GE 11 ETHICS REVIEWER
Complacency when one is aware but is not
UNIT II CHAPTER 2 – ETHICS AND CULTURE
“Most moral relativists believe that tolerance of cultural
diversity is better, in some important sense, than
outright bigotry. This may be perfectly reasonable, of
course, but it amounts to an overarching claim about
how all human beings should live. Moral relativism,
when used as a rationale for tolerance of diversity, is
self –contradictory.” - Sam Harris
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM) comprises all
procedures that involve partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia, or other injury to the female
genital organs for non-medical reasons (Female genital
mutilation, 2018).
NORMS refer to social and cultural regulations and
decrees that govern the everyday activities of people,
inclusive of its moral and ethical imperatives, customs,
and cultural practices (Barker, 2004).
CULTURE
• is defined as that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law,
customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society (Burke,
2008).
• is the totality of learned, socially transmitted
customs, knowledge, material objects, and
behavior (Schaefer, 2013), it is only right to
comprehend and appreciate its impact in the
over-all understanding of people of who they
are and in their decision makings.
GOROSPE LISTS THE FOLLOWING AS DISTINCT FILIPINO
MORAL NORMS:
1. Group-centeredness or group-think. As Gorospe
explained, what will others say usually determines
Filipino moral behavior. He perfectly calls this as the
Filipinos’ “conscience from the outside”.
2. The “Don’t be caught” attitude based on shame or
fear of the authority figure. For example, even if there
is already a national smoking ban in the country at
present, there are still those who disregard the law
since they are not being caught by authorities anyway.
3.
concerned. It is an open-secret that corruption is
rampant in the government. Even though we are aware
of it, there are still a lot of Filipinos who do not really
mind about changing the status quo by invoking their
rights of suffrage, but perhaps are just so indifferent
about it.
4. Rationalization. We have that instinct of justifying an
act no matter how wrong it is. Students do know for a
fact that cheating is bad. Still and all, if they feel like it is
the only way to pass a course, then, they will rationalize
the act and continue doing it until they achieve their
goal.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
WHICH ARE SIGNIFICANT IN UNDERSTANDING OUR
MORAL BEHAVIOR:
1. Culture provides identity to the people in the society.
This is what separates communal groups from each
other. They are known by their distinct traditions and
beliefs that they hold dear.
2. Culture mirrors the laws of the land. Laws in one
society is born out of the norms which are socially
acceptable behavioral patterns in the community.
These norms are held with supreme importance, and so
the people make sure that they are systematized and
followed by all. Going against these laws are punishable
in most, if not all cases.
3. Culture unifies people in ways that only those who
belong in that society understands. It is always what the
communal group invokes in matters of decisions,
practices, and traditions.
4. Culture influences our concept of morality. Culture
provides the rules of the games in the society through
our cultural norms. It is very much prescriptive of what
is morally right or wrong, what is respectful and not,
affecting our patterns of behavior. It is the culture that
molds, if not dictates, the values that should be adhered
to by the people.
SOCIOLOGY, known as the study of human society, CULTURAL SENSITIVITY is the key to cultural tolerance.
cultural relativism is given prime importance. It is being aware that cultural differences and
similarities between people exist without assigning
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
them a value– positive or negative, better or worse,
• is the view that moral beliefs and practices vary right or wrong (Dabbah, 2014).
with and depend on the human needs and
MORAL RELATIVISM – This maintains that different
social conditions of particular cultures (Holmes,
societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality
2007).
and that there is no objective, and transcultural criteria
• should result to cultural tolerance in order to for judging between these systems.
preserve the distinctiveness of people
regardless of whichever context they come
from.

Cultural relativism then should be understood as a

celebration and appreciation of cultural diversity
(Kellenberger, 2011).

It is important to underscore as well the important

historical role of cultural relativism in encouraging
cross-cultural understanding and contributing to an
expansion of human freedom (Brown, 2008)

In effect, cultural relativism results to, if not implies

moral relativism which maintains that different
societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality
and that there are no objective, and transcultural
criteria for judging between these systems

(Herder as cited in Sikka, 2011).

Cultural relativism debunks the concept of

ethnocentrism – an idea that has long haunted men, in
their attempt to answer which among cultural behavior
should be the standard, if there is any. It is in exact
opposition to cultural relativism.

ETHNOCENTRISM

• is the practice of taking one’s own people,

society, and culture to be the vantage point
from which all else is viewed and judged (Bruce
& Yearly, 2006).
• leads to this prejudgment of people.

XENOCENTRISM. It is the belief that one’s own cultural

features are a downgrade in comparison to those of
other cultures.

Xenocentric individuals value commodities, style,

culture or even ideas from another country or culture
other than their own (Bell, 2017).
UNIT II CHAPTER 3 – HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER
DEVELOPED?
“Fairy tales to me are never happy, sweet stories.
They’re moral stories about overcoming the dark side
and the bad.” - Joe Wright
“Early experience plays a key role in the development of
all body and brain systems and so it necessarily has an
influence on subsequent moral functioning”
Narvaez and Gleason’s (2013),
MORAL CHARACTER
• also known as virtue and conscience
• is formed by one’s actions. “The habits, actions,
and emotional responses of the person of good
character all are united and directed toward the
moral and the good” (Mitchell, 2015, para.1). In
order for us to be able to acquire good habits
and values, we have to know what factors
influence our moral character.
Mamawal (1993) listed several agencies of values
formation:
1. Family
2. Biological constitution
3. Peer
4. School
5. Community
“Strictly speaking, then, moral philosophy cannot be
taught because the love of wisdom cannot be imparted
the same way that facts about the world are imparted.
But the love of moral wisdom can be encouraged in
everyone and nurtured in those who actively seek to
understand morality and its place in human life”
(Holmes, 2007, p.2)
Goodness is about character—integrity, honesty,
kindness, generosity, moral courage, and the like. More
than anything else, it is about how we treat other
people. - Dennis Prager
“Love, hate, values, thoughts, feelings, emotions,
obligations, virtues, and principles—the elements of
morality—are in their own way as real as atoms and
electrons” (Holmes, 2007, p.2).
Each of the three levels of moral reasoning contains two
separate stages:
1. Preconventional (you scratch my back and I will
scratch yours)
Stage 1 Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2 Naively Egoistical
2. Conventional (conforming to others’
expectations, regardless of immediate
consequences)
Stage 3 “Good Boy-Nice Girl” Orientation
Stage 4 Authority—Law and Order Orientation
3. Post conventional (determine moral values
apart from groups holding them) (Kohlberg,
1971, as cited in Larson, 2003, p. 24).
Stage 5 Contractual-Legalistic Orientation
Stage 6 Conscience and Principle Orientation
“did not find dominance of the justice principle, and
moral development, unfortunately is not necessarily
congruent with age” (Larson, 2004, p. 24).
“Kohlberg is perhaps the most influential psychologist
in the field of moral development”
(as cited in Larson, 2003, p.13).
MORALITY is influenced by culture, religion, and
education. For one to learn it, it has to be taught directly
or indirectly; it has to be observed in words and in
practice, better yet, it has to be experienced in one’s
interaction with other people.
“Although moral philosophy cannot promise to resolve
your moral problems for you, it can help guide you in
your efforts to resolve those problems and in your
deliberations about what constitutes the wise conduct
of life” (Holmes, 2007, p.2).
Do NOT do an immoral thing for moral reasons. -
Thomas Hardy
MORAL DEVELOPMENT – progress/improvement of
moral character.
UNIT III CHAPTER 4 THE ETHICS OF SENTIMENT,
REASON, AND COURAGE
“I know only that what is moral is what you feel good
after and what is immoral is what you feel bad after.” -
Ernest Hemingway
The 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume
(1711-1776), in his work, A Treatise of Human Nature
(2000), furthered the idea that morality is based NOT
on reason but on emotions.
His notion of ethical thought is based heavily on the
empiricist theory of the mind, and thus can be distilled
through the four theses that he has posited:
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will,
but rather is the “slave of the passions”;
2. Moral distinctions are NOT derived from
reason;
3. Morals distinctions are derived from moral
sentiments; that is, the feeling of approval
(esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by
spectators who contemplate a character trait or
action; and
4. While some virtues and vices are natural,
others, including justice, are artificial.
PREJUDICE is an intrinsic flaw in human thought, so in
order to keep intact the moral soundness of a decision,
one must pay heed to facts.
IMPARTIALITY simply states that no one is above or
beneath any standard when making moral valuations.
So favoring one person over another on the sole basis
of race or skin color, for instance, is never justifiable.
Its scope will cover acts of discrimination committed
against the third sex that are premised on the idea that:
1. Marriage is or should be recognized as the
union of one man and woman, or
2. Sexual relations are properly reserved to such a
marriage (like the example in the previous slide)
According to American philosopher Michael Davis
(1999), who came up with this seven-step guide ,
professionals and students alike exhibit stronger “moral
reasoning skills” if they base their actions and/or
decisions on a codified list. What is unique about Davis’
model is his emphasis on multiple alternatives in
dealing with ethical dilemmas.
The steps are as follows:
1. State the problem. Determine the possible
moral dilemmas at hand. Is there something
about your judgment and/or decision that
makes you uncomfortable? Is there any conflict
of interest present?
2. Check the facts. When we examine a scenario
closely, what is initially identified as a problem or
dilemma can surprisingly disappear. Some, on the
other hand, can be amplified or altered radically
due to new details that might come to the light
upon closer scrutiny.
3. Identify relevant factors. Who are the people
involved? What laws or professional codes can
possibly apply? Are there practical constraints (e.g.
You are a journalist and you were given 5,000 pesos
by a politician whom the article you are currently
writing is about. Will the money create conflict of
interest?)
4. Develop a list of options. Do you have a set of
alternatives to the action or decision (in relation to
a given scenario) in mind? Be creative and develop
a list of other choices. Avoid the binarism of “yes or
no” questions in making moral decisions (such as
“Should I do it or not?”). Identify people you can
potentially approach who may provide fresh
perspectives on the situation you are confronted
with.
5. Test the options. Michael Davis has included
several tests that may prove to be useful when one
is weighing in on his/her choices and decisions:
a) Harm Test – Would less harm be done on
other people when I favor this one decision
over the others?
b) Publicity Test – Would I be proud of this
decision if it makes the evening news?
Would I want my loved ones to know?
 c) Defensibility Test – Would I be able to
defend this decision before the court or a
panel of reviewers without appearing self-
serving?
d) Reversibility Test – Would I still prefer my
option of choice if it were to have some
adverse effects on me instead of others?
Would I still want it despite the
implications?
e) Colleague Test – How would my
profession’s ethics committee see the
option? What would they say?
f) Organization Test – What would my
company’s (or organization’s) ethics
officials and/or legal counsel say regarding
the option?
g) Virtue Test – What kind of person would
also choose such an option? Is he/she who
someone might consider as “virtuous”?
What would become of me if I enact this
option all the time?
6. Come up with a choice or decision based on the
abovementioned steps.
7. Review steps 1-6.
Fostering Factors
1. Social Norms predominantly the most salient
prosocial ones, in encouraging morally
courageous acts.
2. Anger Morally courageous acts are often
caused by moral outrage, or the kind of anger
provoked by the violation of a certain moral or
ethical standard.
WILL is the fortitude it takes for one to act or decide
according to a personal set of principles.
MORAL VALUATION – an estimation or assessment of
something, usually of a situation of relative ethical
weight, that eventually leads to a decision.
PRACTICALLY WISEMAN – a man who applies phronesis
or practical wisdom (or “the ability to do the right thing,
at the right time, for the right reason”), in his everyday
life.
TELOS – an Aristotelian concept that tells of man’s
ultimate goal or objective in doing something.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE – the discomfort one feels
when confronted with contradictory ideas.

“Never, never be afraid to do what’s right , especially if

the well-being of a person or animal is at stake. Society’s
punishments are small compared to the wounds we
inflict on our soul when we look the other way.” –
Martin Luther King Jr.

COURAGE is one of the many virtues intrinsic to man.

As elucidated by Aristotle, courage is that which sits
between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness,
the same way virtue does between excess and
deficiency.

COWARDICE is either retreat or complete inaction in the

face of adversity, while recklessness is inchoate risk-
taking.

PHYSICAL COURAGE is the enactment of virtue through

actual activity, such as a police officer in pursuit of a
criminal, a lifeguard saving someone from drowning, or
a boxer taking on a foe twice his size.

MOOD also plays an important role on whether or not

a person chooses to demonstrate helping behavior.
UNIT IV CHAPTER 5 VIRTUE ETHICS: WHAT SORT OF
PERSON OUGHT I TO BE?

“Virtue lies in our power, and similarly so does vice;

because where it is in our power to act, it is also in our
power not to act...” - Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics

“Good character is the indispensable condition and

chief determinant of happiness, itself the goal of all
human doing. The end of all action, individual or
collective, is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number.” – Ethics, 350 B.C.E.

“Some truths about God exceed all the ability of human

reason... But there are some truths which natural
reason also is able to reach. Such as that God exists.” -
Summa contra Gentiles Book 1

“We call this man a dumb ox, but his bellowing in

doctrine will one day resound throughout the world.” -
Albertus Magnus in defense of Aquinas

CHARACTER– settled set of dispositions or habits of

thinking feeling and acting that make you who you are
– Morris, T., (1999)

RIGHT ACTION– one taken by a virtuous person

VIRTUE – The habit or disposition of acting in

accordance with wisdom. – Morris, T., (1999)

VIRTUOUS PERSON– one who has morally good traits of

character

EUDAMONIA—generally translated as happiness,

though when applied it refers more to flourishing of the
human being