TERM 1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ………………………………………..

MODULE 3-5

TERM 1 MIDTERM EXAM | S.Y . 2023-2024

LECTURER: MA MELISSA ALARZAR
➔ Extensibility
Topic Outline: ➢ the ability to be stretched beyond it
● Muscular System normal resting length and still be
● Special Senses able to contract

● Urinary System ➔ Elasticity

➢ the ability of the muscle to recoil to
● Water,Electrolyte and Acid-Base its original resting length after it has
Balance been stretched
● Cardiovascular System Types of Muscles…………

● Respiratory System ➔ Skeletal

● Endocrine System ➢ attached to bones
➢ striated
➢ voluntarily controlled
MODULE
TOPIC ➔ Cardiac
UNDER SUB-TOPIC ➢ located in the heart
➢ striated
MODULE 3 ➢ Involuntarily controlled
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
➔ Smooth
➔ Functions ➢ Located in blood vessels, hollow
➢ Movement organs Non-striated; visceral
➢ Maintain posture ➢ involuntarily controlled
➢ Stabilize Joints
➢ Production of body heat
➢ Respiration and Heart Beat
➢ Communication
➢ Contraction of organs and vessels

Properties of Muscles

➔ Contractility
➢ the ability of muscle to shorten
forcefully, or contract Excitability

➢ the capacity of muscle to respond to

a stimulus
➔ Skeletal Muscle Structure
➢ Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle,
with its associated connective tissue
➢ Skeletal muscle is also called
striated muscle because transverse
bands, or striations, can be seen in
the muscle under the microscope.
➢ Individual skeletal muscles, such as
the biceps brachii, are complete
organs, as a result of being
comprised of several tissues:
muscle, nerve, and connective
tissue.
➔ Connective Tissue Coverings
➢ Each skeletal muscle is surrounded
by a connective tissue sheath called
the epimysium.
➢ A skeletal muscle is subdivided into
groups of muscle cells, termed
fascicles.
➢ Each fascicle is surrounded by a
connective tissue covering, termed
the perimysium.
➢ Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is
surrounded by a connective tissue
covering, termed the endomysium.
➔ Muscle Fiber Structure
➢ A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical
cell, with several nuclei located at its
periphery.
➢ Muscle fibers range in length 1 cm to
30 cm and are generally 0.15 mm in
diameter.
➢ Skeletal muscle fibers contain
several nuclei that are located at the
periphery of the fiber.
➢ The sarcolemma (cell membrane)
has many tubelike inward folds,
called transverse tubules, or T
tubules.
➢ T tubules occur at regular intervals
along the muscle fiber and extend
into the center of the muscle fiber.
➢ The T tubules are associated with
enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
➢ The enlarged portions are called
terminal cisternae.
➢ T tubules connect the sarcolemma
to the terminal cisternae to form a
muscle triad.
➢ The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a
relatively high concentration of Ca2
+ , which plays a major role in
muscle contraction.

➢ The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is

called the sarcoplasm, which
contains many bundles of protein
filaments.

➢ Bundles of protein filaments are

called myofibrils.

➢ Myofibrils consist of the ➔ The Sarcomere

myofilaments, actin and myosin.
➢ The sarcomere is the basic
structural and functional unit of a
skeletal muscle because it is the
smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
capable of contracting.

➢ Z disks form a network of protein

fibers that both serve as an anchor
for actin myofilaments and separate
one sarcomere from the next.

➢ A sarcomere extends from one Z

disk to the next Z disk.

➢ Light bands, consist only of actin,

and are called I bands that extends
toward the center of the sarcomere
to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments.

➢ Dark staining bands are called A

bands, that extend the length of the
myosin myofilaments.

➢ Actin and myosin myofilaments

overlap for some distance on both
ends of the A band; this overlap
causes the contraction.
➢ Actin myofilaments are made up of
three components: actin, troponin,
and tropomyosin.
➢ Troponin molecules have binding
sites for Ca2 + and tropomyosin
filaments block the myosin
myofilament binding sites on the
actin myofilaments.
➢ Myosin myofilaments, or thick
myofilaments, resemble bundles of
tiny golf clubs.
➢ Myosin heads have ATP binding
sites, ATPase and attachment spots
for actin.
➔ Excitability of Muscle Fibers
➢ The electrical charge difference
across the cell membrane of an
unstimulated cell is called the resting
membrane potential.
➢ Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting
membrane potential, but can also
perform action potentials.
➢ The resting membrane potential is
due to the inside of the membrane
being negatively charged in
comparison to the outside of the
membrane being positively charged.
➢ Action potentials are due to the
membrane having gated channels
➢ Resting Membrane Potential
➢ The resting membrane potential
exists because of: The
concentration of K+ being higher on
the inside of the cell membrane and
the concentration of Na+ being
higher on the outside
➢ The presence of many negatively
charged molecules, such as
proteins, inside the cell that are too
large to exit the cell
➢ The presence of leak protein
channels in the membrane that are
more permeable to K+ than it is to
Na
➢ Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and
K+ tends to diffuse out.
➢ In order to maintain the resting
membrane potential, the
sodiumpotassium pump recreates
the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+
into the cell.
➔ Action Potential
➢ To initiate a muscle contraction, the
resting membrane potential must be
changed to an action potential.
channels to close and gated K+
channels to open.
➢ Opening of gated K+ channels starts
repolarization of the cell membrane

➢ Changes in the resting membrane

potential occur when gated cell ➢ Repolarization is due to the exit of
membrane channels open. K+ from the cell.

➢ In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve ➢ The outward diffusion of K+ returns

impulse triggers gated Na+ channels the cell to its resting membrane
to open and Na+ diffuses into the conditions and the action potential
cell down its concentration gradient ends.
and toward the negative charges
inside the cell ➢ In a muscle fiber, an action potential
results in muscle contraction
➢ The entry of Na+ causes the inside
of the cell membrane to become
more positive than when the cell is
at resting membrane potential.

➢ This increase in positive charge

inside the cell membrane is called
depolarization.

➢ If the depolarization changes the

membrane potential to a value called
threshold, an action potential is
triggered.

➢ An action potential is a rapid change

in charge across the cell membrane

➢ Depolarization during the action

potential is when the inside of the
cell membrane becomes more
positively charged than the outside
of the cell membrane.

➢ Near the end of depolarization, the

positive charge causes gated Na+
➔ Nerve Supply

➢ A motor neuron is a nerve cell

stimulates muscle cells.

➢ A neuromuscular junction is a
synapse where a the fiber of a nerve
connects with a muscle fiber. …SKELETAL MUSCLE EXCITATION……

➢ A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell

junction between a nerve cell and
either another nerve cell or an
effector cell, such as in a muscle or
a gland.

➢ A motor unit is a group of muscle

fibers that a motor neuron
stimulates.

➢ A presynaptic terminal is the end

of a neuron cell axon fiber.

➢ A synaptic cleft is the space

between the presynaptic terminal
and postsynaptic membrane.

➢ The postsynaptic membrane is

the muscle fiber membrane
(sarcolemma).

➢ A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the

presynaptic terminal that stores and
releases neurotransmitter chemicals.

➢ Neurotransmitters are chemicals

that stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic
cells.

➢ Acetylcholine is the
neurotransmitter that stimulates
skeletal muscles.
➔ ATP and Muscle Contractions ➢ and the relaxation phase is the time
during which the muscle relaxes
➢ Energy for muscle contractions is
supplied by ATP
➢ Energy is released as ATP → ADP +
P
➢ ATP is stored in myosin heads
➢ ATP help form cross-bridge
formation between myosin and actin
➢ New ATP must bind to myosin
before cross-bridge is released
➢ Rigor mortis will occur when a
person dies and no ATP is available
to release crossbridges

➔ Muscle Twitch
➢ A muscle twitch is a single
contraction of a muscle fiber in
response to a stimulus.
➔ Summation and Recruitment
➢ In summation, individual muscles
contract more forcefully.

➢ A muscle twitch has three phases: ➢ Tetanus is a sustained contraction

latent phase, contraction phase, and that occurs when the frequency of
relaxation phase. stimulation is so rapid that no
relaxation occurs.

➢ Recruitment is the stimulation of

several motor units.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types .

➢ Slow twitch fibers

➢ contract slowly
➢ Fatigue slowly
➢ have a considerable amount of
myoglobin
➢ use aerobic respiration
➢ are dark in color
➢ used by long distance runners
➔ Fast twitch fibers ➢ Oxidative stress, which is
➢ contract quickly characterized by the buildup of
➢ fatigue quickly excess reactive oxygen species
➢ use anaerobic respiration (ROS; free radicals)
➢ energy from glycogen
➢ light color ➢ Local inflammatory reactions
➢ used by sprinters

➔ Energy for Muscle Contractions Types of Contractions,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

➢ Muscle fibers are very ➢ There are two types of muscle

energy-demanding cells whether at contractions: isometric and isotonic.
rest or during any form of exercise.
➢ The isometric contraction has an
➢ This energy comes from either increase in muscle tension, but no
aerobic (with O2) or anaerobic change in length.
(without O2) ATP production
➢ The isotonic contraction has a
➢ ATP is derived from four processes change in muscle length with no
in skeletal muscle change in tension.

➢ Aerobic production of ATP during ➢ Concentric contractions are isotonic

most exercise and normal contractions in which muscle tension
conditions. increases as the muscle shortens.

➢ Anaerobic production of ATP during ➢ Eccentric contractions are isotonic

intensive short-term work contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the
➢ Conversion of a molecule called opposing resistance causes the
creatine phosphate to ATP muscle to lengthen.

➢ Conversion of two ADP to one ATP

and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy
exercise
Muscle Fatigue,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

➔ Mechanisms of fatigue include:

➢ Acidosis and ATP depletion due to

Muscle Tone
either an increased ATP
consumption or a decreased ATP
production
 Muscle Tone,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
➔ Muscle tone
➢ is the constant tension produced by
body muscles over long periods of
time.
➢ Muscle tone is responsible for
keeping the back and legs straight,
the head in an upright position, and
the abdomen from bulging.
➢ Cardiac muscle is striated as a result
of the sarcomere arrangement.
➢ Cardiac muscle contraction is
autorhythmic.
➢ Cardiac muscle cells are connected
to one another by specialized
structures that include desmosomes
and gap junctions called intercalated
disks.

➢ Muscle tone depends on a small ➢ Cardiac muscle cells function as a

percentage of all the motor units in a
muscle being stimulated at any point
in time, causing their muscle fibers
to contract tetanically and out of
phase with one another
single unit in that action potential in
one cardiac muscle cell can
stimulate action potentials in
adjacent cells.

Smooth Muscle,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

➔ Smooth muscle cells

➢ are non-striated small,
spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually
with one nucleus per cell.

➢ The myofilaments are not organized

into sarcomeres.

➢ The cells comprise organs controlled

involuntarily, except the heart.

➢ Neurotransmitter substances,
hormones, and other substances
can stimulate smooth muscle.

Cardiac Muscle,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

➔ Cardiac Muscle
➢ Cardiac muscle cells are long,
striated, and branching, with usually
only one nucleus per cell.
 ➢ The part of the muscle between the
origin and the insertion is the belly.

➢ A group of muscles working together

are called agonists.

➢ A muscle or group of muscles that

oppose muscle actions are termed
antagonists.

➔ Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

➢ A tendon connects skeletal muscle

to bone. Aponeuroses are broad,
sheetlike tendons.

➢ A retinaculum is a band of
connective tissue that holds down
Nomenclature .
the tendons at each wrist and ankle.

➔ Muscles are named according to:

➢ Skeletal muscle attachments have
➢ Location – a pectoralis muscle is
an origin and an insertion, with the
located in the chest.
origin being the attachment at the
least mobile location.
➢ Size – the size could be large or
small, short or long.
➢ The insertion is the end of the
muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
➢ Shape - the shape could be
triangular, quadrate, rectangular, or
round.

➢ Orientation of fascicles – fascicles

could run straight (rectus) or at an
angle (oblique).

➢ Origin and insertion. The

sternocleidomastoid has its origin on
the sternum and clavicle and its
insertion on the mastoid process of
the temporal bone.

➢ Number of heads. A biceps muscle

has two heads (origins), and a
triceps muscle has three heads
(origins).

➢ Function. Abductors and adductors

are the muscles that cause
abduction and adduction
movements.

➔ Muscles of Mastication
➢ Temporalis
➢ Masseter
➢ Pterygoids
(two pairs)

TONGUE AND SWALLOWING…

 MUSCLES.……….………
➔ External intercostals:
elevate ribs for inspiration

➔ Internal intercostals:
depress ribs during forced expiration

➔ Diaphragm:
moves during quiet breathing

Abdominal Wall Muscles………

➔ Rectus abdominis:
center of abdomen
compresses abdomen

➔ External abdominal oblique:

sides of abdomen
compresses abdomen

➔ Internal abdominal oblique:

compresses abdomen

➔ Transverse abdominis:
compresses abdomen

Deep Neck and Back Muscles,,,,,,,

Thoracic Muscles ……
 FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY/URINARY SYSEM

EXCRETORY ORGANS
- Remobe waste and toxic substances in
the blood (metabolic by-products of cells
MODULE 4
and substances)
SPECIAL SENSES

EXCRETION OF METABOLIC WASTES

CREATINNE
- Breakdown of creatine phosphate in
muscle fibers
MODULE 5 UREA
RENAL SYSTEM - Breakdown of proteins

WORDS TO REMEMBER AMMONIA (NH3)

- By product of proteins/amino acids
VASCULAR SYSTEM
BILIRUBIN
- Arteries and veins, arterioles & venules
- Breakdown of hemoglobin
PLASMA
URIC ACID
- Clear part of the blood
- Breakdown of Nucleic acid (animal
SERUM
protein)
- Obtained when blood is separated in the
laboratory
REGULATOR OF BLOOD VOLUME AND BLOOD
WHOLE BLOOD PRESSURE
- Component of the blood without the - By control of extracellular fuild volume
Plasma (RENIN) and urine concentration.
BLOOD (OSMOLALITY)
- Composed of red cell, white cells,
platelets, ect. REGULATIONS OF SOLUTES AND IONS IN THE
BLOOD PLASMA
- GLUCOSE
 - SODIUM (NA) - Minor Calicies
- POTASSIUM (K)
- CHLORIDE (CL) GROSS VALCULATURE
- BICARBONATE (HCO3) - Renal Arteries
- PHOSPHATE (HPO4) - Branch Into segmental arteries
- CALCIUM (CA)

REGULATOR OF THE BODY FLUID PH POSTERIOR LOCATION

- ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
COSTROVERTEBRAL ANGLE
REGULATOR OF THE RED BLOOD CELL
SYNTHESIS - 12TH RIB
- 1ST 3 LUMBAR SPINE
- ERYTHROPOIETIN
RETROPERITONEAL (BEHIND THE PERITONEUM)
SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN D
- Final conversion of its active form 1, 25
Dihydrocholecalciferol (CALCITRIOL)

STRUCTURES OF THE KIDNEY/URINARY

SYSTEM

KIDNEY( RENAL)
- Bean shape
- Adipose (fat) tissues ( Holds Kidney in
place)

FRONTAL SECTION THROUGH THE KIDNEY

- Renal Cortex
- Renal Pyramids
Renal pelvis
- Major Calicies
 RENAL (KIDNEY) STRUCTURE

RENAL PAPILLA
- Tip of the pyramids
CALYX
- Cup of flower
- Funnel shaped structure that surrounds
the pyramid.
RENAL CAPSULE
- Connective tissue (fibrous) that
surrounds and protect the kidney
HILUM (INDENTATION)
- Medial indentation on each side of the
kidney where vessels or nevers enter or
exit.

WITHIN THE HILUM

RENAL SINUS
- Fat filled cavity which contains the blood
vessels
RENAL PELVIS
- Wide section of the urinary channel

CALYX
- cup of a flower
- Funnel shape branch of the renal pelvis

INNER KIDNEY STRUCTURES

RENAL PARENCHYAMA (SURFACE)

- CORTEX (OUTER)
- MEDULLA (INNER)
RENAL PYRAMIDSS
- Cone shaped
- Sections of the tissue lying mostly in the
medulla
 ACTUAL POSITION OF NEPHRON

NEPHRON
- Greek for kidney
- Functional unit of the kidney

FUNTIONS OF THE NEPHRON

- FILTRATION
- REABSORPTION
- SECRETION
-

NEPHRON
- 1.3 MIL IN EACH KIDNEY
- 150 L TO 180 L OF BLOOD PLASMA
PASSES THROUGH THE KIDNEY /24
HOURS
- AVERAGE URINARY OUTPUT 1.0L TO
1.8L

CORTICAL NEPHRONS
- LOOPS OFHENLE DO NOT DEEP INTO
THE MEDULLA
- (80–85% OF THE NEPHRON)

JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS (NEXT TO THE

MEDULLA)
- LOOPS OF HENLEEXTEND DEEP INTO
THE MEDULLA
- (15–25%) OF THE NEPHRON

CIRCULATION OF THE KIDNEY

RENAL ARTERY
- BRANCH OF THE AORTA
RENAL VEIN
- BRANCH OF INFERIOR VENA CAVA
INTERNAL CIRCULATION OF THE NEPHRON
Peritubular Capillaries
- originates from the renal artery
Vasa Recta
- connects to the renal vein
GLOMERULUS (“BALL OF YARN”)
- TUFTS OF CAPILLARIES
- RESEMBLE A BALL OF YARN
AFFERENT ARTERIOLE
- Blood goes in for filtration.
- INFLOW OF BLOOD

EFFERENT ARTERIOLE
- BLOOD GOES OUT TO SUPPLY THE
- BLOODCIRCULATION OF THE NEPHRON
- OUTFLOW OF BLOOD

COMPONENTS OF A NEPHRON
1. RENAL CORPUSCLE
2. PROXIMAL TUBULE
3. LOOP OF HENLE
4. DISTAL TUBULE BOWMANS CAPSULE (AN ENCLOSURE)
5. COLLECTING DUCTS - DOUBLE-WALLED CHAMBER “3
FILTRATION MEMBRANES”
RENAL CORPUSCLE (“TINY BODY”)
- GLOMERULUS
- BOWMAN’S CAPSULE

FILTRATION
- Toxic waste excreted
- Urea
- Creatinine
- Glucose
- Ions
- Blood cells and proteins are not filtered.
PROXIMAL TUBULE
- CARRIES FLUID AWAY FROM THE
CAPSULE
- REABSORPTION 70% OF WATER
- WATER GOES BACK TO CIRCULATION
IONS. GLUCOSE,TOXIC WASTES ARE
RETAINED
- FLUID IS NOW CALLED “FILTRATE
FLUID”
FILTRATE FLUID THAT PASSES ACROSS THE
FILTRATION MEMBRANE

LOOP OF HENLE
- REABSORPTION OF IONS
DESCENDING LIMB
- DOWNWARD TUBE
- PERMEABLE TO WATER
ASCENDING LIMB
- UPWARD TUBE
- PERMEABLE TO SOLUTES (IONS)
- POTASSIUM NATRIURETIC HORMONES
- SODIUM - Atrial natriuretic hormone
DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES - ”brain” Natriuretic hormone
- Reabsorption water (20-25%)
- Secretion of Renin (RAAS) In the
juxtaglomerular Apparatus
JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS
- CONSIST OF CELLS FROM THE WALL OF
THE AFFERENT ARTERIOLE AND THE
DISTAL TUBULE SECRETION OF RENIN
 FILTRATION FORMATION OF FILTRATE
- MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE ACROSS
THE FILTRATION MEMBRANE INTO THE
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE TO FORM
FILTRATE

FILTRATION PRESSURE

GLOMERULAR CAPILLARY PRESSURE

- BP WITHIN THE GLOMERULUS
CAPSULAR PRESSURE
- PRESSURE INSIDE THE BOWMAN’S
CAPSULE
COLLOIDAL ONCOTIC PRESSURE
- PRODUCED BY THE BLOOD PROTEIN
= FILTRATION PRESSURE

REABSORPTION “BACK TO PLASMA”

- SOLUTES ARE REABSORBED
ACROSSTHE WALL OF THE NEPHRON
INTOINTERSTITIAL FLUID
COLLECTING DUCTS BYTRANSPORT PROCESS
- CARRIES FLUID FROM THE CORTEX - ACTIVE TRANSPORT (NA & H)
THROUGH THE MEDULLA. - COTRANSPORT (K & CL)
- RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATION AND
CONCENTRATION OF URINE THROUGH OSMOSIS
THE ACTION OF ADH
- WATER AND SOLUTES PASS
- FILTRATE IS NOW CALLED “URINE”
FROMINTERSTITIAL FLUID INTO THE
PERITUBULARCAPILLARIES
REABSORPTION
- Water (5-10%) goes back to circulation
SECRETION OF ADH REABSORPTION (99% OF FILTRATE IS
- regulates water excretion REABSORBED)
SECRETION OF IONS PROXIMAL TUBULES
- Hydrogen, Amonium - PRIMARY SITE OF REABSORPTION OF
- Regulates urine/blood osmolality & PH SOLUTES AND WATER
- 65-70% OF FILTRATE IS REABSORBED
DESCENDING LIMB
URINE PRODUCTION - FURTHER CONCENTRATES THE
URINE FILTRATE
- UREA, URIC ACID, CREATININE, NA, K, - 15% OF FITRATE REABSORBED
CL, HCO3, HYDROGEN ASCENDING LIMB
- DILUTES THE FILTRATE BY REMOVING
THREE PROCESSES IN URINE FORMATION SOLUTES
- FILTRATION DISTAL TUBULES AND COLLECTING DUCTS
- REABSORPTION - REMOVES MORE WATER AND SOLUTES
- SECRETION - 19% REABSORBED
1% LEFT AS URINE = 1L TO 1.8L

PHYSIOLOGIC PROCESSES OF THE NEPHRON

- Water moves out of nephron by Osmosis
 - Solutes move into nephron by Diffusion URINARY BLADDER
- HOLLOW MUSCULAR CONTAINER
- STORES URINE
- CAN HOLD MAX OF 1L URINE
URETHRA
- TUBE THAT EXITS THE BLADDER
- CARRIES URINE FROM BLADDER TO
OUTSIDE

URINARY SPHINCTERS

- INTERNAL SPHINCTER
- NOT WELL DEFINED IN WOMEN
- UNDER INVOLUNTARY CONTROL IN MEN
- CONTRACTS DURING EJACULATION TO
PREVENT URINE FLOW

SECRETION EXTERNAL SPHINCTER

URINE FORMATION
- VOLUNTARY CONTROL
- SOLUTES ARE SECRETED ACROSS THE - CONTROLS FLOW OF URINE THROUGH
CAPILLARY WALL OF THE NEPHRON URETHRA
INTO THE FILTRATE TO FORM URINE
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT – H, K,
TRIGONE
CREATININE, HISTAMINE
- PASSIVE TRANSPORT – NH3 - (TRIANGLE) TRIANGLE SHAPED
MUSCLE
- LOCATED BETWEEN THE OPENING OF
THE URETERS AND THE URETHRA

LAYERS OF URINARY BLADDER WALL

- CONNECTIVE TISSUE
DETRUSSOR
- SMOOTH MUSCLE LAYER
- CONNECTIVE TISSUE
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- INNER LAYER- IN CONTACT WITH URINE

URETERS
- SMALL TUBES THAT CARRY URINE
FROM THE RENAL PELVIS TO THE
BLADDER
MECHANISM OF MICTURITION REFLEX
(INVOLUNTARY REFLEX)
- URINE STRETCH THE BLADDER WALL
300-500 ML
- “ACTION POTENTIALS” PRODUCED BY
THE STRETCH RECEPTORS ARE
CARRIED ALONG THE SACRAL REGION
OF THE SPINAL CORD
- ACTION POTENTIALS ARE CARRIED BY
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVES AND
STIMULATES MUSCLE CONTRACTION
OF THE BLADDER AND RELAXATION OF
URETHRAL SPHINCTER
MICTURITION - VOLUNTARY CONTROL REFLEX
- Action Potentials sends sensory impulse
to
- the Pons and communicates to the
Cortex;
- Inhibitory signals keep the sphincters
closed to delay voiding.
- Decreased action potentials carried by
somatic motor nerves cause the external
- urinary sphincter to relax and allow
urination
CHARACTERISTICS OF NORMAL URINE
- COLOR IS CLEAR PALE YELLOW DUE
TO UROCHROME, A PIGMENT
METABOLITE COMING FROM
DESTROYED HEMOGLOBIN (VIA
BILIRUBIN OR BILE PIGMENTS)
- COLOR VARIATION DEPENDS ON
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTES
NORMAL URINE ODOR
- SLIGHTLY AROMATIC
- BACTERIAL ACTION GIVES OUT
AMONIA-LIKE ODOR WHEN LEFT
STANDING
NORMAL URINE PH
- RANGE BETWEEN 4.5 TO 8
- AVERAGE IS 6 (ACIDIC)
- INFLUENCE OF FOOD
- “ACID ASH”(HIGH PROTEIN FOODS
SUCH AS MEAT, EGGS, CHEESE AND
WHOLE WHEAT)
- "ALKALINE ASH” (VEGETERIAN DIET)
URINE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- RELATIVE WEIGHT OF A SPECIFIC
VOLUME OF LIQUID COMPARED WITH
DISTILLED WATER WHICH IS 1.000
MEASURES THE SOLUTES IN THE URINE
- NORMAL RANGE BETWEEN 1.001 TO
1.03
- AN INCREASE IN URINE SPECIFIC
GRAVITY INDICATES DEHYDRATION
NORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE
- WATER
- UREA
- IONS (NA, K, PO4 AND SO4)
- CREATININE AND URIC ACID
- SMALL AMOUNTS OF CA, MG AND HCO3
ABNORMALCONSTITUENTS
- GLUCOSE
- ALBUMIN
- KETONE BODIES
- RBC
- HB
- NITRITES
- BILE PIGMENTS
- WBC
- CASTS
FLUIDS AND ELECTROLYTES
➔ Fluid
is the major element in blood plasma that is
used to transport nutrients, oxygen, and
electrolytes throughout the body.