Unit II

MECHANICAL TESTING

Introduction to mechanical testing, Hardness test (Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell), Tensile

test, Impact test (Izod, Charpy) - Principles, Techniques, Methods, Advantages and
Limitations, Applications. Bend test, Shear test, Creep and Fatigue test - Principles,
Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
 Mechanical Testing
 It reveals the properties and behaviour of a material under various load conditions..
 Also known as Destructive testing
 To assure the performance, safety and durability of a material.

Ductility

Stiffness Plasticity

Mechanical
Toughness Properties Elasticity
of Material

Strength &
Malleability
Hardness

Brittleness
 • Strength is the ability of a material to resist external applied forces without
breaking or yielding
Strength & • Hardness is the property of the material which enables it to resist plastic
Hardness deformation, usually by penetration or by indentation.

• Stiffness is the resistance of an elastic body to deflection or deformation by an

applied force
Stiffness • Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus is the measurement of stiffness.

• The ability of a deformed material to return to its original shape and size when the
forces causing the deformation are removed is called Elasticity.
Elasticity

• Plasticity is the ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation under

stress without cracking.
Plasticity • This property is necessary for forgings, stamping images on coins, etc.
 • Ductility is the ability of a material to be drawn into a wire or plastically deformed
without fracture.
Ductility & • Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines their ability to be
Malleability hammered, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.

• Brittleness is the property of a material that fractures when subjected to stress but
has a little tendency to deform before rupture.
Brittleness

• Toughness is a property that measures the ability of a material to absorb energy

and withstand shock up to fracture. ie.,the ability to absorb energy in the plastic
Toughness range.

• Resilience is the ability of an elastic material to absorb energy and release that
energy as it retains back to its original shape.
Resilience
 Testing methods for specific properties

Tensile Test
Brinell
Hardness

Elasticity,
Compression
Test Plasticity, Torsion Test
Hardness Stiffness

Rockwell Vickers
Hardness Hardness

Bending Test
 Testing methods for specific properties

Creep Creep
Behaviour Rupture Test
Fatigue Fatigue
Behaviour Strength

Wohler
Fatigue
Test
Toughness Impact Test
 Material Failure
 Loss of load carrying capacity of a material.
 It happens due to two major reasons: Deformation failure and Fracture Failure.
Deformation failure:
➢ Elastic and Plastic Deformation
➢ Creep Deformation
Fracture Failure:
- Separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress.
- The type of fracture depends on two main loading conditions.
➢ Static Loading
➢ Brittle Failure
➢ Ductile Failure
➢ Environmental Failure
➢ Creep rupture Failure
➢ Cyclic Loading
➢ High cycle and Low cycle failure
➢ Fatigue crack growth
➢ Corrosion Fatigue
 Hardness
 Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to local plastic deformation achieved from
indentation onto a flat surface of metal under a predetermined load.
 Classification of Hardness:
 Indentation Hardness
Brinell
Meyer
Vicker’s
Rockwell
Knoop
Nano Hardness
Rebound Hardness
Scratch Hardness
 Indenters

 a small hard material used for producing an indentation in a solid in an indentation test.
 Indenters
Sl.
Indenter Type Test
No.
1 Hard Metal Ball Brinell Hardness Test

2 Right Pyramid with a Square base Vicker’s Hardness Test

3 Diamond or Ball Type Rockwell Hardness Test

➢ Criterias to be considered while choosing a Hardness Tester:

✓ Test Load.
✓ Hardness Range.
✓ Accuracy Level.
✓ Adaptability of the device.
Brinell Hardness Test
 Brinell Hardness Test
It consists of forming an indentation by forcing a standard spherical ball indenter into the surface of
the material.
 Brinell Hardness Test

 Hardened steel ball of 2.5, 5 or 10 mm in diameter is used as indenter.

 Loading force varies from 300 N to 30000 N.
 5000 N for Aluminum alloys.
 10000 N for Copper alloys.
 30000 N for Steels.

Diameter of Ball
Load (kg) Duration (s) Metals
(mm)
3000 10
10 Iron, steel
750 5
Copper, Brass, Magnesium
500 10 30
alloys, etc.
Gun metal, cold worked
1000 10 15
brass, etc
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness Test
 Rockwell Hardness Test

Scale Indenter Load (kg) Dial Number Typical Material

Cemented carbide, Case hardened surface, thin

A Diamond cone 60 Black
steel

B 1.5 mm ball 100 Red Copper, Aluminium, Brass, Cast Iron

C Diamond cone 150 Black Hard cast iron, hardened steel

D Diamond cone 100 Black Thin steel specimens

Soft Aluminium alloys, Magnesium alloy,

E 3 mm ball 100 Red
Bearing metals

F 1.5 mm ball 60 Red Bearing alloy, copper alloys.

Vicker’s Hardness Test

𝑷
𝑽𝑯𝑵 = 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑨𝒔

𝑷
𝑽𝑯𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟐
𝑫
Where,
P – Applied Load (kg)
As – Lateral area of elastically recovered pyramidal
indentation (mm2)
D – Average diagonal length of square indentation (mm)
 Comparison

Properties Brinell Rockwell Vicker

Square based pyramid

Indenters Hard metal ball Steel ball or diamond cone diamond indenter with a
136º included angle

Load 1 kg - 3000 kg 30 - 100 kg 10 g – 1000 g

Duration 15 – 30 s 10 – 15 s 30 – 60 s

Simple surface preparation, easy Higher speed, immediate Specimen can be used for
Advantages
measurement reading, Shallow imprint other purposes

Impression is large with visible Surface preparation is

Disadvantages Possibility of cone breakage
trace needed
 Tensile Test
 Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides information about the tensile strength, yield
strength, and ductility of the metallic material.
 It measures the force required to break a composite or plastic specimen and the extent to which the
specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point.
 Impact Test
 Impact test determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture.
 This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material's toughness and acts as a tool to study
temperature-dependent brittle-ductile transition.
 Based on the loading condition and impact blow pattern, Impact test can be classified as follows:
 Single-Blow Pendulum Impact test
 Charpy Notched-Bar Impact test
 Izod Notched-Bar Impact test
 Drop weight test
 Robertson Crack-Arrest test
 Dynamic Tear test
 Instrumented Puncture testing
 Tensile Impact test
Izod and Charpy Test
 Impact Test: Specimen Dimensions

 Izod Test Specimen

 Charpy Test Specimen

 Comparison – Charpy & Izod Impact tests

Charpy Izod
Materials Tested Metals Plastics and Metals
Types of Notches U-Notch & V-Notch V-Notch

Position of the Horizontally. Notch facing away Vertically. Notch facing towards the
specimen from the pendulum pendulum

Striking point Middle of the sample Upper tip of the sample

Common specimen 64 × 12.7 × 3.2 mm (plastic)
55 × 10 × 10 mm
dimensions 127 × 11.43 mm round bar (metal)

Common specifications ASTM E23, ISO 148 or EN 10045-1 ASTM D256, ASTM E23 and ISO 180
Largely affected by temperature Shows minimum error to temperature
Temperature
changes changes
 Bend Test

 The bend test is a simple and inexpensive

qualitative test that can be used to evaluate

both the ductility and soundness of a
material.

 It is often used as a quality control test for

butt-welded joints, having the advantage of
simplicity of both test piece and equipment.
 Shear Test

 A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding failure
along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied.
 Types
 Single shear test
 Double shear test
 Creep Test
 A creep test involves a tensile specimen under a constant load maintained at a constant
temperature. Measurements of strain are then recorded over a period of time.
 Creep occurs in three stages: Primary, or Stage I; Secondary, or Stage II: and Tertiary, or Stage III.
Creep Test
 Fatigue test
 The progressive failure of a material at a stress much lower than that required to cause fracture,
when cyclic load is applied repeatedly is called as fatigue failure.
Methods to determine fatigue life
 The stress-life method
Rainflow analysis
Fatigue damage spectrum
S-N Curve
Miner’s rule
 The strain-life method
The crack growth method
Probabilistic method
Rainflow analysis
Fatigue damage spectrum
S-N Curve
Miner’s rule
Stages in Fatigue failure
 Stage 1: Crack Initiation
 Stage 2: Crack Propagation
 Stage 3: Sudden Fracture

Types of Fatigue cycle

 High-cycle fatigue
 Low-cycle fatigue
Summary
 Hardness Test
 Brinell Hardness
 Rockwell Hardness
 Vicker’s Hardness
 Tensile Test
 Impact Test
 Izod Impact Test
 Charpy Impact Test
 Bend Test
 Shear Test
 Creep Test
 Fatigue Test