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• Cell is defined as the smallest, fundamental, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life's
processes.
• Cells are the structural and functional units of all living beings. Hence, they are known as the
building blocks of life (Why cells are called the building block or bricks of live?)

1. 1665: Robert Hooke used a simple microscope to study cork and coined the term "cell" to
describe the small, box- like structures he observed.
2. 1831: Robert Brown discovered the nucleus, a prominent structure within the cell that contains
genetic material.
3. 1838-1839: Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed the cell theory, which states
that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that the cell is the basic unit of life.
4. 1855: Rudolf Virchow proposed that all cells arise from pre- existing cells, further supporting
the cell theory.

• Life process are the processes that help to survive. 47:57

• i. Prokaryotic cells: The cells of some most primitive organisms (e.g., bacteria and blue- green
algae, i.e., cyanobacteria) lack nuclear membrane around their genetic material and hence are
called prokaryotic cells or simply prokaryotes (Pro =before, karyon = nucleus). The genetic
material in these cells lies in direct contact with the cytoplasm and is called nucleoid.
Prokaryotes also do not contain membrane- bound organelles in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes
are, however, present.
• living organism to sustain like respiration, nutrition, circulation and excretion etc.
• There are two types of cells-

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

• Prokaryotic cells like bacteria are too old.

• Prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane bounded organelles and membrane bounded
nucleus.
• Eukaryotic cells- The cells of other organisms pose true nucleus bounded by nuclear
membrane.
• They may be unicellular or multicellular organisms.
• Prokaryotic general size is 1 to 10 um and Eukaryotic cell has general size is 5 to 100 um.
• Prokaryotic cells contain single chromosome and Eukaryotic cell contains more than one
chromosome.
• Unicellular organisms-
• These single celled organisms live independently in nature, and they are capable of performing
all of life processes.
• Example- Amoeba, Paramecium, Bacteria, and Yeast etc.
• Multicellular organisms- These organism are formed by many cells and number of cells
group together and acquire different functions.
• Example- Fungi, plants etc.
 • Example- Fungi, plants etc.
• Yeast is in fungi, but fungi have two category yeast and mushrooms.
• A multicellular organism comes from a single cell.
• This single cell divides and redivide in various planes to produce a multicellular body.
• Any cell other than reproductive cell in multicellular is called somatic cells.
• Unicellular have irregular shape.

Cell Membrane-

• It is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from the outer
environment.

This allows the selective particles in and out of the cell and is called selectively permeable membrane.

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• Some protein called intrinsic is embedded into lipid bilayer and extrinsic are not embedded in
lipid bilayer.

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!’ Structure of plasma membrane

The plasma membrane is fluid in nature and

is made up of proteins, lipids, and

carbohydrate.

The structure of plasma membrane can be.

explained by the fluid mosaic model. It was.

first proposed by Garth L. Nicolson and S.J.

Singer in 1972.

According to this model, the cell membrane

is made up of a lipid bilayer a two types of protein molecules.

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!’ The lipid bilayer forms highly viscous fluid.

in which two types of protein molecules

intrinsic and extrinsic proteins are

organized in mosaic manner.

Intrinsic proteins are embedded in the

bilayer completely or partially and

extrinsic proteins occur superficially.

• Cell Membrane can compress or squeeze and help the material to transport of one cell to
another.
• If energy is used in transporting of material across plasma membrane is called active.
• If no energy is used the molecules are using passive transport.
• Particles have tendency to move from high concentration to low concentration.
• This is called diffusion.
• Concentration gets equal.
• In passive transports the substance mode down the concentrating to cross the membrane
using its own kinetic energy.
• In active transport the substance uses energy to move.
 • In active transport the substance uses energy to move.
• In osmosis it helps in the exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between
the body cells and their environment.
• Water is universal solvent as any solute except few can dissolve in water.
• Diffusion don't require membrane, but osmosis require.
• Water diffusion is called osmosis.
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water or solvent through a semipermeable membrane.
• There are two types of osmosis-
• Endosmosis – When a substance is placed in a hypotonic solution, the solvent molecules move
inside the cell and the cell becomes turgid or undergoes deplasmolysis. This is known as
endosmosis.
• Exosmosis – When a substance is placed in a hypertonic solution, the solvent molecules move
outside the cell and the cell becomes flaccid or undergoes plasmolysis. This is known as
exosmosis.
• Active transport- It is the movement of dissolved molecules into or out of the cell through
the cell membrane, from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.
• It is a rapid and requires the use of energy in the form of ATP.
• It involves the use of carrier proteins.
• It involves the use of carrier proteins. Glucose, amino acids, and some ions Na+-(Sodium) and
(Potassium)K+ pass through the plasma membrane by active transport.
• Bulk Transport- There are materials that are too large to pass through the cell membrane
using these methods. These are times when a cell will need to engulf a bacterium or release a
hormone. It is during these instances that bulk transport mechanisms are needed.
• It involves transport of large amounts of substances (macromolecules, lipid droplets and solid
food particles) across the plasma membrane by utilizing energy.
• Two types of bulk transport are-
• Endocytosis and exocytosis are the bulk transport mechanism.
• Endocytosis is when the bulk substance come inside the cell and in the exocytosis the bulk
substance goes outside the cell.
• Cell membranes are comprised of a lipid bilayer. The walls of vesicles are also made up of a
lipid bilayer, which is why they are capable of fusing with the cell membrane.

This fusion between the vesicles and the plasma membrane facilitates the bulk transport both into
and out of the cell.

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• Endocytosis has two types-
• Phagocytosis also called cell eating is the process by which cell internalize large particles or
cells, like damaged cells and bacteria.
• In pinocytosis, the cell drinks the fluid outside of the cell also knows as cell drinking.
• 01:28:40

• In exocytosis is when the cell substance goes out of the cell like excretion of undigested food or
hormones.
• 01:30:09
 • Macrophages and neutrophils do phagocytosis also known as wbc.
• Cell wall was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
• It is rigid and non- living, and it is composed of peptidoglycan in bacteria and in fungus it is
composed of chitin and plant cell wall is composed of cellulose and proteins and pectin and
hemicellulose.
• Middle lamella is outside the cell wall and keep together the cell with more plant cells.
• Three types of cell wall are-
• Primary cell wall is in young plants it is thin and elastic with single layer and it is made up of
cellulose.
• Secondary cell wall is in grown up plant cell behind the primary cell and now it has 3 layers and
it is thick and elastic.
• Tertiary cell wall develops when cell gets old or aged behind the secondary cell but forward the
plasma membrane.
• Pits are the region where there is primary cell wall but not the secondary cell.
• Plasmodesmata is the gap between two cells wall. 48:46
• The primary cell wall provide

mechanical strength and protection to

the protoplast. It is porous and

considered permeable membrane.

• The secondary wall, deposited on the

inner face of the primary wall, is

inner face of the primary wall, is

composed of lignin and suberin

substances.

• Due to presence of lignin and Suberin.

the secondary wall becomes impermeable

to the substances and the cell become dead.

• Cytoplasm- Its composition is a semifluid jelly- like material and having following components-
• Cytosol, Cell organelles, and Cell inclusions.
• The liquid or fluid part is nearly transparent and is called cytosol or cytoplasmic matrix.
• It contains about 90 percent water and also contains ions, waste materials, biomolecules etc.
• It is the seat of metabolic processes of the cell.
• It is the storehouse for the raw materials needed for metabolism in both cytoplasm and
nuclues.
• It distributes the nutrients, metabolites and enzymes in the cell.
• It brings about exchange of materials and enzymes in the cell.
• It brings about exchange of materials.
• Cell inclusions are non- living materials present in the cytoplasm.
• They are also called deutoplasmic substances.
• They may be organic or inorganic or both.
• Like excretions etc.

Nucleus-

• The nucleus is the most conspicuous and the largest organelle of a eukaryotic cell.
• In animal cells it is generally centrally located, However, in plants it is pushed to the side due to
the presence of vacuole.
• Nucleus contains the hereditary material for regulating cell activities as well as for transfer to
the next generation.
• Nucleus is composed of 80 percent of chromosomes and 12 percent DNA and 5 percent RNA
and 3 percent lipids.
• Nuclear is bounded by nuclear envelope and has nuclear pores for transportation of material
between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
 between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
• Nuclear sap is also called as nuclear membrane.
• Chromatin material is non- dividing nucleus as fine filaments termed as chromatin fibres and it
is criss cross and they are made up of DNA and proteins.
• The genes are present in the chromosome.
• Nucleolus is present inside nucleus and to make units of RNA and DNA.
• Chromosomes are thread like structure usually present in the nucleus and becomes visible
during cell division.
• Each chromosome is made up of DNA and proteins.
• 01:33:07 DNA is most important component of the chromosomes.
• These look like rods and each chromosome consists of two arms called chromatids which lie
side by side along their length.
• The two chromatids of a chromosome are attached at a point called primary constriction of
centromere.
• Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
• Nucleus brings about growth of the cell and regulates the cell wall.
• Endo means inside the cytoplasm and reticulum means network.
• Endoplasmic reticulum are the folds stretched outside from the nuclear membrane.
• They are also called flatten sacks.
• There are two types of Endoplasmic reticulum- smooth and rough.
• Rough Endoplasmic reticulum have ribosomes on it.
• In er there is lumen that is the empty space and luminal compartments is the lumen bounded
by membrane.
• Extra luminal compartments are outside the Er in the empty spaces.

• The er membrane is made up of lipoprotein and is absent in prokaryotes cell.

• The products of ribosomes pass from the rer to the lumen for transport to other places.
• SERis free of ribosomes and consist of tubules and vesicles and helps in the synthesis of fats
and lipids molecules.
• Some of proteins and lipids which are synthesize in the cell with help of er are utilized in
 • Some of proteins and lipids which are synthesize in the cell with help of er are utilized in
building of cell membrane. this process is called membrane biogenesis.
• Endoplasmic reticulum gives the support to the body.
• It helps in transport of materials.
• It helps in exchange of materials between cytoplasm and nucleus.
• It provides surface for protein synthesis and other substances also like lipids.
• It helps in packaging of materials in vesicles.
• It helps in detoxification in liver of harmful substances into harmless substance for excretion
by the cell.
• It helps in formation of organelles.
• It helps in formation of organelles like Golgi bodies, lysosomes and vacuoles.
• It helps in formation of membranes like plasma membrane. 33:2345:03

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 • They are dense, spherical granule like particles about 150 to 250 A in dimeter.
• It was first discovered by George Palade in 1955 also called Palade particles.
• They are found in all types of cells and in mitochondria and the stroma of plastids in eukaryotic
cell.
• On the basis of their size and sedimentation coefficient ribosomes are of two types 70s and 80
70 consist of 50 s and 30s subunit in prokaryotic cells and 80s consists of 60 s subunit and a 40
s subunit.
• rRNA is also ribosome.
• Golgi bodies was first discovered in Camilio Golgi i 1898.
• It is present in all eukaryotic cells except mature rbc and sperms of mammals.
• It is absent in prokaryotes.
• In plant cells there are small ribosomes called dictyosomes.
• Golgi bodies origins from RERthat has lost ribosomes.
• It is disc-shaped and flattened sac like structure.

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The two poles of a Golgi complex are called cis

face and trans face which act as the receiving.

and shipping departments respectively.

The cis face is usually near the ER.

01:08:37

The cisternae are free of ribosomes and have

swollen ends. They look like the smooth

endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

• Helps in packaging of materials to be sent out of the cell.

• It also helps in synthesis of organelles like cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.
 • Singular mitochondria is called mitochondrion and are visible under a light microscope.
• The mitochondria are found in all aerobic eukaryotic cell.
• Cylindrical or sausage and small in size and is made up of 2 membranes.
• They are lacking in anaerobic protozoans, mature mammalian rbc and in prokaryotes.

Some important energy requiring activities of the

cells include synthesis of chemical compounds (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA replication,
transcription of RNAs), active transport of materials against concentration gradient across the plasma
membrane, mechanical work (e.g., muscle contraction for movements and locomotion, movement of
cilia and flagella), conduction of nerve impulse, production of heat, etc. Mitochondria are capable of
self-duplication (replication).

• They are semi- autonomous as they have DNA, RNA and enzymes of their own.
• They are able to synthesize some of their own proteins.
• Lysosomes are also called natural scavengers and cellular housekeepers as they remove the
dead cells and debris accumulated by injuries.
• Plastids are found in plant cells and in certain protists but are absent in animal cells.
• Two broad categories of plastids are-
• Leucoplasts(colourless)- Has three types-
• Elaioplasts- store oil
• Amyloplasts- store starch
• Aleuroplasts- store proteins
• Chromoplasts(coloured)- There are two types of chromoplasts-
• Green coloured plastids which have chlorophyll also known as chloroplasts and are oval
shaped and help in photosynthesis as it traps the radiant energy of sunlight.
• Non- green plastids don't have chlorophyll and have other pigments and they have carotenoids.
 • Chloroplasts have DNA and RNA and 70s ribosomes and enzymes. It is also semi- autonomous.
• Leucoplasts are not exposed to sunlight and are mostly present in root and underground
stems.
• Chromoplasts are exposed to sunlight.
• Grana contains the green chlorophyll.
• They are small in size but more in number in animal cells that are vacuoles.
• Fungi and plant cells have large seized but fewer vacuoles.
• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents bounded by a unit membrane which is
called tonoplast.
• In amoeba type single celled organisms, the food vacuole contains the food items that the
animal has ingested and subsequently consumed.
• Some special vacuoles are associated with the maintenance of water balance of the body by
osmoregulatory organelles.
• In plant cells vacuoles arise from endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies which fuse at
maturity to form large vacuoles.
• Plant vacuoles is also called central vacuole as it is huge it also pushes the nuclear to the side.
• Tonoplast is selectively permeable, and the cell sap is the inner filling of vacuoles.
• Cell sap has water, organic food, waste, excretory waste and ions.
• The cell sap provides rigidity to the cell and vacuole can occupies 50 to 90 percent space of the
plant cell.
• Animal sizes are generally smaller than plant cells.
• Cell walls absent in animal but present in plant cell.
• Plastids are absent in animal cells and present in plant cells.
• Animal cells have centrosome, but plant cells don't have.
• Mitosis is the process of cell division.
• It is a stage of the cell cycle in which newly formed DNA is separated by two new cells with the
same number and type of chromosomes as the parent nucleus are formed.

Except for germ cells, most eukaryotes cells divide in such a way that the number of chromosomes
remains constant.

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In animal while in plants

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 • Cell cycle is the sequence of events a cell undergoes for division and has 2 phases that are
interphase and m- phase.
• Meiosis has two phases-
• Meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

01:23:50

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01:28:36

• Cell with 2 sets of chromosomes is called diploid cell.

• 46:07
 • In pachytene phase the non- sister chromatids will get attach or patch up and form tetrad.
• In diplotene the structure will try to separate but will not and will form a x-shaped structure
called chiasmata.
• In diakinesis the non- sister chromatids will separate just they will touch each other.

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In metaphase 1 the chromosome will fell horizontally.

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 • In anaphase the chromosome will separate and reach to the opposite poles.

In last phase that is telophase in which nuclear membrane and cell organelles will grow again and
then cytokinesis will happen and cytoplasm will separate and now will become haploids.

01:25:32

• Now meiosis 2 will happen as same as mitosis.

• In meiosis the DNA replicate single time but nuclear and cell divide two times.