sustainability
Review
Wind Energy Conversions, Controls, and Applications:
A Review for Sustainable Technologies and Directions
M. A. Hannan 1, * , Ali Q. Al-Shetwi 2 , M. S. Mollik 3 , Pin Jern Ker 4 , M. Mannan 1 , M. Mansor 1 ,
Hussein M. K. Al-Masri 5 and T. M. Indra Mahlia 6
Citation: Hannan, M.A.; Al-Shetwi,
A.Q.; Mollik, M.S.; Ker, P.J.; Mannan,
M.; Mansor, M.; Al-Masri, H.M.K.;
Mahlia, T.M.I. Wind Energy
Conversions, Controls, and
Applications: A Review for
Sustainable Technologies and
Directions. Sustainability 2023, 15,
3986. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su15053986
Academic Editors: Higinio
Sánchez-Sáinz and Raúl
Sarrias-Mena
Received: 23 November 2022
Revised: 10 January 2023
Accepted: 17 February 2023
Published: 22 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053986
1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, COE, Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
Kajang 43000, Malaysia
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Fahad Bin Sultan University, Tabuk 47721, Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Mechatronics Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia
4 Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Malaysia
5 Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan
6 Centre of Green Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
* Correspondence: hannan@uniten.edu.my
Abstract: The use of renewable energy techniques is becoming increasingly popular because of rising
demand and the threat of negative carbon footprints. Wind power offers a great deal of untapped
potential as an alternative source of energy. The rising demand for wind energy typically results
in the generation of high-quality output electricity through grid integration. More sophisticated
contemporary generators, power converters, energy management, and controllers have been recently
developed to integrate wind turbines into the electricity system. However, a comprehensive review
of the role of converters in the wind system’s power conversion, control, and application toward
sustainable development is not thoroughly investigated. Thus, this paper proposes a comprehensive
review of the impact of converters on wind energy conversion with its operation, control, and recent
challenges. The converters’ impact on the integration and control of wind turbines was highlighted.
Moreover, the conversion and implementation of the control of the wind energy power system
have been analyzed in detail. Also, the recently advanced converters applications for wind energy
conversion were presented. Finally, recommendations for future converters use in wind energy
conversions were highlighted for efficient, stable, and sustainable wind power. This rigorous study
will lead academic researchers and industry partners toward the development of optimal wind power
technologies with improved efficiency, operation, and costs.
Keywords: wind energy conversion; converter controller; maximum power point tracking; future
converter technologies
1. Introduction
Energy is a fundamental component of our existence and the foundation of civilization.
In most circumstances, the contemporary world’s social and economic well-being relies
on the availability of renewable and sustainable energy [1]. In contrast, the rapid and
out-of-control expansion of human civilization and industry has a significant detrimental
impact on both the environment and the world’s limited supply of fossil fuels. Sustainable
development concepts and criteria must be used in technical processing, products, and
activities going forward if we want to stop additional environmental harm and the loss
of our natural resources [2]. Thus, more attention is being paid to developing renewable
energy sources. In the upcoming years, the world’s capacity to produce electricity through
the use of solar power, wind power, and other renewable technologies is expected to
increase [3].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
 Due to technical and economic visibility, wind power has emerged as on
promising renewable energy sources (RES) in recent years [4]. Wind energy
range from a few kilowatts to many megawatts and can be found in many
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986
[5,6]. Wind energy can be used in both minor off-grid systems and2substantia of 30

connected to the grid. This sort of distributed generation poses issues with
nectionDuesystem due and
to technical to the absence
economic of active
visibility, andhas
wind power reactive
emergedpower
as one ofcontrol.
the most Cons
approach
promising necessitates
renewable energycareful
sourcescontrol, modeling,
(RES) in recent and
years [4]. Windchoosing a suitable
energy capacity can win
range from a few kilowatts to many megawatts and can be found in many applications [5,6].
tem.Wind
Theenergy
widespread use of wind power has been directly tied to the develo
can be used in both minor off-grid systems and substantial wind farms con-
technology
nected to thefor wind
grid. turbines
This sort and control
of distributed generationtechnologies
poses issues withover the previous tw
the interconnection
In this regard, about 102 GW of wind power capacity was addedapproach
system due to the absence of active and reactive power control. Consequently, this in 2021. Ann
necessitates careful control, modeling, and choosing a suitable wind power system. The
raised the total
widespread capacity
use of wind power byhas
13.5%, reaching
been directly tied to more than 845
the development GW.
of the In terms of m
technology
China dominated
for wind turbines and the market,
control followed
technologies over theby the USA,
previous UK, Brazil,
two decades [7]. In thisand Vietnam
regard,
indicates growth in installed global wind capacity to approximately 845 by th
about 102 GW of wind power capacity was added in 2021. Annual increases raised the total
capacity by 13.5%, reaching more than 845 GW. In terms of market share, China dominated
compared
the market,tofollowed
651 GW in USA,
by the 2019UK, [3].Brazil,
It isand
expected that
Vietnam [8]. installed
Figure wind
1 indicates capacity
growth
dramatically over the next few years due to the continuing desire for
in installed global wind capacity to approximately 845 by the end of 2021 compared to altern
651 GW in 2019 [3]. It is expected that installed wind capacity will increase dramatically
sources.
over the next few years due to the continuing desire for alternative energy sources.

10 5 Installed capacity of wind energy

6
Installed capacity (MW)

0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Year

Figure 1. Installed capacity of wind power during recent years.

Figure 1. Installed capacity of wind power during recent years.
The primary goals of the control strategies for better wind energy operation are to
The primary goals of the control strategies for better wind energy ope
reduce dynamic and static mechanical loads, offer stability for grid integration, maximize
power generation, and ensure a reliable grid [9]. In this regard, power electronics (PE)
reduce
play adynamic
significant and
role instatic mechanical
wind systems’ efficientloads,
control offer stability
and optimal for grid
operation integrati
[10]. The
power generation,
converter technology andused inensure
wind powera reliable
applicationsgridhas[9]. In this
changed regard,
significantly overpower
the ele
past several years due to wind turbine systems’ (WTS) rapidly increasing capacity and
playincreasingly
a significant role in wind systems’ efficient control and optimal opera
important effects on the electrical grid [11]. Converters continuously develop,
converter
resultingtechnology used in enhancements
in notable performance wind power forapplications hasnot
wind turbines that changed
only lower significa
past several years due to wind turbine systems’ (WTS) rapidly increasing
mechanical stress and boost energy output but also allow the entire wind turbine (WT) to
function as a fully controllable power source, significantly improving the integration of
increasingly
wind energyimportant
into the powereffects onOne
grid [12]. theof electrical grid [11].
the most prevalent Converters
wind turbine types is continuo
the
resulting in notable
doubly fed induction performance
generator (DFIG).enhancements for wind
This type of wind turbine turbines
comprises that not on
a slip-ring
chanical stress and boost energy output but also allow the entire wind tur
induction generator, a partial-scale electronic power converter, and a common capacitor
in the DC link [13]. In such a situation, dual-feed asynchronous generators are receiving
function
more andasmore
a fully controllable
attention power
in the wind power source,
conversion significantly
system. Because withimproving
commercial the i
wind energy into the power grid [12]. One of the most prevalentthewind
two-way pulse width modulation (PWM) inverters, it is possible to regulate rotor turbin
current via field orientation control, resulting in a decoupled control of stator-side reactive
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). This type of wind turbine compris
induction generator, a partial-scale electronic power converter, and a comm
in the DC link [13]. In such a situation, dual-feed asynchronous generators
more and more attention in the wind power conversion system. Because wit
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 3 of 30

and active power, resulting in a tiny portion of the overall system’s power being processed
by the power converter.
Despite the incredible expansion of wind energy, researchers face numerous hurdles,
including the unpredictability of the wind’s nature, grid connection, and the positioning of
wind turbines [14]. To integrate wind turbines into the electricity system, more sophisticated
contemporary generators, power conversion devices, energy management, and controllers
must be advanced [12]. According to the recent available literature, it is observed that many
papers have reviewed the wind energy system development from different aspects such as
the wind turbine reliability [15,16], operations and maintenance [17], reliability and cost
of energy [18], design [19], control [20,21], damage detection techniques [22], noise [23],
and maximum power point (MPPT) control methods [24–26]. However, a comprehensive
review of the PE role in the wind system’s power conversion, control, and application
towards sustainable development has not been thoroughly investigated. Thus, this paper
proposes a widespread review of the impact of converters on wind energy conversion with
its operation, control, and related issues. This article’s objectives and contributions can be
summed up as follows:
• Investigates the prospects and recent advances of converters’ contribution towards
efficient wind energy conversions.
• Comprehensive analysis of the trends and diversity of converters in wind power:
operations, topologies, applications, challenges, and future prospects.
• A comprehensive discussion outlines wind energy advancement in terms of the control
system, main features, and related applications.
• Finally, based on the review, recommendations for future improvement in the perfor-
mance of wind energy-based converters are highlighted for a sustainable future for
the wind energy system.

2. Reviewing Process
After a rigorous study of various articles, a review methodological framework has
been developed to comprehensively review the converter contributions towards modern
wind turbine controllers and their integrations. The challenges and factors that substantially
affect the performance of wind energy-based converters are also identified. In this stage,
three screening and assessment phases were employed to select a suitable number of
works of literature. Subsequently, 533 papers were determined following the preliminary
screening. The article selection through the second screening phase was performed using
the essential keywords, including wind energy conversion system, wind power, pitch angle
controller, and future converters. A total of 287 papers were found following the second
screening, in which the paper title, abstract, subjects, and contributions were evaluated to
explore the relevant articles for this stage. The article’s final selection is carried out through
the citations, impact factor, and review process. In sum, the review, analysis, and critical
discussion relating to converters’ contribution towards wind energy conversions, controls,
and applications, along with issues and challenges, are conducted using the final filtered
170 articles. The methodological framework is shown in Figure 2.
Sustainability 2023,
Sustainability 15, x3986
2023, 15, FOR PEER REVIEW 4 4ofof 30
30

(a) Screening Method

3. Final Selection
170 references were selected and analyzed based on the purposes
and scope of this review

1. Initial Screening and Evaluation 170

After initial Search, total of 533 references
were selected
533 2. Second Screening
287 Relevant 287 references were identified
based on keywords, title, abstract, article
content, and main subject of interest

(b) Review Results

Overview of the wind
energy system
-Wind turbine modelling.
-Wind Energy Generation
Systems.
-Energy Conversion
-Wind turbine
-wind turbine technology
The concept of wind energy
conversion system requirements
and power flow
-Uni- & bi-directional power flow
-Wind turbine-to-grid system.
-Wind turbine configuration for
turbine to grid including: (a)DFIG
control system,(b)MPPT control
system, Turbine operation and
(c)control structure
Wind energy control scheme and
its application in distribution
system
-Discussion of DC bus voltage
control strategy, MPPT control
scheme, converter topology, and
working principle.
-Topology and control wind turbine
system, controller design for wind
energy are analyzed in details.

Wind energy impacts, potential, limitation, Issues, challenge, and future Benefits of wind energy
trends systems
Broad discussion on the issues on wind energy conversion and power generation, -Ancillary services.
effect of wind energy, privacy issue, and security issues. wind energy challenges -Voltage and frequency
including power distribution, high investment, and cost. regulation.
Finally, based on the review, recommendations for future wind energy
performance improvement to enable widespread adoption in the energy market are
highlighted.

Figure 2. The article selection procedures.

Figure 2. The article selection procedures.
3.
3. Wind
Wind Energy
Energy Conversion
Conversion System
System
The
The wind energy conversion system
wind energy conversion system (WECS)
(WECS) contains
contains wind
wind turbines
turbines and
and converter
converter
converters.
converters. Using wind turbines to extract the wind’s mechanical energy, the generators
Using wind turbines to extract the wind’s mechanical energy, the generators
convert
convert itit into
into electrical
electrical energy,
energy, and
and the
the converter
converter system
system isis in
in charge
charge ofof transferring
transferring the
the
generated
generated energy
energy toto the
the power
power network
network or or aa battery
battery bank.
bank. When
When converting
converting windwind energy
energy
to
to electricity
electricity atat aa variable
variable speed,
speed, the
the most
most commonly
commonly utilized
utilized generators
generators areare synchronous
synchronous
and
and doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG) [27]. When using induction generators, the
doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG) [27]. When using induction generators, the
rotor
rotor and
and stator
stator areare both
both linked
linked directly
directly to
to the
the network,
network, butbut the
the electronic
electronic converter
converter acts
acts
as
as aamediator
mediatorbetween
betweenthe thetwo.
two.Since thethe
Since rotor circuit
rotor maymay
circuit independently
independently change the am-
change the
plitude
amplitude andand frequency
frequency of of
thethe
produced
produced voltage,
voltage, thetheDFIG
DFIGhas haslong
longbeen
beenthethe preferred
preferred
choice
choice for
for large,
large, variable-speed
variable-speed WECSWECS thatthat are
areconnected
connecteddirectly
directly to
tothe
theelectrical
electricalnetwork,
network,
as
as illustrated
illustrated inin Figure
Figure 3a
3a [27–29].
[27–29].
Generators that generate synchronous power are disconnected from the power dis-
tribution grid [28]. As a result, they are included in systems that utilize full-scale
 ity [30]. Figure 3b illustrates its configuration [27]. Dc-links frequently employ a chopper
circuit to disperse power in the event of grid disruptions [31]. When compared to DFIG,
PMSG offers the following advantages: no external stimulating current is required; high
reliability; lightweight; low maintenance; small size; and high efficiency [29]. The funda-
mental elements of a WTS’s control system, including the turbine, generator, filter, and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 5 of 30
converter, as displayed in Figure 3a–d [32]. It is possible for the designed wind turbine to
either be of the kind seen in Figure 3c or of the kind depicted in Figure 3d [32,33].

(a) (b)
DFIG

GEAR
AC DC
~ =
Grid = ~
DC AC

AC DC GSC MSC
~ = PMSG
Grid
=
DC
~
AC

Transformer synchronous/
Asynchronous generator Transformer
Gear
DFIG
Utility Grid Gear
Utility Grid
AC
Filter

DC DC
Filter

Filter
AC

Filter
~ = = = ~ ~ = = = ~
DC AC DC AC

Power conversion on a scale of one third Power conversion on a full scale

(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Partially
Partially rated
rated converters
converters conversion
conversionsystem
systemand
andfull-scale
full-scalepower
powerconverter
converterofofvariable-
variable-
speed: (a) partially rated converters conversion system; (b) converters conversion system
speed: (a) partially rated converters conversion system; (b) converters conversion system on a on
full-a
scale more significant level; (c) a wind turbine with a variable speed, DFIG and partial-scale power
full-scale more significant level; (c) a wind turbine with a variable speed, DFIG and partial-scale
converter; and (d) full-scale variable-speed WT power converter.
power converter; and (d) full-scale variable-speed WT power converter.

Previously,
Generators the thatusage
generateof permanent
synchronous magnet
power synchronous
are disconnectedgenerators waspower
from the recognized
distri-
primarily
bution grid [28]. As a result, they are included in systems that utilize full-scale and
in tiny WT but not in large-scale power generation due to the huge heavy
converters.
permanent
Due to the magnets
lack of arequired
gearbox,[34].
the The usage of
multipole wind turbines
permanent magnet based on permanent
synchronous mag-
generator
net generators (PMG) is quickly increasing because of the advancement
(PMSG) has been the preferred alternative in recent years, reducing WECS losses, reducing of semiconductor
switches
maintenanceand requests,
the improvement in efficiency
and enhancing systemand reliability;
efficiency and also, the innovation
dependability of mate-
[30]. Figure 3b
rials utilized
illustrates its in the rotor of[27].
configuration the generator has permitted
Dc-links frequently employthe ause of PMG
chopper at high
circuit power
to disperse
[35].
power For
inexample,
the eventaofpermanent magnet-based-high-temperature
grid disruptions [31]. When compared to DFIG, superconductor
PMSG offersisthe used
fol-
in the rotor to achieve higher magnetic density: a 15-mm thick segment
lowing advantages: no external stimulating current is required; high reliability; lightweight; of permanent
magnets can generate
low maintenance; small thesize;
sameand magnetic field as a [29].
high efficiency 100–150-mm section of copper
The fundamental elements wind-
of a
ings.
WTS’s Furthermore,
control system, the setting up the
including of aturbine,
gearbox,generator,
which is mandatory for large and
filter, and converter, medium
as displayed
WT, can be
in Figure 3a–davoided
[32]. It using directfordrive
is possible variable wind
the designed speed. Due to
turbine to its simplicity,
either be of thethekinddirect
seen
drive wind
in Figure 3cturbine
or of thewithkindPMG is now
depicted employed
in Figure in the wind power system as the most
3d [32,33].
promising one [35,36].
Previously, the usage of permanent magnet synchronous generators was recognized
primarily in tiny WT but not in large-scale power generation due to the huge and heavy
3.1. Wind Turbine
permanent magnets Operation
required [34]. The usage of wind turbines based on permanent magnet
The WECS
generators (PMG) uses is improved control algorithms
quickly increasing because ofdue the to the rapid advancement
advancement of in-
of semiconductor
switches and the improvement in efficiency and reliability; also, the
dustry expertise [37]. In a WECS, the wind’s kinetic energy is transformed to mechanical innovation of materials
utilized
one usinginthetheWT,
rotor of theisgenerator
which subsequently has permitted
transformed theinto
use electrical
of PMG at high power
energy. Because[35]. For
wind
example, a permanent magnet-based-high-temperature superconductor
power is not ready to be integrated into the grid, several converter topologies have been is used in the rotor
to achieve higher magnetic density: a 15-mm thick segment of permanent magnets can
generate the same magnetic field as a 100–150-mm section of copper windings. Furthermore,
the setting up of a gearbox, which is mandatory for large and medium WT, can be avoided
using direct drive variable speed. Due to its simplicity, the direct drive wind turbine with
PMG is now employed in the wind power system as the most promising one [35,36].

3.1. Wind Turbine Operation

The WECS uses improved control algorithms due to the rapid advancement of industry
expertise [37]. In a WECS, the wind’s kinetic energy is transformed to mechanical one using
the WT, which is subsequently transformed into electrical energy. Because wind power is
not ready to be integrated into the grid, several converter topologies have been developed
Sustainability 2023,15,
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FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of
6 of3030

developed
to properly togovern
properlythegovern
grid-side theconverter
grid-side(GSC)
converter (GSC)
and the and the machine-side
machine-side converter [38].con-
As
verter [38]. As a response, the fundamental control of WECS is used
a response, the fundamental control of WECS is used to serve the electricity network’sto serve the electricity
network’s needs at wind
needs at different different windasspeeds,
speeds, presentedas presented
in Figurein4a.Figure 4a. The unpredictable
The unpredictable nature of
nature of the
the speed ofspeed of the
the wind andwind and the variability
the variability of the highly
of the climate climateinfluences
highly influences wind
wind energy’s
energy’s dependability.
dependability. Because Because
of this, it of this, it is to
is essential essential to understand
understand the nature the nature
of wind andofidentify
wind
and identify itsareas
its operating operating areas tointegrate
to effectively effectively theintegrate
WTs intothe
theWTs intogrid
utility the according
utility gridtoac-
the
cording to the speed measured [39,40]. Thus, for a particular range of
speed measured [39,40]. Thus, for a particular range of the speed of wind constrained by the speed of wind
constrained by cut-out
cut-out (V cut-in (Vcut-in
) and cut-in (V)cut-out
and cut-in (Vcut-out
) speeds, WT)canspeeds, WTtocan
be used be used
harvest to harvestwind
the accessible the
accessible
power, aswind power,
explained as explained
in Figure in Figure
4a,b [39,40]. The 4a,b [39,40].
typical Theand
variable typical
fixedvariable and fixed
wind speed power
wind speed
curves power curves
are shown in Figure are4b.shown in Figure 4b.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure4.4.(a)
(a)WT
WToperating
operatingregions.
regions.Reprinted
Reprintedwith
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromRef.
Ref.[41],
[41],(b)
(b)typical
typicalvariable
variable
and fixed wind speed power curves [42].
and fixed wind speed power curves [42].

Accordingly,
Accordingly,the thefollowing
followingisisaabreakdown
breakdownof ofWT’s
WT’soperational
operationalareas:
areas:
• • Regions
Regions1 1and
and4:4:As Asa aresult
resultofofsafety
safetyconcerns,
concerns,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotostopstopandanddisconnect
disconnect
the WT from the electrical power
the WT from the electrical power network. network.
• • Region
Region2:2:Wind
Windpowerpowerisisharvested
harvestedtotoitsitsfullest
fullestpotential
potentialininthethecentral
centralregion
regionusing
using
MPPT systems.
MPPT systems.
• • Region
Region3:3:WT WT blades
bladesareare
protected
protectedfrom mechanical
from mechanical stress at high
stress windwind
at high speed by by
speed
limiting
limitingthe
thegenerated
generatedpowerpowertotoits itsrated
ratedoutput
outputthrough
throughpitchpitchangle
anglecontrol.
control.
The
TheWTs
WTscancan function
function as as aa fixed-speed
fixed-speedWT WT(FSWT)
(FSWT)oror a variable-speed
a variable-speed WTWT (VSWT)
(VSWT) [42].
[42].
As aAs a result
result of their
of their limited
limited speedspeedrangerange andmechanical
and high high mechanicalstress, stress,
FSWTsFSWTs face a
face a number
number
of major of issues.
major issues.
On the Onother
the other
hand,hand,
The The
VSWTs,VSWTs, are used
are used to address
to address the the limita-
limitations
tions outlined
outlined aboveabove
[43]. [43]. The VSWT
The VSWT canto
can run run to capture
capture the most
the most electricity
electricity at every
at every windwind
speed,
speed, decreasing
decreasing mechanical
mechanical stress onstress
theon
WTthe WT
and and minimizing
minimizing power power variations,
variations, which
which reduces
reduces mechanical
mechanical stress on stress
the WTon the WT [44,45].
[44,45]. Rotorcan
Rotor speed speed
alsocan also be continuously
be continuously varied tovaried
keep a
toconstant
keep a constant ratio speed
ratio of rotor of rotorto speed to the
the speed of speed
wind in ofresponse
wind in response to instantaneous
to instantaneous variations
variations in wind
in wind speed. In speed. In theofabsence
the absence of a consistent
a consistent ratio, windratio,
power wind power extraction
extraction will
will be reduced
betoreduced
a minimum to a minimum
[39,40,46]. [39,40,46].

3.2.Wind
3.2. WindTurbine
TurbineConfigurations
Configurations
InIna aWT,
WT,the
thekinetic
kineticorormechanical
mechanicalenergy
energyofofthe
thewind
windisisconverted
convertedinto
intoelectricity.
electricity.
When connecting WTs to electrical grids, three primary configurations may
When connecting WTs to electrical grids, three primary configurations may be utilized be utilized
for
for this purpose. An induction machine is a typical cage-rotor induction
this purpose. An induction machine is a typical cage-rotor induction generator that generator thatisis
promptlylinked
promptly linkedtotothe
theutility
utilitygrid
gridwithout
withoutneeding
needinga apower
powerexchanger.
exchanger.Reactive
Reactivepower
powerisis
necessary for the induction machine to work. Both the utility power system
necessary for the induction machine to work. Both the utility power system and machine- and machine-
terminal capacitors can be used for this purpose. These devices are incapable of delivering
terminal capacitors can be used for this purpose. These devices are incapable of delivering
any reactive power [47]. DFIGs are used in the second kind of design, which involves
any reactive power [47]. DFIGs are used in the second kind of design, which involves the
the usage of a wound-rotor. Slip rings are used to capture electricity from a rotating rotor
usage of a wound-rotor. Slip rings are used to capture electricity from a rotating rotor at
at a slip frequency. This ac power must flow via a converter-based rectifier and inverter
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 30

Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 7 of 30

a slip frequency. This ac power must flow via a converter-based rectifier and inverter sys-
tem to be converted to a voltage and frequency compatible with the electric power system.
system to be converted to a voltage and frequency compatible with the electric power
Because of this configuration, the size winding of the stator generator can be reduced by
system. Because of this configuration, the size winding of the stator generator can be
25–30%, with the converters compensating for the power discrepancy between the gener-
reduced by 25–30%, with the converters compensating for the power discrepancy between
ator and rotor power. On the other hand, the expense of converters increases the overall
the generator and rotor power. On the other hand, the expense of converters increases
cost of such a system [19]. Variable voltage and variable frequency outputs are produced
the overall cost of such a system [19]. Variable voltage and variable frequency outputs are
using a permanent
produced or conventional
using a permanent magnet synchronous
or conventional magnet synchronousgeneratorgenerator
in the third in thekind of
third
WT architecture. Therefore, an inverter and rectifier based on power
kind of WT architecture. Therefore, an inverter and rectifier based on power electronics are electronics are re-
quired
required to to
convert
convert thetheWT’s
WT’stotaltotalrated
ratedoutput
outputpower
powertotoaalevellevelcompatible
compatiblewith withthe theutility
utility
power grid [48]. The two more contemporary designs (both
power grid [48]. The two more contemporary designs (both of which feature converters) of which feature converters)
enable
enable the
the wind
wind turbine
turbine to to function
function in in aa variable
variable speed
speed mode,
mode, which
which cancan enhance
enhance the the total
total
amount of wind power collected by the
amount of wind power collected by the turbine [19,47]. turbine [19,47].
There
There areare several
several ways
ways to to convert
convert windwind power
power intointo electricity,
electricity,butbutthetheinduction
inductiongener- gen-
erator
ator isisthe
themost
mostpopular
popularchoice.
choice.Wind Windpowerpowergeneration
generation usingusing aa squirrel
squirrel cage
cage induction
induction
generator
generator (SCIG)- is one of three primary wind farm (WF) designs now in use [49]; aa wind
(SCIG)- is one of three primary wind farm (WF) designs now in use [49]; wind
energy
energy system
systemusingusingbothbothaaDFIG DFIGand anda adirectly
directly driven
driven synchronous
synchronous generator
generator (DDSG)
(DDSG) is
explained in Figure 5 [50]. Figure 5a shows the WFs with
is explained in Figure 5 [50]. Figure 5a shows the WFs with SCIG, which is the most SCIG, which is the most cost-
effective approach
cost-effective approachbecause it is linked
because directly
it is linked to the
directly to electrical network.
the electrical network.It is It
common
is common for
afor
capacitor
a capacitorbank to be
bank putput
to be at one
at oneof of
thethewind
wind turbine’s
turbine’sterminals
terminalstotorecompense
recompensethe the local
local
reactive
reactive power
power created
created by by thethe wind
wind turbine,
turbine, which
which fluctuates
fluctuates depending
depending on on howhow muchmuch
power
power is is generated
generated [50]. [50]. Back-to-back
Back-to-back converters
converters thatthat only
only have
have aa portion
portion of of their
their power
power
supply
supply areare used
used toto separate
separate the the frequencies
frequencies of of the
the mechanical
mechanical and and electrical
electrical rotors,
rotors, as as seen
seen
in Figure 5b. Last but not least, the WF with DDSG is shown in Figure
in Figure 5b. Last but not least, the WF with DDSG is shown in Figure 5c, where full power 5c, where full power
back-to-back
back-to-back (b2b)(b2b) converters
converters are are utilized
utilized toto disconnect
disconnect the the generator
generator fromfrom thethe utility
utility grid
grid
completely.
completely. In In new
newWFs, WFs,it it is becoming
is becoming increasingly
increasingly popular
popular to have
to have DFIGDFIG or DDSG or DDSG
linked
linked to the
to the grid grid through
through a b2b converter.
a b2b converter. However,However,
half or more halfoforthemore of thedeployed
currently currentlyWFs de-
ployed
continue WFs continue
to use the SCIG to use the SCIG architecture
architecture [50,51]. [50,51].

WF+SCIG (a) WF+DFIG (b)

Transformer Transformer
Capacitor
bank Utility Grid Utility Grid
AC
~ =
DC
AC/DC converter

WF+DDSG
AC
~ =
DC
Transformer
AC/DC converter
(c) Utility Grid

Figure
Figure 5.
5. WFs
WFsequipped
equippedwith
withananinduction generator
induction and
generator a standard
and transformer
a standard for for
transformer interfacing (a)
interfacing
SCIG. (b) DFIG. (c) DDSG.
(a) SCIG. (b) DFIG. (c) DDSG.

There have been

There have beenmany
manyadvancements
advancements in wind
in wind turbine
turbine technology
technology sincesince the 1980s,
the early early
1980s,
but thebut theconcept
basic basic concept has remained
has remained the same.the
Tosame.
controlTothecontrol
linkedthe linked
shaft speed,shaft speed, a
a horizontal
horizontal
rotor with rotor
threewith three pitchable
pitchable blades is blades
used inistheused in the modern
modern horizontal-axis
horizontal-axis wind
wind turbine
turbine
(HAWT)(HAWT) to harvest
to harvest wind energy.
wind energy. This typeThis type of
of rotor hasrotor
three has threeand
blades blades and is used.
is widely widely It
used.
usuallyIt usually hasbearing
has a front a front that
bearing that is independent
is independent and is connected
and is connected to a gearbox to aatgearbox at a
a low speed,
low speed,
making making it appropriate
it appropriate for the most forcommon
the mosttypes
common types
of four- andoftwo-pole
four- andgenerators
two-pole gen-[52].
erators
On the [52]. On the vertical-axis
vertical-axis wind turbinewind turbine
(VAWT), the(VAWT), theisshaft’s
shaft’s axis verticalaxis
andis vertical and per-
perpendicular to
pendicular to the ground, allowing it to rotate freely. When the wind is blowing, VAWTs
the ground, allowing it to rotate freely. When the wind is blowing, VAWTs always face the
always
wind. Inface the wind.
general, In general,
the modern windthe modern
industry wind
faces industry
a major facesinadesigning
problem major problem in
the most
efficient wind turbines to harness wind energy and produce electricity [53]. It has taken the
wind turbine industry 30 years to go from an idealistic fringe activity to a major player in
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 30

Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 designing the most efficient wind turbines to harness wind energy and produce electricity 8 of 30
[53]. It has taken the wind turbine industry 30 years to go from an idealistic fringe activity
to a major player in the power production industry since the turbines have grown in size
by apower
the factorproduction
of 100 andindustry
energy costs
since have decreased
the turbines havebygrown
morein than
size5.bySimultaneously, the
a factor of 100 and
engineering
energy foundation
costs have and by
decreased computational
more than 5. tools have evolved
Simultaneously, thetoengineering
accommodate the ma-
foundation
chine’s
and scale and volume.
computational Thisevolved
tools have has beento aaccommodate
great wind turbine narrative
the machine’s up to
scale andthis point;
volume.
nevertheless,
This has been a there
greatare stillturbine
wind many technological
narrative up toobstacles to nevertheless,
this point; overcome andthere many aremore
still
spectacular
many feats to come
technological [54].to overcome and many more spectacular feats to come [54].
obstacles

4. Wind
4. Wind Energy
Energy Converters,
Converters, Their
Their Issues,
Issues, and
andIntegration
Integration
As aa means
As means of
of controlling
controlling and
and decoupling
decoupling the
the wind
wind turbine
turbine generator
generator from
from the
the elec-
elec-
trical grid and improving dynamic and steady-state performance, converters are central
trical grid and improving dynamic and steady-state performance, converters are central
to
to several
several potential
potential solutions
solutions of
of aa technical
technical nature
nature for
for the
the electrical
electrical systems of wind
systems of tur-
wind tur-
bines [55]. The most significant converter applications in WTs are the focus of this section.
bines [55]. The most significant converter applications in WTs are the focus of this section.
4.1. Soft-Starter for Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines
4.1. Soft-Starter for Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines
Directly linking a WT to the electrical grid, often known as the “Danish concept” [56,57]
Directly linking a WT to the electrical grid, often known as the “Danish concept”
was a common practice in early WT systems. The SCIG is linked to the grid using a
[56,57] was a common practice in early WT systems. The SCIG is linked to the grid using
transformer, and its speed of operation is very close to being constant. There are various
a transformer, and its speed of operation is very close to being constant. There are various
aerodynamic approaches to reducing the engine’s power output, such as stall control,
aerodynamic approaches to reducing the engine’s power output, such as stall control,
pitch control, and active stall control. Figure 6a represents the fundamental combinations
pitch control, and active stall control. Figure 6a represents the fundamental combinations
that make up the fixed-speed ideas with soft starter [57,58]. Induction generator-powered
that make
WTs up advantage
have the the fixed-speedof beingideas with soft
simple andstarter [57,58].
affordable Inductionwithout
to construct generator-powered
requiring a
WTs have the advantage of being simple and affordable
synchronization mechanism. These solutions are appealing owing to their low to construct without requiring
cost anda
synchronizationHowever,
dependability. mechanism. it hasThesesome solutions are appealing
drawbacks, such as owing to their
(a) constant low cost
speed and de-
is required
pendability. However, it has some drawbacks, such as (a) constant
for the wind turbine to function; (b) a strong power grid is needed to maintain a steady speed is required for the
wind turbine to function; (b) a strong power grid is needed to maintain
functioning; and (c) there may be a need for an additional, more expensive mechanical a steady functioning;
and (c) there
structure may bethe
to handle a need for anmechanical
additional additional, stress
more expensive mechanical
as a consequence of wind structure
gusts to onhan-
the
dle the
drive additional
train [57]. mechanical stress as a consequence of wind gusts on the drive train [57].
A direct
A direct connection
connection between
between an an induction
induction generator
generator and and aa wind
wind turbine’s
turbine’s induction
induction
generator creates transients with high inrush currents that
generator creates transients with high inrush currents that disrupt the grid and disrupt the grid and cause ele-
cause
vated torque spikes in the wind turbine’s drive train. Such a transient
elevated torque spikes in the wind turbine’s drive train. Such a transient disrupts the disrupts the system
and restricts
system the totalthe
and restricts of WTs
total that
of WTsmaythatbe installed. Soft-starting
may be installed. thyristors are
Soft-starting frequently
thyristors are
utilized to utilized
frequently minimize to the high starting
minimize the high currents
startingofcurrents
induction of generators [59]. Typically,
induction generators [59].
based on the
Typically, basedthyristor’s technology,
on the thyristor’s the soft starter
technology, the softor current
starter orlimiter
currentrestricts
limiter the inrush
restricts
current’s
the inrushvalue to less
current’s valuethanto twice
less thanthe twice
generator’s rated current.
the generator’s ratedThe soft-starter
current. can only
The soft-starter
handle
can onlyahandle
certainaamount of heat, of
certain amount and when
heat, andthe connection
when to the grid
the connection to theis grid
finished, a con-
is finished,
tractor that carries the full-load current shorts it out [60]. However,
a contractor that carries the full-load current shorts it out [60]. However, without a soft– without a soft--starter,
the current
starter, will stay
the current high
will stayathigh
its peak
at itsvalue (1 pu),(1aspu),
peak value seen asin Figure
seen 6b [61].
in Figure 6b In sum,
[61]. with
In sum,
the help
with of a of
the help softa soft
starter, peakpeak
starter, currents are are
currents effectively
effectively dampened,
dampened, reducing
reducing thethe strain on
strain
thethe
on gearbox.
gearbox.This decreases
This decreases thetheimpact
impact ononthethe
grid and
grid andthethe
accompanying
accompanying costs
costs[59,60].
[59,60].

WT By pass switch
SCIG
Gearbox Transformer

GEAR
wind Soft starter
Reactive
power
Pitch
compensation

(a) (b)

Figure 6. (a) Fixed-speed WT built on a cage-induction generator with a PE soft-starter, (b) the
behavior of the current (Ia) without a soft starter [61].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 9 of 30

4.2. Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Control

Many benefits may be gained from operating a WT system at variable speeds. Wind
turbines, for example, can rise or reduce their speed depending on the torque and wind
speed. Consequently, the gearbox, tower, and other drive-train apparatuses will last
longer [62]. In addition, variable-speed devices can enhance energy output and minimize
the variability of the power pumped into the power network. In variable-speed mecha-
nisms, a converter scheme is used to link the generator to the power network [63]. For
induction and synchronous generators with free rotor windings, a full-rated converter
system must be installed between the grid and the generator stator, and the system must
be fed with the entire power output [64]. The grid is directly connected to the stator of an
induction generator with rotor windings, and a rotor that is either connected to a resistor
with a converter controlling it or that is linked to the power system using a power electron-
ics converter and slip rings [65]. The grid-connected variable speed wind turbine through
an AC-DC-AC converter can guarantee many advantages [33].

4.3. DFIG Wind Turbine Converter Control

Both quick and slow control dynamics are involved in the process of regulating a
wind turbine [66]. However, the main components of a WTS’s control system contain
the WT, generator, converter, and filter [32]. Commonly, the power entering and leaving
the generation system must be controlled with care. Mechanical components must be
used to regulate the turbines’ output power (e.g., blade pitch, yaw system, etc.). In the
interim, the entire control system must adhere to the energy generation directives issued
by the transmission and distribution system operators. Consideration can be given to more
sophisticated wind turbine control mechanisms, such as power generation optimization,
grid troubleshooting, supporting the grid in both abnormal and normal modes, etc. [31].
The generator’s current should normally be controlled by managing the converter on the
generator side, allowing the turbine speed to be altered to raise power generation according
to vacant wind power [34]. The coordinated control of numerous WT subsystems, including
the grid converters, generator, crowbar/brake chopper, and tilt angle controller, is required
to operate under grid failure scenarios [67]. Finally, the wind power converter performs
fundamental controls such as DC bus stability, current regulation, and grid synchronization
as rapidly as possible. PI and PR controllers are the most popular controllers utilized in this
context [35]. Figure 7a depicts an example of DFIG-based WTS administration during the
abnormal or faults modes in the grid. During any type of fault, the wind turbine should
have a protection scheme (known as fault-ride-through) until the fault is cleared based on
the scheme shown in Figure 7a.
Recently, it is required from wind energy systems to act as traditional generators
when any faults happen in the system, such as double-line-to-ground (2LG) faults. The
2LG is typically a short circuit between two phases (i.e., phases A and B) to a common
point, with a fault resistance from the common point to the ground. Figure 7a depicts
an example of DFIG-based WTS administration during the abnormal or faults modes in
the grid. During any fault, the wind turbine should have a protection scheme (known as
fault-ride-through) until the fault is cleared based on the scheme. For this purpose, the
authors in [68], proposed the AC-DC unified power quality conditioner to confine the
power oscillations and protect the devices from high currents during the fault using the
chopper and crowbar circuits. Figure 7b clearly demonstrates that under 100% 2LG fault,
the maximum output power (which is 2 pu during normal operation) can be reduced from
3.93 pu to 2.25 pu. In addition, the protection scheme using a chopper and bypass crowbar
can limit the high value of current and DC bus voltage during the fault within 2.0 pu and
1.1 pu, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 7b [68].
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 10 of 30

WT
Chopper
DFIG
Vdc RLC Filter
Gear AC AC
DC DC
IGen
Grid
PWM
Xstar
Crowbar Grid
Control of the
synchronization, Igrid
Current
Current and DC
Disable/Enable Iref voltage control Vgrid
Qref ,Pref P/Q command
ΩGen Control of Vgrid from TSO
Control of
Angle of the pitch θ fault-ride
power/ speed Pmeas, Qmeas
through

(a)

(b)
Figure7.7.(a)
Figure (a)Control
Controlofofaawind
windturbine
turbinewith
withDFIG
DFIGduring
duringgrid
griddisturbances,
disturbances,(b)
(b)unified
unifiedpower
power qual-
quality
ity conditioner-based fault-ride-through and protection scheme using a chopper and bypass
conditioner-based fault-ride-through and protection scheme using a chopper and bypass crowbar crow-
bar during 2LG fault. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68].
during 2LG fault. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68].

Therotating
The rotatingspeed
speedof ofaawind
wind turbine
turbine normally
normally changes
changes in in relation
relation toto the
the wind
wind speed
speed
and maintains a constant angle of inclination below its increased
and maintains a constant angle of inclination below its increased power output. The power output. The ro-
tating speed will be regulated at the maximum permissible
rotating speed will be regulated at the maximum permissible slip during very low wind slip during very low wind
speedsto
speeds toprevent
preventovervoltage
overvoltageat atthe
the generator
generator output.
output. Limiting
Limiting the the turbine
turbine output
output power
power
when it reaches its maximum rated output is done with the help of the tilt controller. The
when it reaches its maximum rated output is done with the help of the tilt controller. The
totalamount
total amount of of electrical
electrical power
powerthe theWTS
WTSgenerates
generatesisisregulated
regulated byby a converter
a converter located
locatedon
thethe
on rotor side
rotor of the
side DFIG
of the [69].[69].
DFIG The Thestrategy for controlling
strategy for controllingthe mains-side
the mains-sidedrive is to main-
drive is to
tain the connection’s
maintain the connection’s DC voltage
DC voltage at a at
fixed level
a fixed at all
level at times
all times [13]. There
[13]. Thereis aistendency
a tendency to
utilize a crowbar-connected to the DFIG rotor to enhance control
to utilize a crowbar-connected to the DFIG rotor to enhance control efficiency in case of efficiency in case of net-
work disturbances,
network disturbances, as as
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 7a 7a
[70].
[70].
DC connection allows some decouplingbetween
DC connection allows some decoupling between thetheturbine
turbine andandgrid, which
grid, is a ben-
which is a
efit of this
benefit of thistechnology.
technology. TheThe
DC-link
DC-link willwill
also permit
also permitthethe connection
connection of of
wind wind turbines
turbines to
energy
to energy storage
storage devices
devicesthat cancan
that more effectively
more regulate
effectively regulatethe flow of active
the flow electricity
of active into
electricity
the grid.
into ThisThis
the grid. function will will
function significantly enhance
significantly enhancewindwindturbines’ capacity
turbines’ to assist
capacity the grid
to assist the
[71].[71].
grid The Theconverter on the
converter generator
on the generatorsideside
controls the the
controls active power
active powerthatthat
is generated
is generated by
the WTS, while the converter on the grid side controls the reactive
by the WTS, while the converter on the grid side controls the reactive power [72]. There power [72]. There
shouldbe
should beno nodoubt
doubtthat
thataaDCDC breaker
breaker can can bebe used
used inin the
the case
case ofof aa mains
mains failure
failure to to protect
protect
theDC
the DCconnection
connection from from overvoltage
overvoltage if if more
more turbine
turbine power
power has has to
to be
be dissipated
dissipated in in the
the
formof
form ofaaquick
quickvoltage
voltage drop
drop[69,72].
[69,72]. TheThe architecture
architecture of of the
the DFIG
DFIG system
system is is somewhat
somewhat
complicated. A
complicated. A drive
drive train
train that
thatcontains
containslow-low-and andhigh-speed
high-speedshaft shaftconnects
connects thethe
DFIGDFIG to
the
to thewind
windturbine.
turbine.TheThewindings
windingsofofthe thestep-up
step-uptransformer
transformerare are directly
directly linked
linked to to the
the
 windings can be controlled [73]. The architecture of wind energy conversion using the
DFIG technology is shown in Figure 8a.
The b2b pulse width modulation (PWM) converter comprises two pulse-width mod-
ulated voltage source converters, the GSC and the RSC. These converters are coupled to-
gether via a DC bus. The crowbar protects DFIG and rotor side control (RSC) from harmful
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 inputs such as excessive current and voltage [74]. If the current in the rotor is more 11 of 30
than
the maximum that is permitted, the DFIG control system may be disassembled into its
two essential components, which are the control of the GSC and the RSC. The control of
reactive and
windings active
of the power
stator can
of the be kept
DFIG’s completely
stator. A b2b distinct in DFIG
converters wind power
are utilized systems
to establish a
thanks to vector
connection betweencontrol [75].
the grid andThe RSC
the controller
DFIG controlsso
rotor windings the stator’s
that reactive
the speed and and gener-
frequency
ated
of the reactive
windings power.
can beAcontrolled
representation of the
[73]. The RSC’s vector
architecture control
of wind system
energy can be seen
conversion using in
Figure
the DFIG 8btechnology
[74,75]. is shown in Figure 8a.

WT
DFIG PCC Iqref Uqref
Gear box Pref
+ PI + PI +
Pmq
P Iq  Lid
PWM
RSC GSC
Udc Utility Q Id  Liq
Grid
Udref Pmd
Qref -
Crowbar + PI + PI +
Idref
(a) (b)

Iqref Uq
Qg
+ PI + PI +
Ud
   ref Rate Angle 
Pmq + PI +  limit limit
Qg-ref Iq  Lid ref
Udc-ref Id  Liq PWM

Ud Pmd k pt
Udc
+ PI + PI + Gain scheduling
Idref
(c) (d)

Figure8.8.(a)
Figure (a)Architecture
Architectureof
ofwind
windenergy
energyconversion
conversionusing
usingthe
theDFIG
DFIGtechnology
technology[73];
[73];(b)
(b)schematic
schematic
representationofofthe
representation the RSC
RSC control
control block
block [73];
[73]; (c) Schematic
(c) Schematic representation
representation ofGSC
of the the GSC control
control blockblock
[73];
[73]; and (d) pitch angle control.
and (d) pitch angle control.

A double-loop
The b2b pulse width control approach comprising
modulation (PWM) converter an outer loop (power)
comprises and an innermod-
two pulse-width loop
(current)
ulated has been
voltage implemented.
source converters,The thepower
GSC and control
theloops
RSC. generate all the reference
These converters values
are coupled
for the present
together via a DC control
bus. loop. In this case,
The crowbar specialized
protects DFIG and MPPT management
rotor side control yields
(RSC)thefrom
best
active power
harmful inputs reference
such as Pexcessive
ref [76]. While contributing
current and voltage to an inefficient
[74]. electrical
If the current system,
in the rotoritisis
possible
more thantothechage the values
maximum that of the 𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒇 tothe
is permitted, beDFIG
greater than system
control zero so maythat the RSC can give
be disassembled
reactive
into power
its two in order
essential to keep thewhich
components, voltage arestable. The 𝒊𝒒𝒓𝒆𝒇
the control andGSC
of the 𝒊𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒇andcanthe
be RSC.
applied Thein
control
order to reactive𝒖and
ofacquire and 𝒖power
𝒒𝒓𝒆𝒇 active can be kept completely
𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒇 , respectively. The controldistinct
design in forDFIG wind
the GSC is power
seen in
systems
Figure 8c thanks
[77]. to vector control [75]. The RSC controller controls the stator’s reactive and
generated reactive
GSC’s primary power.
functionA representation
is to control the of the RSC’s
voltage vector
across thecontrol system can
dc connection. bepossi-
It is seen
in Figure 8b [74,75].
ble to individually manage active power (DC voltage) and reactive power using the GSC
A double-loop
control system, which control
doesapproach comprisingthe
so by manipulating an outer
q- andloop (power)
d-axis andReactive
currents. an inner refer-
loop
(current)
ence 𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒇 hasis been
oftenimplemented.
zeroed out toThe power
reduce control
DFIG’s loops generate
current draw and allcorresponding
the reference values
losses
for theInpresent
[78]. addition, control loop.control
the GSC In this system
case, specialized MPPT management
may be configured to respondyields thetobest
quickly the
active power reference P
grid’s reactive power needs for voltage support. GSC can deliver reactive power evenitif
ref [76]. While contributing to an inefficient electrical system,
isRSC
possible
cannot todo
chage the to
so due values of the Qof
the severity to be
ref the greater than
malfunction zero
[75]. Assoshown
that thein RSC
Figurecan give
8d, the
reactive power in order to keep the voltage stable. The iqref and idref can be applied in
order to acquire uqref and udref , respectively. The control design for the GSC is seen in
Figure 8c [77].
GSC’s primary function is to control the voltage across the dc connection. It is possible
to individually manage active power (DC voltage) and reactive power using the GSC control
system, which does so by manipulating the q- and d-axis currents. Reactive reference Qref is
often zeroed out to reduce DFIG’s current draw and corresponding losses [78]. In addition,
the GSC control system may be configured to respond quickly to the grid’s reactive power
needs for voltage support. GSC can deliver reactive power even if RSC cannot do so due
to the severity of the malfunction [75]. As shown in Figure 8d, the pitch angle control is
applied so that the rotor speed does not exceed its rated value. This keeps the rotor from
becoming unstable. When the wind speed is higher than its rated value, a PI controller
is used to implement the pitch controller in the system. An error signal is produced by
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 12 of 30

comparing the actual rotor speed with the reference signal when the speed of wind is lower
◦
than the rated speed (β=0 ). In contrast, a reference signal is generated when the maximum
speed is lower than the wind speed. If the rotor is going too fast, the pitch angle will be
increased to keep it under control.
Voltage control, power flow management, damping power oscillations, transient
stability, etc., are some of the key operational issues for the modern wind power sys-
tem [79]. Consequently, reactive power compensators such as static synchronous compen-
sators (STATCOM) are an effective technique for managing the voltage at the connection
point [13,79]. Although this is a cost-effective approach, the fact that these WFs require
large power transformers for both the STATCOM generators and the WT generators is
a drawback of using these WFs [80]. On the other hand, no researchers have looked at
the use of solid state transformer (SST) with full use of all functionalities, despite the fact
that it is viewed as an innovative way that integrates active power transmission, reactive
power correction, and voltage conversion [81]. Consequently, the primary contribution of
this paper is the proposal of a novel family of WF designs with an SST interface, which
effectively replaces the usual transformer and reactive power compensator.

4.4. Sliding Mode Controllers

In general, sliding mode controller (SMC) design strategies can manage nonlinear
systems and provide intelligent, resilient responses to unstable systems [82]. In [83], the
authors of this study proposed an approach for the design of SMC for use in WT systems
that uses a dual-output asynchronous generator connected directly to the grid. An easy-
to-use SMC was designed by H. De Battista and his colleagues [84] by interpolating the
rotor and stator torque with a simple static converter. In this way, system damping can
compensate for the significant loss of generator power and torque variation. The technol-
ogy is completely resistant to generator clipping faults and AC line voltage disruptions.
Furthermore, Baloch MH et al. [85], introduced an ordering alternative switching meaning
that based on job stipulations, the firing angle and generator torque characteristics may
be adjusted. The simulation results show that power grid disruptions and uncertainty in
electrical restrictions are completely resilient.
Menezes et al. [21] established two essential algorithms for miniature wind energy
conversion devices to overcome the abovementioned challenges and prevent chattering.
The authors improved both integrated variable structure controllers (IVSC) and variable
configuration. When the generator speed of the WT was at its highest, the variable structure
integral (VSCI) operated well. Although it is worth noting that VSCI performs somewhat
better than the other methods since control functions in IVSC techniques need an estimate
of the sign function. As a result, an accurate assessment of wind energy transformation
systems is required for such a control approach. Sierra et al. [86], studied the use of an SMC
for the model of a changeable structure system. Based on a differential geometric approach
to non-linear systems, this control strategy excels in dealing with uncertainty and noise.
The SMC described by the author is designed to reduce chattering, be simple, resilient, limit
disturbances, and achieve mode control. Referring to [87], variable structure control and
Lyapunov methods are used in a brushless wind power conversion system with a dual-fed
jet machine and a multiple-input-multiple-output control system. The capacity to reduce
the amount of chatter and the number of interruptions that occur can thus be attained in
this manner. Zuo et al. [88] developed a doubly-fed wind turbine system using a directly
controlled matrix converter and sliding mode control techniques instead of employing
static converters. It is important to mention that the SMC is developed and adapted using
different methods such as fractional-order SMC, high-order SMC, adaptive SMC, fuzzy
SMC, and neural network SMC. The distribution of the total number of literature focused
on SMC-based control is presented in Figure 9a [89]. Figure 9b,c shows the conventional
SMC [90] and artificial neural network (ANN)-SMC [91], respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 30

Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 13 of 30

shows the conventional SMC [90] and artificial neural network (ANN)-SMC [91], respec-
tively.

8%
Fractional-order SMC

38% High-order SMC

31% Adaptive SMC

Fuzzy SMC
Neural network SMC
Conventional SMC
5%
8% 10%

(a)
^ ANN-SMC
Wind Turbain
 Te Torque
ANN sensor
Pg
Wind

εp ^ algorithm
Pref r Speed
+ Sliding Mode v sensor
v
Controller TA e
ωr Sliding mode Te
+
controller
v
r

(b) (c)

Figure 9. (a) The distribution of research studies focused on sliding mode controller (SMC)-based
Figure 9. (a) The distribution of research studies focused on sliding mode controller (SMC)-based
control; (b) conventional SMC; and (c) artificial neural network- sliding mode controller (ANN-SMC).
control; (b) conventional SMC; and (c) artificial neural network- sliding mode controller (ANN-
SMC).
4.5. Predictive Controllers
Nonlinear
4.5. Predictive control problems with restrictions can be handled quite effectively using
Controllers
the predictive control approach. R. Ruiz-Cruz et al. [92] employed a double-fed induction
Nonlinear
machine, control problems
and anticipatory controlwith restrictions
approaches can created
were be handled for aquite
power effectively
grid thatusing
was
the predictive control approach. R. Ruiz-Cruz et al. [92] employed
coupled to wind turbine installations. Wind turbine speed fluctuations can be tracked a double-fed induction
and
machine,
utilized toand anticipatory
control reactive control
and activeapproaches were created
power, according to the forauthors
a poweringrid that was cou-
the reference [93].
pled to wind
As referred to turbine installations.non-linear
[94], state-of-the-art Wind turbine speedmodel
predictive fluctuations
control can be tracked
(NMPC) and
techniques
utilized to control reactive and active power, according to the authors
have been used to derive the highest quantity of power from the accessible wind speed. in the reference [93].
As referred
Also, to efficiency
state the [94], state-of-the-art
and performance non-linear
of thepredictive
NMPC algorithm model control (NMPC)
are higher tech-
than other
niques have been used to derive the highest quantity of power
widely used methods such as linear-quadratic Gaussian approaches, parameter ramps, from the accessible wind
speed. Also, state
proportional the efficiency
integration and performance
differentiators, etc. In of the NMPC
addition, the algorithm
authors inare higher
[95] statethan
and
other
justifywidely
that theused methods and
performance suchefficiency
as linear-quadratic
of the NMPC Gaussian
algorithm approaches,
are higher parameter
than other
ramps,
widely proportional
used methods, integration differentiators, etc.
such as linear-quadratic In addition,
Gaussian the authors
approaches, in [95]
parameter state
ramps,
and justify that the performance and efficiency of the NMPC algorithm
proportional integration differentiators, etc. S. Sabzevari et al. [96] demonstrated that model- are higher than
other widely used methods, such as linear-quadratic Gaussian
based predictive control can operate smoothly in turbulent and wind-influenced modes approaches, parameter
ramps,
and that proportional
a significantintegration
improvement differentiators, etc. S. Sabzevari
has been achieved with the et al. [96] demonstrated
model-based predictive
that model-based
control predictive
concept. According to control can operate
[90], model-free smoothly
predictive in turbulent
control strategiesand wind-influ-
for wind energy
enced modes
conversion and that
systems a significant
based improvement
on a dual-fed machinehas tiedbeen
to the achieved
networkwith are the model-based
superior to other
predictive
conventionalcontrol concept.
algorithms inAccording to [90], model-free
terms of accuracy, simplicity, predictive control
and efficiency. strategies
Figure 10 showsfor
wind energy conversion
the fundamental concept of systems based
predictive on a control
model dual-fed machine
(MPC) [97]. tied to the network are
superior to other conventional algorithms in terms of accuracy, simplicity, and efficiency.
Figure 10a shows the fundamental concept of predictive model control (MPC) [97].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 14 of 30
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30

Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Thefundamental
fundamentalconcept
conceptofofMPC
MPC[97].
[97].

4.6.Adaptive
4.6. AdaptiveControllers
Controllers
Building
Buildingan anunknown
unknownnon-linear
non-linear dynamic
dynamic model
model of aofWTa WTsystem
systemis extremely
is extremelydifficult,
diffi-
especially when adaptive control is considered. The adaptive
cult, especially when adaptive control is considered. The adaptive control approach control approach has been
has
used
beenfor
usedwindfor energy conversion
wind energy systems
conversion because
systems of the of
because severe intrinsic
the severe nonlinear
intrinsic char-
nonlinear
acteristics. According
characteristics. Accordingto [98],
to many directdirect
[98], many adaptive control
adaptive systems
control have have
systems been been
developed.
devel-
In referring to [92], the author’s attention was drawn to two different
oped. In referring to [92], the author’s attention was drawn to two different control strat- control strategies:
one way
egies: oneuses
way preliminary estimations
uses preliminary of wind
estimations ofturbine systemsystem
wind turbine non-linearities as a basis
non-linearities as a
for supervisory control; the other uses unique dynamics in the wind power conversion
basis for supervisory control; the other uses unique dynamics in the wind power conver-
system to eliminate tracking error and achieve a radial system. The authors concentrated
sion system to eliminate tracking error and achieve a radial system. The authors concen-
on the direct adaptive control technique in a way that differs from the authors’ focus on
trated on the direct adaptive control technique in a way that differs from the authors’
wind speed tracking, as they sought to achieve asymptotically stable turbine speeds by
focus on wind speed tracking, as they sought to achieve asymptotically stable turbine
optimizing their wind speed measurement tracking control instead of focusing on wind
speeds by optimizing their wind speed measurement tracking control instead of focusing
speed tracking [92,93]. Lyapunov approach of self-tuning proportional–integral–derivative
on wind speed tracking [92,93]. Lyapunov approach of self-tuning proportional–integral–
(PID) controllers for wind turbine systems has been researched and studied in [94]. The
derivative (PID) controllers for wind turbine systems has been researched and studied in
authors proposed this control method in which the limitations of the PID controller of
[94]. The authors proposed this control method in which the limitations of the PID con-
the wind turbine dynamic system were first evaluated and upgraded by learning the im-
troller of the wind turbine dynamic system were first evaluated and upgraded by learning
pulse response filter. As referred to [95,96], the adaptive control method based on the idea
the impulse response filter. As referred to [95,96], the adaptive control method based on
of Lyapunov is more appropriate. It responds better to wind turbine changes than the
the idea of Lyapunov
self-regulating control is more appropriate. It responds better to wind turbine changes than
strategy.
the self-regulating control strategy.
4.7. Robust Controllers
4.7. Robust Controllers
According to [12,99–102], many researchers have developed a stable controller because
of theAccording
inconsistencyto [12,99–102],
of wind speed many researchers
in power haveThe
systems. developed a stable controller
aforementioned publications be-
cause of the
suggested inconsistency
feedback of wind speed
loop techniques mayinbe power
used systems.
to determine The aforementioned
maximum power publica-
and
tions suggested
reduced feedbackInloop
load variation. thistechniques may becontrol
regard, a robust used to solution
determine formaximum
the optimal power and
power
reduced
output load
of the variation.
VSWT In thisinregard,
is proposed [103]. Thea robust
resultscontrol solution
of this study for the
showed thatoptimal power
the proposed
output of increased
controller the VSWTthe is proposed
WT energy in output,
[103]. The results of
estimated to this
be instudy showed
the range that the
of 15% pro-
to 20%,
posed controller increased the WT energy output, estimated
compared to a WT with the same rotor and a fixed transmission. In Ref. [104], robust to be in the range of 15% to
20%, compared
control of a twin toWTsa WT with the
structure same
based onrotor and amode
a sliding fixedcontroller
transmission. In Ref. [104],
is designed robust
to track the
control of power
maximum a twin WTs structure the
by controlling based on speed
rotor a sliding
andmodethe yawcontroller
rotation is but
designed
without to track
the yawthe
maximum
actuator. The power by controlling
performances of thethe rotor speed
proposed andstrategy
control the yaware rotation
compared but without the yaw
to the standard
actuator. The performances
proportional-integral of the
controller andproposed
show better control strategy are compared to the standard
results.
proportional-integral
Two of the best advance controller
andand show
robust better results.
controllers are H2 and H∞. Both controllers are
Two of the best advance and robust controllers are H
advanced robust-control strategies used for linear systems 2 and H∞. a
considering Both controllers
bounded range are
of
advanced robust-control strategies used for linear systems considering a bounded range
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 15 of 30

external disturbances plus modeling uncertainties. These two controllers are used in wind
energy systems to ensure a high-quality power supply. For instance, R. Rocha et al. [105]
improved that it is necessary to compare the efficiency of H-infinity and H-2 controlled in
terms of wind energy conversion systems to justify the difference. When compared to H-2
control principles, the H-infinity controller is shown to provide a more robust mechanism
and have the shortest reaction time possible. Finally, the findings lead to the conclusion
that neither the H-infinity controller nor the H-2 controller is appropriate for use with WT
energy systems that vary in speed. The wind turbine systems’ internal organization may
benefit and be made easy by the power control approaches. In light of these ambiguous
circumstances, the authors in [106] state that adapting the induction machine restrictions
while still maintaining an efficient response to an unknown wind speed has been a focus of
research for wind turbine systems using a linear time-invariant function. Robust control
of variable-speed wind turbines based on an aerodynamic torque observer is proposed
in [107]. This study showed that the proposed control policy is effective in terms of optimal
power extraction and is robust with respect to uncertainties affecting the system.
Many researchers [108,109], proposed gain programmed controllers using estimates of
wind turbine torque at their maximum operating points, which are provided by anemome-
ters and Kalman filters (KF). From the available literature, it can be safely concluded that
this controller exhibits high efficiency, has the ability to compensate for uncertainties and
provide system stability. However, this controller’s drawback is its control scheme’s com-
plexity. An increase in the mechanical stress of the WT as a result of sudden changes in
control variables is another major setback for the pitch controller. It is necessary to state
that robust controllers depend on the prior insight of the WT system and its mechanical
model. The robust controller integrates feedforward, feedback system and sliding mode
control to improve the robustness of pitch angle control in WT systems [12].

4.8. Optimal Controllers

Many scientists have put forward their own theories on how to get the most out of
wind speed as well as the optimal approach for managing WTs under various wind condi-
tions has yet to be found [110,111]. The optimum control techniques for MPPT wind power
conversion systems employing fixed-pitch permanent magnet synchronous machines were
subsequently advocated in [112]. The authors combined the DC voltage characteristics vs.
maximum projected DC power and the stator frequency of permanent magnet machines
using this optimum control technique to enable the wind power conversion system to
function at its maximum power output. No further methods, such as wind speed moni-
toring, were required to determine the optimal power level of wind turbines. Refereeing
to [113], which claimed that the fast flourier transform might be utilized to find the point of
greatest power between the rotational speed and the dimensionless power factor derived
from the calculated power. The direct drive control technique, which is innovative and
straightforward for permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) using a variable speed
WT, is presented in [114]. Under constant and variable load situations, simple and less
expensive vector control concepts were used to regulate frequency and voltage under
unpredictable wind conditions to monitor the peak power point of a small WT system
under distant power supply locations.

4.9. Neural Network Controllers

The maximum power of an artificial neural network (ANN) can be tracked in both
stationary and dynamic situations, as well as a wind speed tracking system that is faster
than an anemometer [115]. This method can be used to construct hardware, so a digital
controller is not necessary. The best wind speed rotation for MPPT under unpredictable
wind speed conditions was predicted using an ANN [116]. It was suggested that an ANN
be utilized to define the reference tracking speed of the rotor using four input signals:
rotor speed, output power, wind speed, and ideal power. The study’s findings show that
an effective ANN control method for wind energy conversion systems with PMSM has
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16

Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 rotor speed, output power, wind speed, and ideal power. The study’s 16 findings
of 30 show
an effective ANN control method for wind energy conversion systems with PMSM
been developed. Wind turbine system performance may be improved using a mode
veloped by researchers using Markov and ANN [106,117]. With these strategies, it
been developed. Wind turbine system performance may be improved using a model
developed by been demonstrated that generator speed fluctuations are reduced and increasing
researchers using Markov and ANN [106,117]. With these strategies, it has
safety of the
been demonstrated that WT system
generator speedand the ability
fluctuations aretoreduced
generateand
more electricity
increasing thefrom
safetyvarying w
speeds.
of the WT system and the ability to generate more electricity from varying wind speeds.

4.10.
4.10. Fuzzy Logic Fuzzy Logic Controllers
Controllers
There has been There
a lothas been a lot
of interest of interest in understanding-based
in understanding-based control strategiescontrol
forstrategies
WECS. for W
As it is well-known, fuzzy logic control (FLC) in wind
As it is well-known, fuzzy logic control (FLC) in wind turbine systems has been studied turbine systems has been stu
only up to this point. FLC techniques can be used to track
only up to this point. FLC techniques can be used to track the speed of WT using the the speed of WT using the cy
cyclo-converterconverter
conceptconcept
[108]. The[108].authors
The authors
in [109] in have
[109] developed
have developed an FLCan FLC to extract the
to extract
the best wind wind
speedspeed and control
and control unknown
unknown windwindspeeds.speeds.
The The developed
developed techniques
techniques werewere teste
tested on real real metrological
metrological data.
data. TheThe results
results of the
of the suggested
suggested fuzzy
fuzzy designshow
design showthatthatby
by utilizin
800kW
utilizing an 800 kWwind
wind turbine
turbine system,
system, Fuzzy
Fuzzycontrollers
controllerscan canenhance
enhance wind
windturbine performan
turbine
performance atallallwind
windturbine
turbinespeeds,
speeds,including
including the lowest, rated,
the lowest, rated, and
andmaximum
maximumspeeds. speeds. An FL
used in [118] and showed good performance for wind
An FLC is used in [118] and showed good performance for wind speeds below and over speeds below and over the r
the rated wind wind
speed.speed. Using
Using bilinear
bilinear matrix
matrix inequalities,
inequalities, thethe authors
authors created
created a fuzzy contr
a fuzzy
based
controller based on H-infinity
on H-infinity methods
methods [118].
[118]. TheThe two-step
two-step approach
approach of of
LMIsLMIs [118,119]
[118,119] is is reduce
reduced in thisthis controller
controller class,which
class, whichmay maybebeevaluated
evaluatedefficiently
efficiently utilizing
utilizing the
the convex
convex optimiza
principle.
optimization principle.

4.11. Control
4.11. Unified DFIG Unified DFIG Control
A hierarchicalAcontrol
hierarchical
systemcontrol
governssystem governs the
the operation operation
of wind of wind
turbines; turbines;
global controlglobal con
goals by
goals are achieved are modifying
achieved by modifying
inputs inputs tocontrol
to subordinate subordinate
loops.control loops. The operati
The operational
characteristicscharacteristics
of the dynamic of the
anddynamic and stable
stable states guidestates guide the of
the allocation allocation
control of control dutie
duties.
representation of the global control system is shown in Figure 11. The rotor speed, rea
A representation of the global control system is shown in Figure 11. The rotor speed,
reactive power,power,
dc-linkdc-link voltage,
voltage, energy
energy produced,
produced, andstator
and the the stator flux are
flux size sizeamong
are among
the the con
that the unified DFIG WT architecture aims to achieve [120]. Internal control loops on
controls that the unified DFIG WT architecture aims to achieve [120]. Internal control loops
on the SGSC andSGSCMSC andgovern
MSC govern stator
stator flux flux
and theand thecurrent,
rotor rotor current, respectively.
respectively.

Stator flux command Rotor current command generator

generator Turbine speed
Field Reactive command
DC bus oriented power generator
regulation control regulation

Stator flux Rotor current Turbine

Control regulator regulator speed regulator

Plant
Grid SGSC PGSR MSC DFIG Turbine

Feedback
Signal Stator flux
conditioning estimator

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Fundamental Fundamental
concept Unified concept Unified
DFIG wind DFIG
turbine wind
layout turbine
with layout
the global with the
control global control s
structure.
ture.
In order to manage the MSC’s current flow, torque, and wind power plant collector
In order
reactive power control tomust
loops manage the MSC’s
be used. Statorcurrent flow, torque,
flux regulation and wind
commands are power plant colle
derived
reactive
via the outer loop power
dc link control
voltage andloops must
dc link be magnitude
flux used. Statorregulators.
flux regulation commands
The SGSC and are der
PGSR will swap power processing duties throughout the transition from sub- to super-
synchronous operation; thus, these two outside loops supplying the flux command are
flexible enough to handle that [88]. Blade pitch actuators control rotor speed to reduce the
throttle mechanical torque output and coefficient of performance [72].
 via the outer loop dc link voltage and dc link flux magnitude regulators. The SGSC and
PGSR will swap power processing duties throughout the transition from sub- to super-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 synchronous operation; thus, these two outside loops supplying the flux command 17 are
of 30
flexible enough to handle that [88]. Blade pitch actuators control rotor speed to reduce the
throttle mechanical torque output and coefficient of performance [72].
For
Forthe
the turbine speed
speedcommand
commandgenerator
generator and
and regulator,
regulator, the pitching
the pitching of theofWT
theblades
WT
blades is utilized
is utilized to regulate
to regulate the turbine’s
the turbine’s rotorbyspeed
rotor speed by reducing
reducing the mechanical
the mechanical torque
torque produced
produced
(Figure 12).(Figure 12).
It is set toItthe
is set to thepossible
greatest greatestspeed
possible
forspeed for each
each unit unit of measurement
of measurement [110]. The
[110].
rotor The
speedrotor speed instruction
instruction is limited to is alimited to aby
safe level safe level by ablock.
a saturation saturation block. Propor-
Proportional-integral
tional-integral
regulator based regulator basedspeed
on the rotor on the rotor
error speed error
is utilized is utilized
to regulate to regulate
the blade the blade
pitch angle. It is
pitch angle.
possible to It is possible enhance
significantly to significantly
the blade enhance the blade pitch responsiveness
pitch responsiveness for long-duration forsags
long-by
duration sags by feeding
feeding forward voltage forward voltage sag
sag information information [111].
[111].

r max  K IB  * Blade Pitch 

+
K PB + Dynamics
s
ref
Figure 12. Turbine speed command generator and speed regulator.
Figure 12. Turbine
4.12. Machine andspeed
Grid command generator and speed regulator.
Side Controllers
The MSC
4.12. Machine and controls variable
Grid Side speed operation to increase energy harvesting. The MSC is
Controllers
responsible for regulating the rotor speed to achieve the highest level of system stability
andThepower.MSC On controls
the othervariable
hand, speed
the GSC operation to increase
is responsible energy harvesting.
for controlling the DC link Thevoltage
MSC
isofresponsible for regulating the rotor speed to achieve the highest
the converter in addition to the reactive and active power that is delivered into the grid, level of system stability
and power.
as can On the
be seen other hand,
in Figure the GSCThe
13a [40,112]. is responsible
rotor speedfor controlling
control and the theresponse
DC link voltage
of DFIG
ofgrid-side
the converter
T-typeinconverters
addition toare thedisplayed
reactive and active13b,c
in Figure power that is delivered into the grid,
[113].
as canField-oriented
be seen in Figure control13a(FOC)
[40,112]. The rotor
and direct torque speed control
control (DTC) and
arethetworesponse
categories ofofDFIG
MSC.
grid-side T-type converters are displayed in Figure 13b,c
Dynamic performance and characteristics of FOC and DTC are quite comparable [112]. For [113].
Field-oriented
controlling generator control
speed, (FOC)
FOCand usesdirect
a dualtorque control (DTC)
loop controller mechanismare two(outercategories
loop and of
MSC. Dynamic performance and characteristics of FOC
inner loop). The outer loop control needs rotor position and speed to produce a referenceand DTC are quite comparable
[112].
current Forfor
controlling generator
the three phases. speed,orFOC
Natural uses a dual
synchronous loop controller
reference frames are mechanism
commonly (outer
used
loop
as theand inner
basis forloop). The outer
the control loop control
of intra-loops needs
[114]. Forrotor
optimum position and speed totorque
electromagnetic produce witha
reference
the smallest current
amount for the three phases.
of stator current,Natural
the d-axis or synchronous
current of thereference
stator is frames
zeroedare outcom-
[121],
monly
and the used as the
stator basisq-axis
current for theis control
used to of intra-loops
regulate [114]. Forelectromagnetic
the produced optimum electromagnetictorque [122].
torque
Due to the FOC’s direct current management, more of the machine’s of
with the smallest amount of stator current, the d-axis current theefficiency
ideal stator is zeroed
is used
out
for [121],
torqueand the stator
output. Fastercurrent
reaction q-axis is used
and less to regulate
complexity canthe producedwith
be achieved electromagnetic
direct torque
torque
and power[122].control
Due tothrough
the FOC’s directsystem
the DTC current management,
[123]. Double-loop more DTC ofistheno machine’s ideal
longer necessary.
efficiency
A convertibleis used for torque
switching pulse output. Faster directly
is generated reactionfrom and thelesshysteresis
complexity can be achieved
compensator output
with
and direct torque
flux angle and power
[124]. To evaluatecontrolthe through the DTCofsystem
performance DTC, it [123]. Double-loop
is necessary DTCinto
to take is
noaccount
longerthe torque and
necessary. current ripples.
A convertible switching The pulse
dynamic characteristics
is generated directly of from
both thecontrollers
hyste-
are identical
resis compensator [125].output
The DTC andcontrollers
flux angleprovide[124]. Tobenefits,
evaluate including getting rid
the performance of of the rotor
DTC, it is
speed sensor,
necessary to take notintohaving
accounta current regulation
the torque loop, and
and current having
ripples. Thequicker
dynamic reaction times. The
characteristics
ofmain
bothdisadvantage
controllers are of aidentical
DTC controller
[125]. The is theDTC need for variable
controllers switching
provide frequency.
benefits, including The
kind ofrid
getting generator
of the rotorconverter
speedconnected
sensor, not to the system
having has no regulation
a current bearing onloop, the GSC.and The havinggrid
integration
quicker of WECS
reaction times.isTheprimarily the focus of GSC.
main disadvantage of a DTCGSCcontroller
is classified intoneed
is the the direct power
for variable
control (DPC) and voltage-oriented control (VOC) categories
switching frequency. The kind of generator converter connected to the system has no bear- [126]. Because both VOC and
FOC use a dual-loop control mechanism, they may be
ing on the GSC. The grid integration of WECS is primarily the focus of GSC. GSC is clas- compared. When using the VOC
technique,
sified into theyou’ll
direct have the option
power controlof(DPC) usingand either PI or hysteresis-based
voltage-oriented controlcategories
control (VOC) in either a
synchronous
[126]. Because both frameVOC of reference
and FOCoruse a natural
a dual-loop frame of reference
control for your
mechanism, they internal
may becurrent
com-
and DC
pared. link using
When voltage thecontrol loops. When
VOC technique, you’llthe have
q-axisthe is option
positioned so that
of using it reads
either PI orzero
hyste- for
the given reference, it is possible to realize the unity power
resis-based control in either a synchronous frame of reference or a natural frame of refer- factor [126]. VOC has a high
steady-state
ence for yourcapability, quick response
internal current and DCtime, linksuperior
voltage power controlquality,
loops.and Whenlowthe power ripple.
q-axis is
Their disadvantages are the reactive and active components of the VOC, as well as the need
for a reference system [127]. A comprehensive evaluation of the MSC/GSC management
approach is shown in Table 1 [128–131]. The controller based on VOC and FOC provides
a suitable presentation with high efficacy for network incorporation, according to the
aforementioned studies.
 positioned so that it reads zero for the given reference, it is possible to realize the unity
power factor [126]. VOC has a high steady-state capability, quick response time, superior
power quality, and low power ripple. Their disadvantages are the reactive and active com-
ponents of the VOC, as well as the need for a reference system [127]. A comprehensive
evaluation of the MSC/GSC management approach is shown in Table 1 [128–131]. The
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 18 of 30
controller based on VOC and FOC provides a suitable presentation with high efficacy for
network incorporation, according to the aforementioned studies.

WT Machine side Grid side

converter converter Utility Grid
Wind
Bus Transformer Bus
Generator

Capacitor
DC-link
Wind

mTm
Generated Grid
Duty Duty
cycle
Vdc cycle current/ Voltage &
PWM PWM voltage Output
Power
MSC controller GSC controller
Generated
Generated
Voltage

Voltage
Current

Output
Torque

power
Grid
Vdc

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 13. (a) MSC- and GSC-based controller for WECS; (b) Rotor side control [113]; and (c) Grid
Figure 13. (a) MSC- and GSC-based controller for WECS; (b) Rotor side control [113]; and (c) Grid
side of DFIG active power [113].
side of DFIG active power [113].
Table 1. A comparison of the MSC-based and GSC-based techniques.
Table 1. A comparison of the MSC-based and GSC-based techniques.
GSC MSC
Parameter GSC MSC
Parameter DPC VOC DTC FOC
DPC VOC DTC FOC
Implementation Simple Complex Simple Complex
Implementation
Dynamic Response time Simple
Low Complex
High Simple
Low Complex
High
Dynamic Response time Low High Low High
Power quality Poor Better Poor Better
Power quality Poor Better Poor Better
Coordinate
Coordinate transformation Not Required Required Not Required Required
Not Required Required Not Required Required
Power and current ripple
transformation More Less More Less
Power and
Internal current
current regulationMore
Not RequiredLessRequired More
Not RequiredLessRequired
ripple
loop
Internal current
Power quality Not Required
Poor Required
Better NotPoor
Required Required
Better
regulation loop
Parameter Sensitivity
Power quality Poor Insensitive Sensitive
Better Insensitive
Poor Sensitive
Better
Parameter Sensitivity Insensitive Sensitive Insensitive Sensitive
Rotor position sensor
- - Not Required Required
requirement
Torque ripple - - More Less
DC-link Voltage ripple High Low - -
 Rotor position sensor
- - Not Required Required
requirement
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 Torque ripple - - More Less 19 of 30
DC- link Voltage ripple High Low - -

4.13.
4.13. MPPT
MPPTControllers
Controllers
WECS
WECS needs to
needs to have
have an
an MPPT
MPPT algorithm
algorithmso so that
that the
the highest
highest feasible
feasible power
power can
can be
be
harvested
harvested fromfrom the
the wind,
wind, which
which changes
changes dynamically
dynamically with with wind
wind speed. The The greatest
greatest
amount
amountof ofelectricity
electricitymay maybebeextracted
extractedfrom
fromaagenerator
generatorat ataacertain
certainspeed,
speed,depending
dependingon on
the
thewind
windspeed
speed[24].
[24]. Above
Aboveaacertain
certaingenerator
generatorspeed,
speed,thetheamount
amountof ofelectricity
electricitygenerated
generated
decreases
decreasessignificantly.
significantly.Consequently,
Consequently, thethe
variable speed
variable wind
speed turbine
wind uses uses
turbine an MPPT con-
an MPPT
controller
troller to monitor
to monitor the the precise
precise speed
speed andand harvest
harvest thethe highestquantity
highest quantityofofpower
power[40].
[40]. As
As
shown in Figure 14a, the MPPT controller is mainly used in the second
shown in Figure 14a, the MPPT controller is mainly used in the second working area. The working area. The
wind turbines
wind turbinesin inthe
the second
secondzone
zonetend
tendto toharvest
harvestthethehighest
highestamount
amountofofelectricity
electricity[132].
[132].
Inthe
In thethird
thirdsection,
section,thethepower
powerproduction
production isisstabilized
stabilizedby bylowering
loweringthethemechanical
mechanicalspeed
speed
to avoid
to avoid causing
causing damage
damage to to the
the WT
WT and
and generator
generator [133]. Figure
Figure 14a
14a depicts
depicts the
the WECS
WECS
MPPT topology in
MPPT initsitsmost
mostbasic
basicform
form of of
MPPTMPPT[24,39,40]. For For
[24,39,40]. example, the authors
example, in [134],
the authors in
proposed an MPPT controller using the direct and indirect methods for
[134], proposed an MPPT controller using the direct and indirect methods for WECS. Fig- WECS. Figure 14b
displays
ure the simulation
14b displays results of the
the simulation proposed
results of theMPPT
proposedmethodMPPTby modeling
method by a range of wind
modeling a
speeds [134].
range of wind speeds [134].

WT
Wind
Generator Vg I g
To Grid
Wind

mTm Duty
cycle
Measured
Maximum power value error PWM
+ generator
point tracking -

Vg I g m Tm Rated value

(a)
(b)

Figure
Figure 14.
14. (a)
(a) Control of the
Control of the conversion
conversionof
ofwind
windenergy
energybased
basedonon MPPT
MPPT and
and (b)(b) Keeping
Keeping track
track of
of the
the maximum wind power during a series of wind speeds [134].
maximum wind power during a series of wind speeds [134].

Advanced
Advanced MPPT MPPT algorithms
algorithms thatthat are
are widely
widely used
used are
are called
called perturb
perturb and
and observe
observe
(P&O) or hill climb search (HCS) [135–137], power signal feedback (PSF)
(P&O) or hill climb search (HCS) [135–137], power signal feedback (PSF) [138,139], tip speed [138,139], tip
speed ratio (TSR)
ratio (TSR) [140,141],
[140,141], an optimum
an optimum torquetorque controller
controller andand other
other softsoft computing
computing meth-
methods
ods
suchsuch as artificial
as artificial neural
neural network
network (ANN)and
(ANN) andfuzzy
fuzzylogic
logiccontroller
controller (FLC)
(FLC) [142,143]
[142,143] and
and
aa hybrid
hybrid ofof the
the above
above controller
controller [144–146].
[144–146]. Various
Various sensorless
sensorless solutions
solutions have
have recently
recently
gained
gainedpopularity
popularitydue dueto tothe
the lack
lack of
of anemometers
anemometersand and other
other costly
costlysensors
sensorsandand effective
effective
accuracy
accuracy with a rapid switching rate. Table 2 compares the various
a rapid switching rate. Table 2 compares the various types of MPPT types of MPPT con-
controller
troller techniques
techniques relatedrelated
to WECS.to WECS. Therebemust
There must be an understanding
an understanding of the prior
of the system systemto prior
using
to
theusing
power thesignal
power signal feedback
feedback method. It method. It isinto
is entered entered into the
the lookup lookup
table table
instead of instead
measuringof
measuring
maximum maximum
power andpower and shaft
shaft speed [147].speed [147].sophisticated
The most The most sophisticated
PSF methodPSF method
records DC
records
voltage DC
andvoltage and DC
DC [133,148]. The[133,148]. The lookup
lookup table parametertableandparameter
availableandwind available winda
speed have
speed have aand
connection, connection, and this isrelationship
this relationship is usedthe
used to calculate to optimum
calculate the optimum
power. power.
The system’s
mostsystem’s
The significant mostdownside is itsdownside
significant complicated implementation
is its [149]. An MPPT[149].
complicated implementation approach
An
commonly
MPPT employed
approach is HCSemployed
commonly or P&O. Thisis HCSmethod
or P&O.alters
Thisinput voltage
method or duty
alters inputcycle, for
voltage
example, by looking at the previous cycle’s output power and generating the necessary
step size for the next one [135].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 20 of 30

Table 2. Different MPPT controller in wind energy: A comparison.

Techniques/Parameter TSR SCT HCS OTC PSF Hybrid

Efficiency Very High High Low Moderate-High Moderate Very High
Complexity Simple - Simple Simple Simple -
Convergence speed Fast Medium Low Fast Fast Fast
Wind speed
Required Required Not Required Not Required Required Not Required
measurement
Prior knowledge Required Not Required Not Required Required Required Depends
Tolerance to rapid
Moderate-high High Low Moderate-high Moderate Very High
variation
Sensitivity No No No Yes Yes Depends
Memory requirement Not Required Not Required Not Required Depends Required Depends

5. Converter Applications
More and more industries and applications are relying on converters because it is
becoming more cost-effective, dependable, flexible, and easy to integrate into various
systems. Converter applications on energy saving, electric vehicles (EV), renewable energy
systems, and future sustainable technologies are also discussed.

5.1. Energy Savings

Reducing the amount of electricity generated by fossil fuel-based power plants and
hence lowering pollution levels is one way to save energy [150]. As previously stated,
converter devices are naturally more efficient in general energy processing applications
than other types of devices. It is time to talk about a few more energy-saving ideas.
A considerable portion of grid energy is used to power electric motor drives in the United
States and other Western nations (60% or more), with pumps, fans, and compressors
accounting for the majority of these (usually 75%). A 20% reduction in energy use under a
light load may be achieved by switching to a motor speed controlled by a variable frequency
instead of a constant voltage motor speed [18].

5.2. Electric Vehicles

Research and uses of electric and hybrid vehicles are primarily motivated by the
oil shortage and environmental pollution management. Energy is also conserved when
EV/HEVs replace internal combustion engine cars. However, the power used to charge
a battery must come from a clean, renewable source such as a wind power system. Al-
ternatively, in case of fossil fuels are used to create energy, urban pollution is transmitted
to the power plant. Similarly, an electric vehicle powered by renewable energy or fuel
cell may be utilized to create electricity that generates hydrogen gas as fuel. Figure 15
depicts an EV driving system [151], in which the battery serves as the energy storage
device. An IGBT-based PWM inverter converts the direct current to variable voltage power
and variable frequency that powers an internal permanent magnet (IPM) synchronous
motor. The IPM machine features improved performance, a smaller footprint, and a large
field-weakening area for optimal control of speed. The primary reason why EVs consume
less energy is because of regeneration, which recovers braking energy.

5.3. Converter-Interfaced Renewable Energy Systems

A significant amount of the world’s energy demand may be fulfilled by encouraging
environmentally friendly renewable sources [152–154]. Currently, the entire planet is going
in that direction. Unlike fossil and nuclear energy sources, RES is not exhausted as they are
used. The primary renewable energy sources include hydropower, solar, wind, biofuels,
wave, geothermal, and tidal, which are plentiful and ecologically friendly. It is noteworthy
to note that 22.9% of electrical energy in the US is presently generated from renewable
sources, [155] which is greater than the proportion of nuclear power. There is currently
hope for a 100% renewable power system in the US by 2050 based on current trends [156].
Denmark has set a high bar for itself, aiming to generate all of its power and heat from
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 21 of 30

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

renewable sources by 2035 and eliminate the use of all fossil fuels by the year 2050 [157].
21 of 30
The authors in [158], expected that renewable energy sources may meet the world’s total
energy demand provided storage and transmission capacity are enough.

DC-bus voltage Inverter

Idc
S1 S3 S5 IPM Motor
Shaft
Battery

vao vbo
Cdc vco
Vdc

Phase current
feedback
S2 S4 S6

Torque command Rotor angle

Inverter Motor
Controller
feedback

Figure
Figure15.
15.Schematic
Schematicrepresentation
representationofof
the IPM
the machine
IPM (GEETXII)
machine being
(GEETXII) used
being to power
used an electric
to power an elec-
vehicle.
tric vehicle.

5.3.1.
5.3. Wind Energy Systems
Converter-Interfaced Renewable Energy Systems
Figure 16a depicts
A significant amounta typical
of the wind generating
world’s system in
energy demand which
may a speedup
be fulfilled by gear connects
encouraging
the shaft of an ac machine to a wind turbine with variable speed along with conversion
environmentally friendly renewable sources [152–154]. Currently, the entire planet is go-
devices [159]. Before feeding it to a grid using a step-up transformer, PWM converters
ing in that direction. Unlike fossil and nuclear energy sources, RES is not exhausted as
convert the voltage and frequency variable values to a constant value. Alternatively, it
they are used. The primary renewable energy sources include hydropower, solar, wind,
can produce a self-sufficient load for itself. The alternating currents on the ac sides have
biofuels, wave, geothermal, and tidal, which are plentiful and ecologically friendly. It is
a sinusoidal waveform and a power factor that can be adjusted. As depicted, the control
noteworthy to note that 22.9% of electrical energy in the US is presently generated from
system detects the arbitrary wind speed and controls the generator speed to optimal
renewable sources, [155] which is greater than the proportion of nuclear power. There is
energy production. MPPT allows for the identification of the maximum power point. By
currently hope for a 100% renewable power system in the US by 2050 based on current
coordinating the line current and phase voltage, the line-side converter is able to keep the
trends [156]. Denmark has set a high bar for itself, aiming to generate all of its power
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW and
22 of 30
dc link voltage under control and hence regulate it. The design depicted in Figure 16a
heat from renewable sources by 2035 and eliminate the use of all fossil fuels by the year
applies equally to four-quadrant industrial drive systems.
2050 [157]. The authors in [158], expected that renewable energy sources may meet the
world’s total energy demand provided storage and transmission capacity are enough.
WT DC/AC Transformer Vgri
PV R L PCC
Inverter a A d

5.3.1. Wind Energy Systems

Wind S1 S3 S5 S1 S3 S5 Array
+ DC R L
Generator
vao
vao
~ = R L
b B

Figure Cdc 16a depicts a typical wind generating AC system in whichc a speedup gear con-
Wind

vbo v bo Vdc C
-
v v co c
nects the shaft of an ac machine to a wind turbine with variable speed along with conver-
co
mTm Grid Voltage

w
sion devices [159]. Before feeding it to a grid using a step-up transformer, PWM converters
S2 S4 S6 S2 S4 S6 Utility Grid abc SPWM
dq
f
convert HP-Controller
the voltage and frequency variable values to a constant value. Alternatively, it can
*
Voltage Outer Loop Vd* Vq
i i i V Current Inner Loop Igrid V grid

produce a self-sufficient load forV itself.−1 The alternating currents on the ac sides have a
dc
+

Speed a b c * *
controller dc I d - I d θ
+

V PI +*
PI + + dq PLL
 + + wL abc
sinusoidal waveform and a power factor that canI be adjusted. As depicted, the control
* dc

f v v v a b c
X Vd Iq
d

B system detects the PI arbitrary wind speed and controls + the generator speed to optimal en-
* is the reference
A w
Power

MPPT value PI + +
v C * + L
Iq
ergy
v v
v
production.
w1
w2 V MPPT
d
allows for the identification Iq of the maximum
Vq
power
Vd Vq point. By
+

w3
w w w
coordinating the line current and phase voltage, the line-side converter is able to keep the
Vpv

r3 r2 r1
Ipv

*
Gen. Speed V d

(a)dc link voltage under control and hence regulate it. The design depicted in Figure 16a
(b)

applies
Figure
Figure16.
equally
16.(a)
(a)Wind
to four-quadrant
Windpower powergeneration
industrial
generationsystem systemutilizing
drive systems.
utilizingan aninduction
inductiongenerator
generatorand andpower
powerelectronics
electronics
conversion,
conversion, (b)
(b) Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic power
power conversion
conversion system.
system.

5.3.2. Photovoltaic
5.3.2. PhotovoltaicSystems
Systems
PVPV systems
systems and
and solar
solar thermo-electric
thermo-electric systems
systemsare
are the
the two
two main
main categories
categories of
of solar
solar
electrical energy [160]. In the first scenario, mirrors focus solar heat on turning water
electrical energy[160]. In the first scenario, mirrors focus solar heat on turning water into into
steam. This steam then powers a turbo-generator system, which generates energy. These
solar cells (Si, CdTe, CdGe) turn sunlight directly into energy when used in a photovoltaic
system (PV). In either case, the produced dc is subsequently converted to ac and supplied
into the grid or utilized to power the system. With a PV array (series-parallel cell connec-
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 22 of 30

steam. This steam then powers a turbo-generator system, which generates energy. These
solar cells (Si, CdTe, CdGe) turn sunlight directly into energy when used in a photovoltaic
system (PV). In either case, the produced dc is subsequently converted to ac and supplied
into the grid or utilized to power the system. With a PV array (series-parallel cell connection)
coupled to a DC-DC converter for voltage boost and an AC inverter (PWM), this is a typical
PV system setup shown in Figure 16b. The ac grid is fed by transformers that connect many
units. Using the MPPT search method, the dc–dc converter regulates the array’s maximum
available power output. Applications that necessitate a large amount of electricity can
use converters at many levels. Inverters allow users to control both active and reactive
power [161].

5.4. Future Wind Energy Converter Technologies

Future research on wind systems will mainly be based on how well the system con-
nected to the grid performs in fault recovery (FRT) mode. New ground has also been
broken in the area of WECS concerning the gathering network for offshore wind power
installations using PE devices [15]. The input parameters for each transducer can be mini-
mized with a multi-purpose tilt controller and an MPPT controller. This is also an excellent
way to plan for future controllers [116]. Most wind turbines being constructed today rely
on power conversion that occurs at low voltage sides. In order to accommodate the rapidly
expanding capacity of wind farms and wind turbines, it is projected that new converters
technologies will be developed that will be capable of providing more efficient and reliable
power conversion at greater voltage levels (1–10 kV) in the near future [162]. There has
been a significant amount of improvement made to converters and semiconductor devices.
Because of their ability to convert greater voltages and powers, multilevel converters may
soon replace full-scale power converters as the most popular option for WTC that are based
on power conversion [59]. Figure 17a shows how the three-level active/non-active neutral-
point diode clamped (3L-NPC/ANPC) converter that applied in different wind power
applications. One of the multilevel topologies utilized most frequently on the market today
is the 3L-NPC/ANPC. This type of converter reaches one additional voltage level and
reduces dv/dt stress compared to the 2L-VSC converter; consequently, medium-voltage
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 30
power may be generated [163,164]. Figure 17b shows the converter system that utilizes a
solid-state dc transformer designed for use in various applications of wind power [163,164].

LVAC MVDC
DC AC grid
=
~
~ = bus
AC DC
MVDC
DC
LVAC AC
To
~ =
Dual Active Bridge
=
~
grid

Generator DC AC
DC AC
= ~ =
~
AC DC
Solid state DC transformer
(a)
(b)

Figure
Figure17.
17.(a)
(a)Converter
Converter (3L-NPC
(3L-NPC BTB) used for
BTB) used forwind
windturbines
turbines[164];
[164];(b)(b)
AA converter
converter system
system thatthat
utilizes a solid-state dc transformer is designed for use in wind power applications.
utilizes a solid-state dc transformer is designed for use in wind power applications.

Based
Basedonon the EuropeanUNIFLEX-PM
the European UNIFLEX-PM project
project andand the American
the American FREEDM FREEDM
project project
[81],
[81], the WTC
the WTC mightmight also benefit
also benefit from anfrom an improved
improved converter converter design
design that has athat has idea
similar a similar
to
idea to the traction
the traction converters
converters of theThere
of the future. future.
areThere
many are many dual-active-bridge
dual-active-bridge (DAB) building (DAB)
building blocks
blocks with with galvanic
galvanic isolation,isolation,
as shownas in shown in Figure
Figure 17b, which17(b),
is thewhich is the
basis for thisbasis
solid-for
this solid-state
state dc transformer.
dc transformer. Due to medium-frequency
Due to medium-frequency excitation,
excitation, the size andthe weight
size andofweight
the
of the transformer within the DAB may be reduced. Furthermore, in the future, a medium-
transformer within the DAB may be reduced. Furthermore, in the future, a medium-
voltage
voltagedc/ac
dc/acconverter
convertermaymaybe be used
used to connect the
to connect thesolid-state
solid-statedcdctransformer
transformer directly
directly to to
the medium-voltage dc distribution network or the ac distribution network
the medium-voltage dc distribution network or the ac distribution network (10–20 kV). (10–20 kV).

6. Conclusions and Future Directions

The use of converters and the accompanying control strategies is becoming increas-
ingly important in the process of efficiently harvesting energy from wind. They are sig-
nificant contributors to the process of energy conversion. The fact is that wind energy still
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 23 of 30

6. Conclusions and Future Directions

The use of converters and the accompanying control strategies is becoming increas-
ingly important in the process of efficiently harvesting energy from wind. They are signif-
icant contributors to the process of energy conversion. The fact is that wind energy still
suffers from low conversion efficiency. Thus, the development of efficient converter devices
along with robust controllers will ensure a supply of power that is both high quality and
reliable. As a result of the growing penetration of wind turbines into the electrical system, It
is required to produce power effectively to comply with the grid code. To achieve this target,
many converter devices have been developed for the wind energy conversion system. In
this regard, a comprehensive review of the role of converters for wind power systems in
terms of energy conversions, controls, and applications was highlighted in detail. In this
study, the authors provided a thorough assessment of converters for the integration and
control of wind turbines. Additionally, they investigated the functioning and application
of control for the wind energy power system. In the future, the application of advanced
converter devices may lead to a more reliable generation of power as well as a reduction in
the overall cost of the system. Based on this review, the following is a description of some
components that are credited with contributing to the positive prospects for the future of
systems that convert wind energy.
• More accurate and precise physics-based motivated, dynamic forms of these con-
straints are now available, collected, and distributed across current and future wind
energy conversion systems.
• The most significant advancement in the research study’s future must be the inclu-
sion of efficient control plan methods as a need for the assessment of sustainable
technologies for converting wind energy.
• The development of different control systems for forecasting energy consumption is
more crucial.
• For the integration of wind turbine systems, more sophisticated controller ap-
proaches of the current controller used in wind energy systems are needed, along
with an industry-standard integrated, flexible control system that is durable, adap-
tive, and optimum.
• More sophisticated software applications to model, design, analyze, test, and validate
the capability and adaptability of an AC-connected wind power conversion system
and the Internet.
• It has been concluded that future studies’ key objectives are focused on improving con-
verters’ application for wind systems in terms of security, cost-effectiveness, usability,
compliance, monitoring, and sustainability.

Author Contributions: A.Q.A.-S. and M.A.H.; resources, M.S.M.; writing and original draft prepara-
tion, T.M.I.M., review and comment, M.M. (M. Mannan) and H.M.K.A.-M.; visualization, M.A.H. and
T.M.I.M.; supervision and coordination, M.A.H.; project administration., P.J.K. and M.M. (M. Mansor);
funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia supports this work under the long-term
research grant scheme (LRGS) program project grant no. 20190101LRGS and HICOE wind project code
2022004HICOE under the Institute of Sustainable Energy, the Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Note applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No data were created or used.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no competing interest.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3986 24 of 30

Abbreviations

2LG double-line-to-ground PMSM permanent magnet synchronous motor

ANN artificial neural network P&O perturb and observe
b2b back-to-back PV photovoltaic system
DTC direct torque control PE power electronics
DPC direct power control PSF power signal feedback
DDSG directly driven synchronous generator MPC predictive model control
DFIG doubly fed induction generators PID proportional–integral–derivative
DAB dual-active-bridge PWM pulse width modulation
EV electric vehicle RES renewable energy source
FOC Field-oriented control RSC rotor side control
FSWT fixed-speed WT SCIG squirrel cage induction generator
FLC fuzzy logic control SMC sliding mode controller
GSC grid-side converter STATCOM static synchronous compensator
HCS hill climb search TSR tip speed ratio
HAWT horizontal-axis wind turbine VSWT variable-speed WT
IPM internal permanent magnet VSCI variable structure integral
IVSC integrated variable structure controllers VAWT vertical-axis wind turbine
MPPT maximum power point VOC voltage-oriented control
NMPC non-linear predictive model control WECS wind energy conversion system
PMG permanent magnet generators WT wind turbine
PMSG permanent magnet synchronous generator WTS wind turbine systems

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