ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

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Crustal structure of the Main Ethiopian Rift from gravity data:

3-dimensional modeling
R. Mahatsente a , G. Jentzsch b,Ł , T. Jahr b
a Formerly at Institut für Geophysik, Technische Universität Clausthal, Arnold-Sommerfeld Straße 1,
D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
b Institut für Geowissenschaften, Friedrich-Schiller Universität, Burgweg 11, D-07749 Jena, Germany

Received 4 September 1998; accepted 9 July 1999

Abstract

A three-dimensional interpretation of the newly compiled Bouguer anomaly map of the Main Ethiopian Rift is
presented. A high-resolution 3-D model constrained with the seismic results reveals a possible crustal thickness and density
distribution beneath the graben. The Bouguer anomalies along the axial portion of the rift floor, as deduced from the results
of the regional and residual separation, are mainly caused by the deep-seated structures. The inferred zone of intrusion,
which is the main subject of the present study, coincides with the maximum gravity anomaly of the rift floor. The intrusion
is displaced at several sectors along the east–west direction, and the two major displacements coincide with the locations
of the major rift offsets on the surface. Because of the asthenospheric uplift, the crust under the Main Ethiopian Rift is
slightly thinned. The zone of crustal thinning (31 km) coincides with the location of the intrusion beneath the rift floor,
and the maximum of which is attained in the northern and central sectors of the graben. The trend of the crustal thinning
zone, which is from south to north, is the same as the one obtained in the Afar depression. The southeastern and western
plateaus, on the other hand, show by far the largest crustal thickness in the region (38–51 km). In contrast to the Afar
depression, where the crust is partly oceanized, the thickness and density of the crust suggest that the Main Ethiopian Rift
is underlain by a purely continental crust. The deep and relatively large nature of the intrusion leads to the conclusion
that a large-scale asthenospheric upwelling might be responsible for the thinning of the crust and subsequent rifting of the
graben.  1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Main Ethiopian Rift; intrusion; Wonji Fault Belt; Bouguer anomaly; 3-dimensional gravity modeling

1. Introduction makes it the main focus of interest for geoscien-

The unique geological setting of the Ethiopian rift
system including the Main Ethiopian Rift and the
Afar depression, where the inception of plate bound-
aries within the continental rift is clearly observed,
Ł Correspondingauthor. Fax: C49 3641 630280; E-mail:
jentzsch@geo.uni-jena.de
tific researchers. The three major rifts, namely the
Ethiopian rift system, the Red Sea rift, and the Gulf
of Aden rift converge in the northern part of the
Afar depression (Fig. 1 and inset map of Fig. 2). The
nature of the crust underlying the northern segment
of the East African rift system (the Afar depression)
has been controversial among researchers for the
past three decades. Consequently, the crustal struc-

0040-1951/99/$ – see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 2 1 3 - 9
364 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 1. The central sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift and adjacent areas. Thick line segments represent rift margin. The Wonji Fault Belt
(WFB) and Siliti Debrezit Fault Zone (SDZFZ) are shown as tightly defined lines. Pointed stars represent rift-shoulder volcanoes, and
asterisks are Quaternary peralkaline rhyolite centers of the rift axis (from Woldegabriel et al., 1990).

ture of the depression has been well studied and
documented (Mohr, 1962a,b, 1971, 1992; Berckhe-
mer et al., 1975; Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). The
crust of Afar was considered to be of essentially
oceanic type (Barberi and Varet, 1977). Contrary to
the oceanic nature of the crust, however, arguments
based on the results of the seismic refraction experi-
ments lead to the idea of a thinned continental crust
(Berckhemer et al., 1975; Makris and Ginzburg,
1987). The thinning of the crust is attributed to the
existence of an anomalous upper mantle (7.4 km=s)
and, hence, a large intrusion beneath the depression
(Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). Mohr (1989, 1992)
proposed a newly generated igneous crust under the
Afar depression whose physical characteristics re-
flect more the continental than the oceanic nature of
the crust. The thinned crust beneath Afar is the result
of both magmatic and tectonic processes (Courtillot
et al., 1984).
Similarly, the anomalous nature of the uppermost
mantle (7.5–7.7 km=s) beneath the central segment
of the East African rift system (Kenyan Rift) is well
known from the results of the seismic refraction–
wide angle reflection experiments (Mechie et al.,
1994, 1997). The crustal thickness beneath the
Kenyan Rift, as obtained from the results of the
Kenya Rift International Seismic Project (KRISP-85
and KRISP-90), decreases from south to the northern
sector of the graben (Mechie et al., 1994, 1997).
The results of the teleseismic studies in the south-
ern Kenyan Rift also reveal that the lithosphere is
significantly thinned (Achauer et al., 1994).
In contrast to the Afar depression and the Kenyan
Rift, the Main Ethiopian Rift, which is the subject of
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382
this study, is relatively less known with respect to its
crustal structure. The Main Ethiopian Rift connects
the Afar depression, in the north, and the Kenyan
Rift in the south. Despite its tectonic importance
along the East African rift system, the nature and
structure of the rift floor are not well established.
Furthermore, the southward extension of the high-
temperature upper mantle material underlying the
Quaternary tensional fault belt is not delineated.
The same intrusion, and hence an anomalous up-
per mantle, is supposed to continue southward from
Afar into the Main Ethiopian Rift (Searle and Gouin,
1972). But this has not yet been proved. However,
the lithological data obtained from the deep bore-
hole (LA-1) drilled in the Main Ethiopian Rift floor
indicate a basaltic intrusion at a depth of 1.3 km sim-
ilar to the one found in the Kenyan Rift (Johnstone,
1983). Moreover, the detailed gravity survey, con-
ducted in the central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift,
revealed the association of the Bouguer anomaly
in the rift floor with the inferred zone of intrusion
(Searle and Gouin, 1972).
In the present work an attempt is made to pre-
pare a high-resolution 3-dimensional gravity model
of the Main Ethiopian Rift from existing gravity data
bases. The results obtained from the 3-dimensional
modeling are supposed to fill the gap between the
Afar depression, in the north, and the Kenyan Rift
in the south. The results of the seismic refraction
experiment in the southern Afar, and the one which
crosses the western Ethiopian plateau (Makris and
Ginzburg, 1987), have been used to constrain the ini-
tial 3-dimensional gravity model of the graben. The
gravity data were collected by the joint collabora-
tion of the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys
with the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation
with Developing Countries. The present study in-
corporates additional gravity data sources from the
southern part of the rift (Ebinger, 1991). The spacing
of the gravity stations along lines, for both gravity
data sets, ranges from 2 to 5 km, and the average
accuracy of the gravity data is in the order of 1
mGal. The two data sets were reduced using a den-
sity value of 2670 kg=m3 . Moreover, the gravity data
are terrain-corrected up to zone I (160 km) using
topographic charts and the Hammer table (Hammer,
1939).
365
2. Geological setting
The general geological background of the study
area has been incorporated both in the qualita-
tive and quantitative interpretation stage of the ob-
served Bouguer gravity anomaly. In particular, the
1 : 2,000,000 scale geological map of Ethiopia, com-
piled by the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys
(Kazmin, 1975), was used in determining the lateral
dimension of the major rock units outcropping on the
surface of the rift floor and the adjoining plateaus.
A clear understanding of the regional geology of the
Main Ethiopian Rift and the adjoining region is, there-
fore, necessary for the modeling and interpretation of
the gravity data. A short account of the regional geol-
ogy of the Main Ethiopian Rift is given below.
The Main Ethiopian Rift forms a part of the
largest Tertiary–Quaternary rift system which ex-
tends from Mozambique in the south to Israel, Jordan
and Syria in the north. The rift, like the rest of the
East African rift system, has undergone a very com-
plicated geological evolution and tectonic history.
The regional geology of the Ethiopian rift system
has been extensively described and well documented
(Dainelli, 1943; Mohr, 1962b, 1971). A simplified
geological sketch map of the Main Ethiopian Rift,
illustrating the major structural trends and locations
of the rhyolite centers, is shown in Fig. 2. The rift
valley was the site of extensive volcanic activities
during the Tertiary. Volcanic rocks of Pliocene and
Pleistocene age such as pantelleritic rhyolites, tra-
chytes and ignimbrites are abundant within the rift
floor and on the adjoining plateau (Kazmin, 1975).
The pre-Cambrian rocks in the Ethiopian rift system,
except in the northern Afar and at the extreme south
of the Main Ethiopian Rift, are mostly covered by
more recent Tertiary volcanic rocks and Mesozoic
sediments (Mohr, 1962b). However, an older and ex-
tensive group of volcanic rocks of early and middle
Tertiary age, normally called the Trap series, is well
exposed on the southeastern and western plateaus
(Mohr, 1971). This group consists predominantly
of alkaline basalt with interbedded pyroclastics and
rare rhyolites erupted from the fissures. The old-
est sedimentary sequence in Ethiopia is masked by
sediments of middle to Upper Pleistocene age. La-
custrine deposits of Pleistocene to Holocene age are
common within the rift valley.
 366
R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382
Fig. 2. Geological sketch map of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Also shown are the names of the main localities and the area for which the 3-dimensional gravity modeling was
done (the framed area on the map). The letters (A to H) represent the locations of the lakes mentioned in the text (after Kazmin, 1975).
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382
A number of major centers of silicic volcanism
and obsidian flows, related to the zone of intense
faulting, occur in the rift. The centers have pro-
duced lava of more variable composition including
trachytes and andesites (Kazmin, 1975).
The main trend of the tectonic structures in the
graben is the same as that of the Main Ethiopian
Rift, which is dominantly of NNE–SSW direction
(Mohr, 1962b). In the area of Lake Ziway (Fig. 1 and
location A in Fig. 2) and at Asela, however, this gen-
eral trend of the rift changes to a NE–SW direction
(Meyer et al., 1975). Within the rift floor, two major
structural trends are also recognizable. The first, the
Wonji Fault Belt (WFB), is a Quaternary tensional
fault belt and connects the peralkaline silicic centers
(Fig. 2). The fault belt forms the eastern margin of
the rift floor (Mohr, 1960). A deep borehole drilled in
the rift floor encountered an intrusion along this Qua-
ternary tensional fault belt similar to the one found
in the Kenyan Rift (Johnstone, 1983). The general
trend of the volcano-tectonically active WFB is in
the NNE–SSW direction. The second, which runs
NNE–SSW, is the active western marginal graben or
the Siliti Debrezit Fault Zone (SDZFZ in Fig. 1).
The SDZFZ mostly follows the western escarpment
of the rift (Mohr, 1962a,b; Woldegabriel et al., 1990).
3. Gravity data analysis
In order to interpret the gross crustal structure of
the Main Ethiopian Rift, a Bouguer anomaly map, at
a constant contour interval of 5 mGal, has been pre-
pared (Fig. 3). The newly compiled Bouguer gravity
map is based mainly on the regional gravity data
collected by the Ethiopian Institute of Geological
Surveys and partly by Ebinger (1991). The gen-
eral trend of the Bouguer gravity anomalies in the
rift floor is NE–SW. However, the trend changes to
NW–SE toward the southern sector of the graben.
The map reveals a broad regional negative Bouguer
anomaly over the Ethiopian Dome. The anomaly in-
creases in magnitude with a decrease in the relief
of the topography and attains its maximum of 157
mGal along the axis of the rift floor. Closer obser-
vation of the axis of the maximum anomaly in the
rift floor suggests that its general trend follows the
inferred zone of intrusion along the Wonji Fault Belt,
367
forming a patchwork in the north and broadening
towards the south.
The quite different nature of the Bouguer gravity
map on the two opposite facing plateaus is marked
by a steep gravity gradient along the eastern es-
carpment of the rift floor and a relatively moderate
gravity gradient along the western escarpment. The
Bouguer gravity on the southeastern plateau reaches
a minimum value of 237 mGal near Kofele.
Whereas the gravity over the western plateau first
decreases to a value of 207 mGal near Indibir and
then gradually attains its maximum value of 150
mGal south of the western plateau. To the south, the
center of the maximum anomaly in the rift floor is
terminated at two places by NW–SE-trending grav-
ity gradients. The first gravity gradient coincides
with the major offset of the Quaternary tensional
fault belt and the two opposite facing escarpments.
Mohr (1967) interpreted the rift offset as a transform
fault. This weak zone is characterized by strong seis-
micity (Asfaw, 1992). The second gradient marks
the termination of the Main Ethiopian Rift trend at
the southern end of Mount Amaro (Fig. 2) and the
beginning of the Lake Chewbahir Rift (location H
in Fig. 2). The Bouguer anomaly south of Gidole
(at 37.2ºE and 4.5ºN) is shifted towards the west
and gradually becomes stronger ( 90 mGal) and
open along the eastern shoulder of the Lake Chew-
bahir Rift (location H in Fig. 2). This indicates that
the intrusion might have been displaced westward,
southwest of Mt. Amaro, and ultimately taken up in
Chewbahir Rift. However, more gravity data cover-
age is required to delineate the continuation of the
intrusion within the Chewbahir Rift and towards the
northern segment of the Kenyan Rift.
In an attempt to estimate the depths of the causative
bodies, the observed Bouguer gravity anomaly has
been analytically separated using a grid residualizing
technique (Griffin, 1949). The resulting residual and
regional fields depend on the number of points used
to average the regional field and the distances from
the point whose expected regional value is to be de-
termined. The choice of the two parameters depends
on the scale of the survey. As the present survey is
regional (the spacing of the gravity station along lines
ranges from 2 to 5 km), a simple four-value template
with a 3-km grid spacing was used to determine the
smooth regional trend in the vicinity of the stations.
368 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 3. Bouguer anomaly map of the Main Ethiopian Rift. The framed area shows part of the rift for which the 3-dimensional gravity
modeling was done. Also shown are the gravity observation points (dots) and the names of the localities mentioned in the text (contour
interval 5 mGal).
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 369

Fig. 4. The residual gravity anomaly map of the Main Ethiopian Rift. The letters (A to G) represent the main residual anomalies of the
rift mentioned in the text (contour interval 3 mGal).

As shown in Fig. 4, there are two distinct features the western and southeastern plateaus. The residual
that can be identified from the residual gravity map: anomalies in the rift floor are the surface manifesta-
the patchy anomalies along the rift axis and the rel- tion of the upper-mantle-derived material (intrusion),
atively uniform residual values characterizing both and are mostly correlated with the main Quaternary
370 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382
peralkaline rhyolite centers of the rift floor along the
Wonji Fault Belt and the Siliti Debrezit Fault Zone.
Within the rift floor, the anomalies are mainly concen-
trated in the northern and central sectors of the graben.
The patchy anomaly at the northeastern corner of the
map (anomaly A on the map) is correlated on the sur-
face with Mt. Bora and Gademsa (refer to Figs. 1 and
2 for the locations of the rhyolite centers mentioned in
the text). Mt. Bora and Gademsa, which are rhyolite
centers of the rift floor, constitute the northern seg-
ment of the Wonji Fault Belt. The closed anomaly B,
on the residual map, occurs over the Aluto volcanic
complex along the Wonji Fault Belt. Farther south-
west along the Siliti Debrezit Fault Zone, the residual
anomaly C on the map is associated with the peralka-
line rhyolite center of Mt. Duguna. The anomaly E,
on the other hand, is attributed to the sediments on
the rift floor. The gravity data coverage on the adjoin-
ing plateaus is relatively minimum. Consequently, the
interpolation effect resulted in some fictitious anoma-
lies on the plateaus (anomalies F and D on the map).
Although the magnitude of the residual anomaly de-
creases towards the south, the surface manifestation
of the intrusion is still remarkable in the southern
sector of the rift floor (anomaly G on the map). The
southward decrease of the magnitude of the residual is
probably attributed to the deep nature of the intrusion
beneath the southern sector of the graben.
The regional gravity field, which is primarily
ascribed to variation in the deep-seated crustal struc-
ture, is shown in Fig. 5. Most of the features ob-
served on this map, except those caused by the
near-surface causative bodies, are similar to those
of the Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 3). In particular,
the gravity gradient along the eastern escarpment of
the rift floor and the two NW–SE-trending gravity
gradients are prominent.
4. Three-dimensional gravity modeling
4.1. Methodology
As the general geological strike along the rift floor
is variable, a 3-dimensional modeling, covering an
area of 105 ð 103 km2 (360 km ð 290 km), was ap-
plied. The 3-dimensional forward gravity modeling
package IGAS (Interactive Gravity Analyzing Sys-
tem), developed by Götze and Lahmeyer (1988), was
used to establish the geometry and density distribu-
tion of the graben. The method is based mainly on
transforming the volume integral involved in the ver-
tical attraction of a homogeneous polyhedron into a
sum of line integrals suitable for computer program-
ming. The program requires an input data structure
along a definite number of vertical modeling planes
perpendicular to the general geological strike. In
each plane, the vertices of the assumed subsurface
structures are interconnected to form a line separat-
ing two media with different densities. Lines of the
neighboring planes separating identical medium den-
sities are then joined to form triangles and, hence,
layer boundary surfaces. The model so developed
gives a more realistic approximation of the geologic
structures (Götze, 1976, 1984; Götze and Lahmeyer,
1988). One of the advantages of this method is its
ability to approximate a body with a small number of
polyhedrons. Consequently, any change in the shape
of the body can be achieved with only few data ma-
nipulations. Besides the simplicity of approximation
in data handling and manipulation pertaining to the
changes of the shape of the body, the method takes
care of the earth curvature during the computation
of the effects of very large structures. The results of
the gravity model studies of the deep structure of the
Alpine and Harz mountains are the best case histo-
ries (among others) that show the applicability and
effectiveness of the method (Götze, 1984; Gabriel et
al., 1996, 1997).
The location and orientation of the vertical mod-
eling planes and site for the deep exploratory wells
(star) are shown in Fig. 6. The orientation of the ver-
tical planes is perpendicular to the general geological
strike of the rift. The vertical planes are parallel to
each other, and the distances between the planes are
variable along the rift floor depending on the location
of the anomalies, on the Bouguer map, and their cor-
responding causative bodies, on the geological map.
The data distribution (dots) has also been taken into
consideration during the selection and orientation of
the modeling planes along the investigated area.
4.2. Results and discussion
The sources of a-priori information pertaining
to the geometry and density of the initial gravity
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 371

Fig. 5. The regional gravity map of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Also shown are the names of the localities mentioned in the text (contour
interval 5 mGal).

model are various published and unpublished studies the deep structure of the rift are based on the results
(Kazmin, 1975; Berckhemer et al., 1975; Makris and of the seismic refraction experiments in the south-
Ginzburg, 1987). In particular, the determination of ern Afar and western Ethiopian plateau (Berckhemer
the initial crustal thickness and density values for et al., 1975; Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). Table 1
372 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 6. Location map of the 3-dimensional gravity modeling planes. Also shown are the gravity observation points (dots) and site for the
deep exploratory wells (star).

shows the P-wave velocities of the structural units
from the southwestern Afar (Makris and Ginzburg,
1987). Also shown are the estimated density values
used for the 3-dimensional gravity modeling of the
Main Ethiopian Rift. The density values were esti-
mated from the seismic velocities using the Nafe–
Drake relation (Nafe and Drake, 1957).
The density measurements from boreholes, drilled
for geothermal investigation, have also been taken
into consideration (Belaineh, 1983). Most of the
boreholes are located along the Quaternary tensional
fault belt, where the volcanic complexes are visible.
Although the boreholes are too shallow (the maxi-
mum depth reached in borehole LA-7 is 2448.5 m)
to furnish density information on the large and deep
crustal structure of the rift, the measured density
values have been used to control the densities of
the shallow rock units incorporated in the model.
Measurements made on samples from the drill-holes
in the rift floor between 1.5 and 2.1 km depths
produced density values of 2850 kg=m3 and 2560
kg=m3 for basaltic and siliceous rocks, respectively
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 373

Table 1 Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). Consequently, the grav-

The P-wave velocities of the geological units from the south-
western Afar (after Makris and Ginzburg, 1987)
Geological units Velocity VP Density
(km=s) (kg=m3 )
Sediments 2.8–3.75 2500
Upper crust 6.1–6.2 2700–2780
Lower crust 6.7 2900
Low velocity upper mantle 7.4 3200
(Belaineh, 1983). Table 2 depicts the different rock
units used in the 3-dimensional gravity modeling
and their respective densities. The geological units
considered in the gravity model are identified with
numbers.
A section from the central sector of the Main
Ethiopian Rift is shown in Fig. 7 (refer to Fig. 6
for the locations of the modeling planes). The model
portrays a possible crustal thickness and density dis-
tribution beneath the graben. The long-wavelength
gravity anomaly along the axial portion of the rift
floor is best explained in terms of an intrusion of
deep origin (Nos. 5 and 7 of Fig. 7). The intru-
sion exhibits two distinct densities at different depths
(3000 to 3100 kg=m3 ). The cause for the existence
of the intrusion under the rift floor could be partial
melting in the lithosphere. There is also evidence
of an anomalous upper mantle material (VP D 7:4
km=s), north of the present study area, beneath the
southern Afar depression (Berckhemer et al., 1975;
ity anomaly from the Afar depression was interpreted
in terms of the same intrusion (Makris et al., 1972).
The variability of the density within the intrusion
might then be attributed to the different stages of
differentiation of the hot upper mantle material on its
way to the lower crust as well as the upper part of the
crystalline basement. The intrusive body, as deduced
from the density values (3000 to 3100 kg=m3 ), is
most probably of mantle or crust–mantle origin. The
density of the upper part of the intrusive body (No.
5 of Fig. 8) is not much larger than the lower crust
(2900 kg=m3 ). Such a situation, however, could arise
as a result of the petrologic differentiation of the
mantle-derived material.
The depth to the top of the intrusion varies along
the rift floor. The shallowest depth to the top of the
intrusion is under the northern sector of the graben (4
km; Fig. 9), and the bottom of the intrusion is located
within the upper mantle. The east–west width of the
intrusion, on the other hand, ranges from 38 km in
the central and northern parts of the rift (Figs. 7
and 9) to 125 km in the southern sector of the
graben (Fig. 8). Thus the dimension of the intrusion
indicates that the material derived from the upper
mantle or crust–mantle is relatively large and deep in
origin. However, farther south along the East African
rift system, the density models indicate that the depth
to the top of the low-density mantle material under
the Kenya Rift is below the lower crust (Birt et al.,
1997; Simiyu and Keller, 1997). This shows that

Table 2
The different rock units used in the 3-dimensional gravity modeling and their respective densities

No. Geological units Description Density

(kg=m3 )
1 Magdala group (upper crystalline basement) Rhyolites, trachytes, rhyolitic and trachytic tuffs, ignimbrites, 2700
agglomerates, basalts
2 Ashangi group Alkali olivine basalt and tuffs, rare rhyolites 2800
3 Undifferntiated Sediments 2500
4 Lower crystalline basement – 2780
5 Solidified intrusion Crust mixed material 3000
6 Lower crust – 2900
7 Solidified intrusion Mantle material 3100
8 Anomalous upper mantle – 3200
9 Siliceous domes and flows Pantellerites, obsidians, complex volcanoes of 2500
andesite–trachyte–rhyolite composition
10 Basaltic flows and related spatter cones Alkaline olivin basalt 2860
374 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 7. A vertical cross-section of the 3-dimensional model from the central sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift (plane 9). The density
values of the geologic units are given in Table 2. The intrusion (3000 to 3100 kg=m3 ) arises from the deep upper mantle.

the degree of the associated crustal thinning and
extension decreases towards the southern segment of
the East African rift system.
The gravity model also incorporates the sediments
of the rift floor (No. 3 of Fig. 7), mostly surrounded
by the basalts of the Magdala complex (No. 1 of
Fig. 7) and partly by the basaltic flows in the graben
(No. 10 of Fig. 9). As discussed above, the negative
residual anomaly is attributed to the sediments of the
rift floor. The anomaly is well explained with a den-
sity value of 2500 kg=m3 attached to the Pleistocene
sediments of the graben. So far, there is no infor-
mation pertaining to the thickness of the sediments
from some other independent geophysical methods.
However, the results of the seismic refraction exper-
iments in the southwestern Afar, which is north of
the present study area, indicate a P-wave velocity of
2.8 km=s for the Pleistocene sediments of the graben
(Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). The total thickness of
the Pleistocene sediments in the Main Ethiopian Rift,
as obtained from the gravity modeling, is over 6 km
(Fig. 7). The sediment, though sparsely deposited,
thickens towards the central part of the graben.
The basaltic flows of the rift floor (No. 10 of
Fig. 9), which generally follow the western and east-
ern escarpments of the rift, have been modeled here
with high density (2860 kg=m3 ) compared to the
underlying top crystalline basement (No. 1 of Fig. 9)
and the siliceous flows of the rift floor (No. 9 of
Fig. 9). The use of large density for the basaltic
flows is based on measurements made on samples
from the drill-holes in the rift floor (Belaineh, 1983).
The relatively high density of this unit compared to
the surrounding implies that the basalt is young and
might have reached the surface as a result of volcanic
eruptions from the fissures of the rift floor. The cen-
tral part of the rift floor, where the basaltic flows are
observed, is highly dominated by positive gradients
of the Bouguer anomalies. This is mainly attributed
to the existence of the intrusion. However, the best
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 375

Fig. 8. A vertical cross-section of the 3-dimensional model from the southern sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift (plane 3). The density
values of the geologic units are given in Table 2. The intrusion (3000 to 3100 kg=m3 ) arises from the deep upper mantle.

fit has been obtained with the basaltic flows incor-
porated in the model. Moreover, the relatively small
densities of the surrounding sediments (2500 kg=m3 )
and the siliceous flows (2500 kg=m3 ) could not
change the general ascending trend of the Bouguer
anomalies in the rift floor (Fig. 9). Although the
basaltic flows are small in size, they are, therefore,
significant to explain the observed Bouguer anoma-
lies of the rift floor. However, this interpretation
is more plausible if one considers a 3-dimensional
model rather than a section along the model.
Because of the uncertainty of the depth of the unit,
it was difficult to place a better limit on the thickness
of the basalt in the initial model. However, the present
gravity model indicates a significant thickness (4 km)
of the basalt in the rift floor (No. 10 of Fig. 9). The
east–west width of the unit is ca. 12 km.
The best fit for the high-frequency anomalies,
besides the density of the sediments, was achieved
using a density value of 2500 kg=m3 assigned to the
siliceous flows of the graben (No. 9 of Fig. 9). The
use of this density value in the model is based on
measurements made on samples from the drill-holes
in the rift floor (Belaineh, 1983). The maximum
thickness of the siliceous flows, as derived from the
gravity modeling, is over 8 km (Fig. 9). The centers
of the siliceous flows, which are closely associated
with the major fault belts of the rift floor, might be
the surface manifestation of the intrusion.
The crystalline basement (Nos. 1 and 4 of Fig. 7),
which is considered here between ca. 25 km and the
bottom of the sedimentary layer, has been modeled
with two density values (2700 and 2780 kg=m3 ). The
use of a density value of 2780 kg=m3 , for the lower
part of the crystalline basement (No. 4) between 10
and ca. 26 km, is based on the seismic velocity
determination made for the upper crust of the region
(VP D 6:1 km=s; Makris and Ginzburg, 1987). In
376 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 9. A vertical cross-section of the 3-dimensional model from the northern sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift (plane 16). The density
values of the geologic units are given in Table 2. The intrusion (3000 to 3100 kg=m3 ) arises from the deep upper mantle.

order to accommodate the transition from low to high
P-wave velocity within the upper crust, a density
value of 2700 kg=m3 has been assigned for the upper
part of the crystalline basement (No. 1). This value is
consistent with the borehole determination and close
to the density of reduction used in preparing the
Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the study area.
The top interface of the crystalline basement be-
neath the rift floor (No. 1) is generally marked by the
maximum thickness of the sedimentary layer (over 6
km; Fig. 7). Because of the asthenospheric uplift and,
hence the intrusion, the crystalline basement under
the Main Ethiopian Rift floor exhibits variable thick-
ness along the graben. The minimum thickness has
been observed beneath the rift floor where the mantle
or crust–mantle material exists in the form of an in-
trusion (Fig. 7). The unit generally thickens towards
the adjoining plateaus (eastward and westward from
the rift floor). The thickness of the crystalline base-
ment above the intrusive body (No. 1), at the extreme
south of the rift floor, is ca. 12 km (Fig. 8). However,
the same crystalline basement has a thickness of 8
km in the central sector of the graben (Fig. 7). This
unit attains further its minimum thickness under the
northern part of the study area (Fig. 9). This implies
that the crust under the northern and central parts
of the Main Ethiopian Rift floor is slightly thinned.
Compared to the Afar depression, however, the crust
beneath the Main Ethiopian Rift floor is relatively
thick. The trend of the crustal thinning under the
rift floor, which is from south to north, is the same
as the one obtained in the Afar depression. Despite
the remarkable crustal thinning and extension in the
central and northern sectors of the graben, no indi-
cation of crustal separation is observed. In contrast
to Afar, where the crust is partly oceanized (Makris
et al., 1972), the thickness and density of the unit
overlying the intrusion (No. 1) suggest that the Main
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 377

Fig. 10. The horizontal continuity of the intrusion under the rift floor. The horizontal map is taken at a depth of 38 km. The solid lines
show the locations of the offsets of the intrusion and the broken lines represent the 3-dimensional modeling planes. Also shown are the
names of the localities mentioned in the text. Local coordinate system is used.

Ethiopian Rift floor is underlain by a purely conti-
nental crust. Moreover, the crust under the rift floor
is still intact.
Despite the slight attenuation history of the crustal
structure of the Main Ethiopian Rift, there are some
significant structural features that indicate the on-
going extensional deformation across the rift floor
and the escarpments. The extensional deformations,
as shown on the horizontal continuity map of the
3-dimensional gravity model (Fig. 10), are mani-
fested as offsets of the intrusion under the rift floor.
The trends of the extensional deformations have also
been mapped on the structural map of Ethiopia as
rift offsets (Figs. 1 and 2). The first major offset of
the intrusion, as obtained from the gravity modeling,
is along the line connecting Irga-Alem with north of
Hosaina, and the second one crosses the Lake Abaya
at the northern end of Mt. Amaro between north of
Chencha and Derba (Fig. 10). The two lateral dis-
placements of the intrusion coincide with the major
rift offsets observed on the surface (Figs. 1 and 2).
The regions, where the Quaternary tensional fault
belt shows lateral offset, are characterized by strong
seismicity (Asfaw, 1992). However, the nature of the
rift offsets is controversial among researchers (Mohr,
1967; Gibson, 1969). Presuming that the offsets in
the Main Ethiopian Rift are really transform faults,
the displacements would have implications for the
on-going drifting apart of the African and Somalian
plates and ultimately for the inception of new oceans
in the future.
The Moho-depth map of the Main Ethiopian Rift
is shown in Fig. 11. The contour lines represent the
crustal thickness distribution beneath the graben. As
expected, the computed depths to the crust–upper
mantle interface resemble the general shape of the
378 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 11. Moho depth map of the Main Ethiopian Rift (the framed area shown in Fig. 3; contour interval 2 km).

Bouguer gravity anomaly (the framed area in Fig. 3).
The thinnest part of the crust, which is shown as a
morphological low (31 km) in Fig. 11, separates
the thickest crust beneath the western and southeast-
ern plateaus. The morphological low trend of the
Moho-depth map coincides with the maximum grav-
ity anomaly of the rift floor (Fig. 3) and, hence, with
the location of the intrusion, whereas the morpho-
logical high (½39 km) of the Moho-depth map, un-
derlying the two adjoining plateaus, correlates with
the minimum gravity anomaly of the rift (Fig. 3).
The two opposite facing plateaus show by far the
largest crustal thickness (38–51 km) in the region.
The thickest crust is approximately 51 km and is
located under the southeastern plateau. Compared to
the crust beneath the southeastern plateau, the crust–
upper mantle interface under the western plateau
is relatively shallow (39–43 km), with a minimum
(39 km) at the extreme west of the investigation
area.
Closer observation of Fig. 11 shows that the
crust–upper mantle interface beneath the two oppo-
site facing escarpments steepens towards the graben,
and eventually attains its minimum thickness (31
km) along the rift floor. Within the rift floor, the
Moho-depth map exhibits variable crustal thickness.
The closed and elongated morphological anoma-
lies along the rift floor, by and large, indicate the
strongest crustal thinning zone (31 km) of the
graben (Fig. 11). The estimated Moho-depth, based
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382 379

Fig. 12. The computed Bouguer anomaly map of the rift after 3-dimensional forward modeling (the framed area shown in Fig. 3; contour
interval 5 mGal).

on the results of the seismic refraction experiment,
is 45 km under the western Ethiopian plateau and 30
km under the rift floor (Makris and Ginzburg, 1987).
This is consistent with the estimate made using the
3-dimensional gravity modeling (31 km under the
rift floor and 43 km under the western plateau).
The computed Bouguer gravity map of the final
model is shown in Fig. 12. The center of the gravity
anomaly along the axial portion of the rift floor is
clearly resolved. The gravity gradients, marking the
two opposite facing escarpments of the rift, are also
well modeled. The contour map of misfit between
the observed and computed Bouguer anomalies of
the study area reveals an average modeling discrep-
ancy of š2 mGal (Fig. 13). However, in the rift floor,
where the high-frequency anomalies are prominent,
the discrepancies are in the order of š3 mGal. In
particular, in the southern segment of Lake Awasa
(location A of Fig. 13) and in the southern sector
of Lake Abaya (location B of Fig. 13), the high-dis-
crepancy zones coincide with the major rift offsets
where the cross-rift faults intersect both the Wonji
Fault Belt and the two opposite facing escarpments.
In such zones, it is difficult to get the best fit be-
tween the observed and the computed gravity. A
relatively high discrepancy was also obtained in a
zone where the gravity coverage is very low (lo-
cation C of Fig. 13). However, the data processing
error alone accounts to š1 mGal. Compared to this
error, the achieved residual between the observed and
380 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382

Fig. 13. The misfit between the observed and computed Bouguer anomaly of the study area (the framed area shown in Fig. 3; contour
interval 1 mGal). Discrepancies in the order of š3 mGal are located in the southern segment of Lake Awasa (A) and in the southern
sector of Lake Abaya (B).

computed Bouguer gravity anomalies for a regional
gravity modeling is acceptable.
5. Conclusions
The newly compiled Bouguer anomaly map of
the Main Ethiopian Rift enabled us to establish a
possible density model of the graben. The high-res-
olution 3-dimensional gravity model is constrained
by seismic information from the southern Afar and
western Ethiopian plateau. The model reveals the ex-
istence of hot upper mantle material, and hence, the
intrusion beneath the rift floor. The intrusion, as de-
duced from the density values, is possibly of mantle
or crust–mantle origin, and mostly follows the main
Quaternary rhyolite centers of the rift floor along
the Wonji Fault Belt and Siliti Debrezit Fault Zone.
The association of the intrusion with the Quaternary
tensional fault belts was also reported in the Afar
depression (Makris et al., 1972).
The Main Ethiopian Rift is not uniformly charac-
terized by an extensional stress regime, as is evident
from the various widths of the intrusion. The east–
west width of the intrusion in the southern sector is
larger than the one beneath the northern and central
parts of the graben. The model is also in favor of a
deep intrusion in the southern sector of the rift. The
 R. Mahatsente et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 363–382
shallowest depth to the top of the intrusion is located
beneath the northern sector of the graben. The deep
and relatively large nature of the intrusion suggests
that a large-scale asthenospheric upwelling might be
responsible for the thinning of the crust and, hence,
subsequent rifting of the graben.
The tentative Moho-depth map indicates the thin-
ning of the crust beneath the graben. The strongest
crustal thinning is located beneath the rift floor,
where the inferred zone of intrusion coincides with
the maximum gravity anomaly of the graben. De-
spite the slight thinning of the crust, the present
study indicates no evidence of crustal separation.
The uplift of the crust–upper mantle interface un-
der the rift floor could intimately be related to the
rifting of the graben. The western and southeastern
plateaus, on the other hand, exhibit the maximum
crustal thickness in the region. This abrupt fall of the
Moho interface on either side of the rift is attributed
to the crustal thickening related to the formation of
the two adjoining plateaus and to the thinning of the
crust beneath the rift floor.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Ethiopian Insti-
tute of Geological Surveys for permission to use the
gravity data, and Prof. Dr. H.J. Götze and Dr. Sabine
Schmidt for allowing to use the 3-dimensional grav-
ity modeling package (IGAS). The immense benefit
derived from the discussions with Prof. Dr. Klaus
Schwab and colleague Dr. Gerald Gabriel is highly
acknowledged. We are also indebted to the German
Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for supporting
the principal author R. Mahatsente. This study was
carried out at the Institute of Geophysics, Technical
University of Clausthal, Germany.
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