition, nuclear DNA is a combination both parents‟ genes, while mitochondrial DNA is
inherited solely from the mother.
2.3 Biological evidence that can be submitted for DNA Analysis:
a. blood and bloodstains
b. semen and seminal stains
c. hairs with follicle or root
d. saliva or buccal swab
e. bones and organs
d. tissues and cells
2.4 Uses of DNA Analysis in Forensic Chemistry

1. Identification of individuals involved in criminal cases such as murder, rape and terrorism

2. Helps in identification of victim and/or convict

3. Helps in identification of unknown/known body parts

4. For assessment if a specie is human or not

5. For determination of biological bonds between the involved people

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6. Helps in the analysis of the archaeological remains for the studies of evolutionary history of
animals and plants

7. Verification of biological relationship between family members and relatives who are
involved, for example, in tragic incident overseas, thereby giving the family members the right to
claim or bring back home the involved individual/s.

2.5. DNA Testing Techniques

A. RFLP analysis (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) – is a genetic variant that

can be examined by cleaving the DNA into fragments (restriction fragments) with a restriction
enzyme.

 The process of restriction fragment length polymorphism can be divided into four main
steps:

1. Extraction of the DNA

2. Fragmentation of the DNA
3. Gel electrophoresis
4. Visualization

https://microbenotes.com/restriction-fragment-length-polymorphism-rflp/
 The applications of restriction fragment length polymorphism are:
1. It is used in paternity tests to find out the origin of the DNA; and, in criminal cases, to
find individuals.
2. RFLP can be used to detect disorders by comparing the DNA from an affected
individual to the DNA of a healthy person.
3. It can detect disease-causing mutations.
4. Carriers of genetic mutations in a family can also be identified to prevent further
disease.
5. To draw genetic maps by measuring the genetic distance between the loci
 Disadvantages of RFLP
1. RFLP was widely used in the process of forensic sciences, paternity tests, genetic
mapping, and finding mutations and disorders, but with the creation of new and
advanced techniques such as the PCR, RFLP is not used commonly.
2. RFLP is more expensive than modern techniques.
3. In RFLP, there were a lot of different steps, and it would take days to yield a result,
whereas, in the PCR, it usually takes just a few hours.
4. A large amount of sample was needed for RFLP, whereas in PCR, a small sample
could also be used as PCR amplifies the DNA and then fragments it.

63
 5. Some species show low levels of polymorphism, so it is difficult to get accurate
result.
B. PCR Analysis (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a biochemical technology in molecular biology
to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA, generating thousands to millions
copies of a particular DNA sequence. It was developed in 1983, is used in the
identification of genetic fingerprints such as paternity testing and the detection and
diagnosis of infectious diseases.
C. STR Analysis (Short Tandem Repeats)
The method of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses short tandem repeats
(STR). This method uses regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most
common is 4 bases repeated). Because unrelated people almost certainly have different
numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals.
These STR loci (locations in the chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific
primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments that result are then separated and
detected using electrophoresis.
D. AmpFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)
This technique is faster than RFLP analysis and uses PCR to amplify DNA samples. It
distinguishes various alleles that are separated on a gel using an allelic ladder rather than
a molecular weight ladder. Bands could be visualized by silver staining the gel. AmpFLP
is popularly used by lower income countries due to its relatively low cost and ease of set-
up and operation.

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CONCEPT CHECK B

1. The paternity of a male child is in question. What DNA test would rightly identify
his father? ______________________________________________________

2. Adenine is one of the nitrogenous bases in the DNA helix. Adenine is known to
pair uniquely with ________________________________________________.

3. Admissible samples for DNA testing are the following: dried semen, dried blood,
buccal swabbing and hair strand with the root removed. (a). True, (b). False

4. Mitochondrial DNA is a combination of both father and mother genes. (a). True,
(b). False

5. DNA is a helical structure that is composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group

and a nitrogenous base. (a). True, (b). False

6. What does the abbreviation DNA stand for? ____________________________

7. What do scientists used to cut DNA into smaller strands? __________________

8. This technique is faster than RFLP analysis and uses PCR to amplify DNA
samples. _____________________________________________________

9. A woman claims that Pedro is the father of her unborn child. The most helpful
piece of evidence can be presented in court is a DNA test. (a) True, (b). False

10. DNA analysis helps in the analysis of the archaeological remains for the studies of
evolutionary history of animals and plants. (a) True, (b). False

65
 Lesson 3- Drugs and the Examination of Dangerous
Drugs

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson the

students will be able to:
1. Define drugs;

2. Classify drugs and describe

its effects;

3. Discuss forensic drug

testing; and

4. Explain urine samples

examination.
King George V
died 82 years ago of lung disease. Grandson
of Queen Victoria and grandfather to Queen
Elizabeth II, his death was expected (he had
been a heavy smoker and ill for some time).
However, controversy surrounding his death
surfaced a few decades ago when the diary of
his lead attending physician, Lord Dawson of
Penn, was revealed. In his notes after the
death, Dawson wrote he administered to the
king a lethal dose of drugs, morphine and
cocaine, ensuring that George V would die
before midnight. Dawson was motivated by a
desire and probably to allow the
announcement of the King‟s death to be made
in the morning newspapers instead of the
afternoon press, the latter considered less
authoritative and more sensational.

https://rrlawaz.com/felony/dangerous-drug-crimes/ http://numberonelondon.net/2018/01/the-death-of-king-george-v-
january-20-1936/

66
3.1 Drug defined

A drug is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioural and
/or psychological change in a person taking it.

All medicines are drugs, but not all drugs are medicinal drugs.

Medicinal Drugs. Are substances which when taken into the human body cures illness
and / or relieves signs/symptoms of disease.

Regulated Drugs. Drugs that have medical value but have the potential of being abused
and therefore the government regulates its use and dispensing.

Dangerous Drugs. Are substances affecting the central nervous system that can
potentially damage the brain, heart, and vital organs and bring about physical, emotional and
behavioural changes in a person taking it. Such changes are; the ability to stay awake and do
continuous activity, creates a sense of power and surge of energy, makes people paranoid or have
hallucinations; creates a feeling of peace and the absence of any care.

3.2 Classification of Drugs

According to : Description Examples

Origin: 1. Natural Drugs Active ingredients, secondary metabolic Raw opium
products of plants and other living system Marijuana
that may be isolated by extraction. Coca bush
2. Synthetic drugs Artificially produced substances, Methamphetamine
synthesized in an illicit laboratory from Barbiturates
chemical compounds for illicit market.
Legal Classification:
1. RA 9165 Comprehensive Dangerous drug Act of
2002
2. PD 1619 Volatile Substances
3. RA 6425 Classified as Regulated and Prohibited
Pharmacological
Classification:
1. Stimulants Are drugs which increase alertness of Amphetamine
physical disposition Shabu
2. Hallucinogens Are drugs which affect sensation, thinking, Ecstacy
self-awareness and emotion LSD, Marijuana
3. Depressants Are drugs which depress or lower the
functions of central nervous system
a. Narcotics -A drug which induces sleep or stupor and Opium, opiates,

67
 relief pain heroin, morphine,
b. Tranquilizers -a substance that reduces anxiety, ease and
relax muscle
c. Sedative and -calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce Barbiturates
hypnotics sleep Alcohol
4. Inhalants Are liquid, solid or mixed substances that Solvent, glue,
have the property of releasing toxic vapors gasoline, kerosene,
or fumes. paint, thinner

3.3 Commonly Used Illegal Drugs

Substances Name Examples : Commercial How Acute Effects

Cannabinoids: Street Names Administered
MARIJUANA Blunt, dope, ganja, grass, I/smoked, Euphoria; relaxation;
herb, joint, bud, Mary swallowed slowed reaction time;
Jane, pot, reefer, green, distorted sensory
trees, smoke, sinsemilla, perception; impaired
skunk, weed balance and
HASHISH Boom, gangster, hash, I/smoked, coordination; increased
hash oil, hemp swallowed heart rate and appetite;
impaired learning,
memory; anxiety; panic
attacks; psychosis
Opioids
HEROIN iacetylmorphine: smack, injected, smoked,
horse, brown sugar, snorted
Euphoria; drowsiness;
dope, H, junk, skag,
impaired coordination;
skunk, white horse,
dizziness; confusion;
China white; cheese
nausea; sedation; feeling
(with OTC cold medicine
of heaviness in the body;
and antihistamine)
slowed or arrested
OPIUM audanum, paregoric: big swallowed,
breathing
O, black stuff, block, smoked
gum, hop
Stimulants
COCAINE Cocaine hydrochloride: swallowed, Increased heart rate,
blow, bump, C, candy, snorted, smoked, blood pressure, body
Charlie, coke, crack, injected temperature,
flake, rock, snow, toot metabolism; feelings of
AMPHETAMINE Biphetamine, Dexedrine: wallowed, exhilaration; increased
bennies, black beauties, snorted, smoked, energy, mental alertness;
crosses, hearts, LA injected tremors; reduced
turnaround, speed, truck appetite; irritability;
drivers, uppers anxiety; panic; paranoia;
METHAMPHETA Desoxyn: meth, ice, swallowed, violent behavior;

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MINE crank, chalk, crystal, fire,
glass, go fast, speed
Club Drugs
MDMA Ecstasy, Adam, clarity,
(METHYLENEDIO Eve, lovers' speed,
XYMETHAMPHET Molly, peace, uppers
AMINE
FLUNITRAZEPAM Rohypnol (date rape
*** drug): forget-me pill,
Mexican Valium, R2,
roach, Roche, roofies,
roofinol, rope, rophies
GHB*** Gamma-
hydroxybutyrate: G,
Georgia home boy,
grievous bodily harm,
liquid ecstasy, soap,
scoop, goop, liquid X
Dissociative Drugs
KETAMINE Ketalar SV: cat Valium,
K, Special K, vitamin K
PCP AND Phencyclidine: angel
ANALOGS dust, boat, hog, love
boat, peace pill
SALVIA Salvia, Shepherdess‟s
DIVINORUM Herb, Maria Pastora,
magic mint, Sally-D
DEXTROMETHOR found in some cough and
PHAN (DXM cold medications:
Robotripping, Robo,
Triple C
Hallucinogens
LSD Lysergic acid
diethylamide: acid,
blotter, cubes, microdot,
yellow sunshine, blue
heaven
MESCALINE Buttons, cactus, mesc,
peyote
PSILOCYBIN Magic mushrooms,
purple passion, shrooms,
little smoke
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snorted, smoked, psychosis
injected
swallowed, mild hallucinogenic
snorted, injected effects; increased tactile
sensitivity, empathic
feelings; lowered
inhibition; anxiety;
chills; sweating; teeth
clenching; muscle
cramping
swallowed, sedation; muscle
snorted relaxation; confusion;
memory loss; dizziness;
impaired coordination
swallowed drowsiness; nausea;
headache; disorientation;
loss of coordination;
memory loss
injected, snorted,
smoked
swallowed,
smoked, injected
Feelings of being
chewed, separate from one‟s body
swallowed, and environment;
smoked impaired motor function
swallowed
swallowed,
absorbed through
mouth tissues
Altered states of
perception and feeling;
hallucinations; nausea
swallowed,
smoked
swallowed
3.4 Forensic Drug Testing

There are basically two categories of forensic tests used to analysed drugs and other
unknown substance.

1. Presumptive tests (such as color tests) give only an indication of which type of
substance is present -- but they can't specifically identify the substance. Here are few
examples of color tests:

Type of Test Chemical Reagents Interpretation of Results

Marquis Color Formaldehyde and concentrated
sulfuric acid
Cobalt thiocyanate Cobalt thiocyanate, distilled
water, glycerin, hydrochloric
acid, chloroform
Dillie-Koppanyi Cobalt acetate and
isopropylamine
VanUrk P-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde,
hydrochloric acid, ethyl alcoho
Duquenois-Levine Vanillin, acetaldehyde, ethyl
Test alcohol, chloroform
Heroin, morphine and most opium-
based drugs will turn the solution
purple. Amphetamines will turn it
orange-brown.
Cocaine will turn the liquid blue.
Barbiturates will turn the solution
violet-blue.
LSD will turn the solution blue-
purple.
Marijuana will turn the solution
purple

2. Confirmatory tests (such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) are more specific

and can determine the precise identity of the substance.

A more specific way to test drugs is with the microcrystalline test in which the scientist
adds a drop of the suspected substance to a chemical on a slide. The mixture will begin to form
crystals. Each type of drug has an individual crystal pattern when seen under a polarized light
microscope.

Activity 9- PDEA

Search and make a written report (by group) on the Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA), its powers, general administration, management, its chain of
command and be able to identify authorities in the community responsible for enforcing
RA 6425 or the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972.

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3.5 Examination of Urine Samples

Urine is the most accessible and convenient sample that can be obtained for dangerous
drug screening. The benefit of testing urine aside from the accessibility and convenience to
obtain is that it involves a NON-INVASIVE procedure of securing. A clean vial is the only
requirement to obtain a sample and then the test can be conducted thereafter using a readily
available testing kit.

The rate of excretion from the body depends on the drug‟s solubility in fat. There are
water soluble drugs as well as fat soluble drugs. Water soluble drugs are excreted quickly, while
fat soluble drugs like marijuana may take several weeks or months before excretion. A forensic
chemist‟s knowledge of solubility of drugs they are testing will guide them in their judgement
when conducting drug tests.

A. Instances when to allow Unobserved Urine Specimen Collection

- When donor is physically unable to go to the laboratory
- When donor is involved in a crime scene
- When donor is involved in post-accident trauma
- When donor is critically ill
B. Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen
1. Adulterated – a specimen containing either a substance that is not normal
constituent for that type of specimen or containing an endogenous/exogenous
substances (e.g. oxidizing agents). A urine sample is adulterated when pH value is
less than 3 or greater than 11.
2. Diluted – refers to a specimen with less than normal physiological constituents. A
urine sample is said to have been diluted if the specific gravity is less than 1.003
and the creatinine is less than 1768.0 umol/ml.
3. Substituted – a specimen which has been derived through switching or
replacement of the original sample. A urine sample is substituted when the
specific gravity is less than 1.003 or greater than 1.020, creatinine is less than
442.0 umol/L and the pH is less than 2 or greater than 9.
C. Ways to Adulterate Urine Samples
- Addition of salt
- Addition of juice
- Addition of detergent
- Addition of bleach and other oxidizing adulterants
- Addition of illicit drugs
D. Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample
- Urine from friends or other persons not using drugs may be used as substitute
specimen.
- Replace sample with other substance similar to urine in appearance.

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 E. Parameters for Validity Tests
1. Initial Validity tests
- physical characteristics such as color, odor, etc.
2. Confirmatory Validity Tests
- volume, temperature, pH, specific gravity, nitrites, creatinine, oxidizing agents

CONCEPT CHECK C

1. It is a substance which when taken into the human body alters mood,
perception, feelings and behavior. _______________________________

2. A urine specimen is ______________________________ when it has the

presence of endogenous substance.
3. A color test is employed to reduce the family or group of drug to a small and
manageable number. (a) True, (b) False

4. Stimulants increase the feelings of energy, alertness, while increasing appetite.

(a). True, (b). False

5. Marijuana is considered as hallucinogen. (a) True, (b) False

6. Amphetamines with formaldehyde and concentrated sulfuric acid will give a/an
______________________ color positive result.

7. It is the most specific test to determine the presence of drugs. _____________.

8. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) starts to take effect around 30 to 90 minutes

after taking it and acute effect of :___________________________.

9. The illicit drug most commonly used in the United States is

________________.

10. Morphine, codeine, and heroin have what in common? ___________________

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References

Orodio-Garcia, Gladys Mae. (2014). Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology (with Laboratory
Manual). Purely Books Trading and Publishing Corp. Manila

Dascil- anete, Arlen .(2010). Essentials of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology in Criminal
Justice System. Wiseman‟s Books Trading, Inc. Quezon City.https://byjus.com/biology/dna-
structure/

https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction-to-biology/restriction-fragment-length-
polymorphisms

https://jeffsciencefair.weebly.com/types-of-stains-and-blood-splatters.html

https://www.nu.edu/resources/what-is-forensic-serology/

https://www.sjsu.edu/people/mary.juno/courses/1066/s7/ForensicSerology.pdf

https://ncfs.ucf.edu/research/physical-evidence/drug-toxicology/

https://www.oneblood.org/about-donating/blood-donor-basics/what-is-blood/

https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2011/10/19/forensic-tests-for-semen-what-you-should-know/

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2038-forensics-interesting-
facts#:~:text=DNA%20from%20a%20person's%20body,same%20way%20that%20fingerprints
%20are.

http://courseresources.mit.usf.edu/~test/lecture/files/pdf/cas_sample.pdf

https://www.justice.gov/archives/ag/advancing-justice-through-dna-technology-using-dna-solve-
crimes

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