General Introduction to Dry Cargo Ships:

General cargo ship, Basic ship’s cargo gear – derricks and cranes, types of
general cargo e.g. bales, boxes, bags, crates, cases, pallets,
Bulk carrier, examples of bulk cargoes and method of loading by Conveyor and
discharging by Grab.

General cargo includes cargo stowed in bales , boxes, bags , crates , cases , drums, pallets,
etc. These include foodstuff, grains, chemicals, cotton bales, machinery, paper rolls, project
cargo, timber, textile & steel products, bagged cement and other goods. These cargoes can
be separated on properties of wet and dry cargoes , clean and dirty cargoes, fragile cargoes
which can get crushed, heavy cargoes which are given bottom stowage, frozen cargoes,
perishable cargoes which have to be stowed away from moisture or sunlight, strong cargo or
smelly cargo. Besides, the cargoes are separated according to loading and unloading/
discharging ports and according to optional cargoes.

Cargo Work: ​It is the process of planning, loading, carrying, caring for discharge and
discharging cargo ina manner best suited for each type of cargo and without damage to the
ship, injury to personnel and harm to the marine environment.

General Cargo Ships: General cargo ships are relatively small in size the biggest being the
range of 28000 to 30000 tonnes deadweight. They are mainly engaged in liner trades
wherein a ship loads cargo from a port or group of ports and discharges to a port or a group
of ports in a region. These ships are good for carrying bales, boxes, drums, pallets, crates,
bags, cases etc and are lifted on board by lifting gears like derricks and cranes and stowed
in the ship’s hold. The ship’s hold may be divided into tween decks and are covered with
weathertight hatch covers.

Bulk Carriers & OBO’s: ​Bulk carriers carry bulk cargoes which are defined as cargoes in
particular or granular from loader directly into the ship’s hold without any packaging. It
consists of ore, coal, sulphur, concentrates of urea, grain cement in bulk. Break Bulk
cargoes consist of paper rolls, timber or logs, steel products etc. Bulk cargoes are
homogenous and are loaded by conveyor belt and chute and unloaded by grabs. Break bulk
loading and discharging takes place through cranes. Bulk carriers range from around 30,000
tonnes DWT to 300,000 tonnes. The smaller ship handysize, panamax (65,000-80,000
tonnes) and suezmax(125,000-140,000 tonnes) being largest. Smaller bulk carriers are
“geared bulk carriers” while larger ships are called “gearless bulk carriers”. Most ships have
a top side tank which slopes upward from shipside to the hatch coaming , reducing the size
of the hatch opening and thereby reducing heeling moments. These are known as self
trimming ​holds.

Simple Derrick: ​A simple derrick consists of a derrick boom which is raised , lowered, and
moved sideways by several different purchases. The derrick boom is supported at its base
and allowed to turn around as well as up and down by a gooseneck arrangement which is
welded to the mast or samson post. The load is lifted by a means of runner wire or gyn fall
which is the only wire connected to the winch. The derrick is moved sideways or positioned
by means of the side guys. Once the derrick is positioned the weight is taken by the
preventer guy which has been taut. The preventer guy is a thick wire with a chain or other
easy means of securing at one end. The derrick is raised or lowered by the means of topping
lift. This wire is wounded on a drum near the winch.simple derrick comes in sizes ranging
from 2-20 tonnes SWL. They are easy to operate and maintain and require little attention
besides greasing, painting and inspection.
Cranes : ​cranes are the most versatile and easiest ship gear that has been used.
They have a very high maneuverability capacity. Ship’s cranes are normally built from
5t- 7t capacity. Cranes are used for two maneuver controls- one for the cargo hook
and other for slewing/ topping.
1.crane pedestal (or crane
cohimn, or crane post),
2.bolted connection,
3.fixed lower structure,
4.superstructure (or crane body, or
revolving super- structure), 5.slewing
ring,
6.driving cab,
7.jib (or crane boom),
8.jib heel pin or boom heel pin,
9.luffing (or topping) cylinder,
10.cargo runner (or
hoisting rope, or lifting
rope), 11.jib head
built-in cargo sheaves,
12.crane top built-in cargo sheaves,
13.cargo winch,
 14.rope terminal (thimble),
15.shackle,
16.swivel,
17.link,
18.cargo hook (C-hook, or Liverpool hook),

Maintenance of derrick systems

 Wires, blocks, sheaves, heel pins and other moving parts are greased in
accordance with shipboard PMS.
 Testing is carried out annually / quadrennial (four yearly).
 All test certificates for new equipment like wires, shackles, sheaves, ropes,
blocks etc maintained on board.
 While inspecting blocks / sheaves, following are
checked
 Misalignment of sheaves
 Heavily scored sheaves
 Incorrect sheave groove to wire diameter ratio
 Frozen guide rollers.
 Inadequate internal lubrication
 While inspecting wires, following are checked
 Wire fatigue
 Kinking flattening
 Inadequate internal / external lubrication.
 Broken/ brittle strands.
 Limit switches are tested as provided

Basic Aspects of Cargo Operations:

Importance of cargo care to economical operation of ships and care of cargo on board
ships.
The hazard of fire and its prevention, control and extinction in cargo operations.
Interaction between cargoes and the resultant contamination and tainting.
Stowage and handling to prevent breaking, chafing, crushing.
Sea water damage, importance of structural integrity and Hatch cover water tightness.
Bale and Grain Capacity; Stowage factor, Broken stowage; Load density; Cargo density;
Ullage and soundings; Deadweight and displacement;
Ballasting and deballasting operations
Duties of the Officer on Cargo Watch
Log Book Entries
Cargo work involves planning, loading, discharging, stowage, carriage of cargo. The term “to
keep things shipshape” has evolved over the years because on the ship, cargoes, stores
and other equipment are stowed and looked after with meticulous care in order to avoid
delay, damage or deterioration. The main aim of a ship is to carry cargo; it is the purpose for
which ships are built. Hence cargo work is assumed one of the most important tasks along
with navigation. A few decades ago the term “general cargo ships” came into being . In
these ships wide variety of cargo was carried , for example cotton, jute, machinery, paper
rolls, foodstuff, chemicals in drums, steel products, pig iron, dry bulk cargoes like grains,
fertilizer ores, bulk liquid cargoes like vegetable oils or products, deck cargoes of motor
vehicle etc. In recent times according to trade the ships are built for specific trades like
containerships, tankers, roll on/off, bulk carriers, LPG/LNG carriers etc.
The hazards of each type of cargo and the working of each type of ship differ vastly.

Interaction between cargoes and the resultant contamination and tainting.

Some cargoes give out strong smells like garlic, onion, rawhide etc while some
cargoes absorb smells very fast like tea, cotton etc then we have tainting damage.

Separation of cargoes by natural bulkheads or artificial divisions.

We need to separate cargoes for various reasons.

Distinguish port of discharge
Avoid tainting damage
To reduce fire risk by separating one flammable item from other
Distribution of cargo for speedier cargo operations
Artificial divisions are used for grain like cargo which is liable to shift and shifting
board is used

Stowage and handling to prevent breaking, chafing, crushing.

Cargoes should be so stowed to prevent breaking during rolling and pitching by

securing the cargo. Due to the ship continuously rolling and pitching the cargoes
may rub against each other or the ship side causing chafing damage. To prevent it
we use a dunnage and spar ceiling. Cargo must be prevented from damage due to
careless winch work which results in crushing against the ship side, railings, hatch
coamings etc. dragging of cargo by winch to and from the wings, improper use of
hooks, crowbars, slings, droppings of packages from height, improper slinging and
other ways. Paper rolls are susceptible to chaffing especially when the vessel is
working seaway. This can result in spontaneous combustion. To prevent this cargo
must be stowed carefully and on firm platforms, secured carefully and broken
stowage filled with dunnage. Crushing may result from inadequacy of packing or by
overstowing with heavy goods. Tea chests, rubber cases, cartons of footwear etc are
frequently damaged this way.

Temperature variations leading to sweat damage, ship and cargo sweat,

monitoring of dew-point temperature and ventilation to prevent sweat.

A ship loading cargo from a cold region enters a warm and moist region the
surrounding air comes in contact with cold cargo causes condensation on the cargo.
This results in cargo sweat.
A ship loading cargo from a warm and moist region enters a cold region the moisture
inside the hold.

Sea water damage, importance of structural integrity and hatch cover water
tightness.

After cargo is loaded the hatch covers to be secured tight and ensure it is water tight.
Hatch openings are huge and it is a very difficult task to make water tight especially
when the ship is going through very rough weather and huge water force is exerted.
Water tightness is checked before each cargo loading by
1.​ ​Light method
2.​ ​Water hose test
3.​ ​Ultrasonic test (by professionals)

Structural integrity means water will not leak from the hull into the cargo hold, or from
the ballast tanks or ballast lines

Shifting of cargo, toppling, and methods of securing to prevent the same viz.
blocking, choking and lashing.

The objective is to form a large immovable stow with any void spaces between coils
chokes off with dunnage. End of stows would be fenced with timber battens and
‘locking coils’ together with the top tier of coils would most certainly be lashed with
steel wire rope lashings.

Dunnage and its use to increase friction, prevent damage from sweat and in
separating cargoes. Shifting boards.

Wooden dunnage increases friction and prevents cargo to ship contact thereby
minimizing both ship and cargo damage.Wooden dunnage are used to separate
cargo and also to prevent crushing damage.Dunnage allows water formed due to
condensation to flow off to bilges. Shifting boards are used to prevent grain like
cargoes from shifting

Ballasting and deballasting operations

After loading the ship's hull suffers lots of stress due to uneven loading hence
ballasting of tanks is done. If too much cargo is loaded on deck we have to ballast for
ensuring adequate GM Ballasting is also done to ensure propeller immersion. To
ensure proper trim and keep the ship upright.

Duties of the Officer on Cargo Watch

Cargo Officers will have a variety of duties before, during and after cargo operations
begin. He/she should be aware that monitoring the cargo movements and ensuring
parcels remain in good condition is protecting the owner’s interests. Extensive ship
keeping activities also go along with loading and discharging the vessel’s cargo.

Prior to cargo operation

1. Check that the designated compartments are clean and ready to receive
cargo.
2. Check that the drainage and bilge suctions are working effectively.
3. Ensure that cargo battens (spar ceiling) is in position and not damaged
(some cargoes require cargo battens to be removed).
4. Make sure the relevant hatch covers are open and properly secured in
the stowed position.
5. Check the rigging of derricks and/or the cranes are operating correctly.
6. Check that the hatch lighting’s are in good order.
7. Order engineers to bring power to deck winches.
8. Inspect all lifting appliances to ensure that they are in good order.
9. Inspect and ensure all means of access to the compartments are safe.
10. Guard rails and safety barriers should be seen to be in place.
11. Ensure all necessary fire-fighting arrangements are in place.
12. Check that the ship’s moorings are taught.
13. Note the draughts fore and aft.
14. Check that the gangway is rigged in a safe aspect.

During cargo transfer

1. Note all starting and stopping times of cargo operations for reference into the log
book.
2. Note the movement of cargo parcels into respective compartments for entry onto
the stowage plan.
3. Refuse damaged cargo and inform the Chief Officer of the action.
4. Monitor the weather conditions throughout operations.
5. Note any damage to the ship or the cargo-handling gear and inform the Chief
Officer accordingly.
6. Maintain a security watch on all cargo parcels and prevent pilferage.
7. Tally in all special and valuable cargoes and provide lock-up stow if required.
8. Maintain an effective watch on the gangway and the vessels moorings.
9. Ensure that appropriate dunnage, separation and securing of cargo takes place.
10. Monitor all fire prevention measures.
11. Check the movement of passengers’ baggage (passenger-carrying vessels).
12. Make sure all hazardous or dangerous cargoes have correct documentation and
are given correct stowage relevant to their class
(International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code).
13. Inspect compartments and the transit warehouse at regular intervals to ensure
cargo movement is regular.
14. Inform Chief Officer prior to loading heavy lifts.
15. After discharge operations, search the space to prevent parcels being over
carried.
16. Ensure that the local by-laws are adhered to, throughout.
17. Note the draughts on the completion of loading/discharging.

After cargo operations

1. Close up hatches and lock and secure access points.
2. Inform the engineering department to shut down power to deck winches.
3. Secure all lifting appliances against potential damage or misuse.
4. Enter the days working notes into the deck log book.
5. Inform the Chief Officer that the deck is secure and the current draughts.
 Log Book Entries during cargo operations

- Entries regarding weather and conditions experienced during loading / at sea and
also during discharging.
- Any stoppages during the loading and discharging and their causes - machinery
breakdowns,
- Strikes, inclement weather, non availability of cargo etc.
- The draughts morning and evening - this will give an idea of cargo loaded or
discharged if due allowance is made for fuel and ballast
- Entries concerning cargo hold ventilation
- Entries concerning cargo inspection and checking of lashings
- Any delays in cargo operations and reasons thereof.
- Status of stowage / securing
- Details of deck / fire and security rounds
- Details regarding checking of moorings
- Details of officials visitors
- Details of Ballast operations
- Details of incidents and accidents

HOLD CLEANING / PREPARATION

·​ ​Need for inspection of holds,

·​ ​Items to be inspected,
·​ ​Importance of cleaning holds,

·​ ​Checking weather tightness of hatch covers

Prior to loading grain, all ships are usually subject to a survey by an approved
independent surveyor. The surveyor will require the vessels particulars and details of
at least the last three cargoes carried. He will then inspect the holds for cleanliness
and infestation, or the presence of any material which could lead to infestation.
When the surveyor is satisfied with the condition of the hold, he will issue the ship
with a certificate stating which holds are fit to load grain

Large claims have arisen when cargo holds have not been cleaned sufficiently to
prevent cargo contamination. The requirements for cleaning the holds are dependent
upon the previous cargo carried, the next cargo to be carried, charterers'
requirements, the requirements of shippers and/or the authorities at the port of
loading and the receivers. It is becoming common practice for receivers to have an
inspector at the load port.

Regardless of the previous cargo, all holds should be thoroughly cleaned by

sweeping, scraping and high-pressure seawater washing to remove all previous
cargo residues and any loose scale or paint, paying particular attention to any that
may be trapped behind beams, ledges, pipe guards, or other fittings in the holds

The hatch rubber seals should also be washed to remove cargo grime. However,
caution is required to ensure that the hatch rubber seals are not damaged by the
high pressure from the fresh water gun. After washing, depending on weather
conditions, cargo dust may lightly contaminate the underside of the hatch lids;
however, the dust particles can easily be removed at a later date using a
high-pressure portable fresh water gun.

Hatch watertight integrity To prevent cargo claims due to water ingress, all hatch
seals (both longitudinal and transverse), hold access lids and seals around the hatch
sides should be chalk marked and water tested using deck wash hoses. A more
accurate method of testing a hatch for leakage is to use ultrasonic equipment.
However this is usually completed by shore personnel who are trained in the use of
this equipment.

Use of dunnage & spar ceiling,

Dunnage is the name for the materials used in holds and containers to protect goods
and their packaging from moisture, contamination and mechanical damage.
Dunnage may include plastic films, jute coverings, tarpaulins, wood (wooden
dunnage), rice matting, nonwovens, liner bags or also inlets etc.. Depending on the
use to which it is put, dunnage may be divided into floor, lateral, interlayer and top
dunnage.

On general cargo ships, the most important of these is floor dunnage. It protects
moisture-sensitive cargoes, such as bagged cargo (e.g. coffee, cocoa) or bales (e.g.
tobacco, tea) from sweat, which forms on a ship's sides and runs off over the decks.
The floor dunnage "lifts" the cargo off the deck, so that water is able to flow off
without coming into contact with the cargo. In the case of very sensitive cargoes, the
space between cargo and deck has to be enlarged or at least great care must be
taken to ensure that the cargo does not under any circumstances come into contact
with the deck over which sweat may flow. This is achieved by a double layer of
dunnage or criss-cross dunnage. The first layer of dunnage must be laid in the
correct direction, depending on the design of the ship. In ships with lateral water
drainage (bilges), the first layer must be laid crosswise, while in ships with fore and
aft water drainage (wells), the first layer must be laid lengthwise. Criss-cross
dunnage must be laid close enough together to prevent bags, bales or other cargo
from sinking into the holes under the pressure of the cargo and making contact with
the deck.

To protect sensitive cargoes from contamination, additional dunnage consisting of

jute coverings, paper, matting etc. is also laid. The same applies to lateral and top
dunnage. Most general cargo ships have spar ceilings. These are wooden laths
connected securely to the ship, which prevent direct contact between the cargo and
the ship's side and allow the sweat to flow downwards over the steel ship's side.
Sweat may form in particularly large amounts in holds under the water line during
voyages from hot to cold climates.

Wooden dunnage must be dry (water content 12 - 15%, air-dried).

Wooden dunnage which is too fresh or has been stored in the open air and thus
exposed to precipitation must not be used as dunnage. Moisture may lead to
considerable damage.

Where spar ceilings are present in a general cargo ship, the purpose of side
dunnage is to protect the cargo from contamination. Top dunnage generally fulfills a
two-fold function:
protection against moisture (sweat dripping from the deck, in particular the weather
deck)

protection from contamination (dust, cargo residues, hydraulic oil etc.).

The hygroscopicity of the generally sensitive goods means that top dunnage must
allow a minimum of air circulation and evaporation. For this reason, air-permeable
materials are used, such as paper, rice or bamboo matting and jute coverings.

Disposal of floating materials is prohibited at sea

·​ Importance of checking bilge suction

​

Before loading the cargo hold of a bulk carrier or a general cargo, appropriate
inspections should be conducted in order to ensure that all the systems related to the
cargo hold are in good working order. One of the key common issues is the cleaning
of the hold from cargo residues. Various debris have the “ability” to find their way into
the systems of hold bilges making manual removal of such debris imperative. Debris
(especially foodstuff) which have been left in the bilges will decay over time giving
some of the most unpleasant smells. Hold bilges are usually cleaned using a shovel
and afterwards they must be lifted out of the hold. Once the bilge area has been
cleaned the next thing to do is to verify and ensure that the rest of the hold bilge
systems are in good working order. Therefore the following should be checked and
tested if possible: bilge sounding pipes, bilge suctions, bilge non return valves.

Cargo residues from bilges can enter the bottom of sounding pipes and block them
making them unusable in order to obtain appropriate soundings through sounding
rods, lines etc. One way to prevent the blocking of sounding pipes with residues is to
hose them out with water coming from the deck. This of course must be done only
after the hold has been cleaned along with the bilges. Another way to clear sounding
pipes is by using airlines in order to remove by air pressure any leftover cargo
residues.

Apart from debris sounding pipes can also be blocked by broken sounding rods,
tapes etc or by cargo entering the sounding pipe if sounding caps are not secured
during cargo loading operations. Striker plates of sounding pipes should also be
checked for wastage after the bilges have been cleaned

Bilge suctions
The perforated strum box fitting of a bilge suction line prevents cargo residues to
enter the bilge line. Therefore after a cargo discharge operation the strum box should
be checked and cleaned in order to ensure that the bilge suction line will not block. If
possible the strum box should also be checked for corrosion.
Since hold bilge systems are used in order to remove water from the hold, a good
way to check that the bilge suction and bilge suction line are not blocked is to pour
amounts of water into the bilge well and pump them out watching that the whole
operation pumps out expected amounts of water. Of course if water builds up during
washing then most probably a blockage to the bilge system must have occurred and
it must be investigated.
Non return valves
In order to prevent water being pumped from hold bilges to the engine room, over
side or into another tank from flowing back through the bilge line and into the hold
bilge wells again, non return valves are fitted to the hold bilge pumping systems.

Use of deodorising wash

There is a possibility of cargo damage due to tainting from previous cargo or from
smelly paint. Hence deodorizing wash is done using appropriate chemicals for
removal of vegetable oils, animal oils, fatty acids, fish oils, greases, waxes, oil,
sludge, soot, carbon deposits and general dirt and grime

Blanking of ballast line

Some ships use cargo holds for ballasting during ballast passage. When loading
cargo in these holds there may be a possibility of mistakenly ballasting the hold while
ballasting other tanks. To avoid this mistake the lines are blocked off with flanges so
that no ballast water enters the holds.

Bale and Grain Capacity; Stowage factor, Broken stowage; Load density; Cargo
density; Ullage and soundings; Deadweight and displacement;

Bale Capacity Bale capacity is the space available in a ship’s compartment where
cargo is loaded in packaged form e.g. bales, bundles, bags, drums, boxes, etc. Bale
capacity is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is taken from the inside of
the cargo battens, the depth from the top of the tank top or wooden sheathing on the
tank top to the underside of the deck beams and the length from the inside of the
bulkhead stiffeners or spar ceiling where fitted. In other words it is the volume of
clear space available inside the cargo hold without any obstructions.

Grain capacity is the volume occupied by grain or any form of bulk cargo inside the
cargo hold. It is the volume of space available for loading when the length, breadth
and depth are measured right to the ship’s side plating and bulkheads. Allowance is
made for the volume occupied by the frames, beams and stiffeners. When loading
bulk cargoes, which can occupy the full space even if there were obstructions, the
grain capacity of the space must be used. From the above definitions it is clear that
grain capacity is greater than bale capacity. In certain bulk carriers and Ro – Ro
ships the locale capacity may be equal to the grain capacity.

The earning capacity of a ship is determined by the amount of cargo she can carry.
The ship has plans indicating the spaces available for the carriage of cargo. To
calculate how much cargo can be carried on board a ship, it is important that the
space occupied by unit mass of cargo is known. Volume occupied by a unit mass of
cargo is termed as stowage factor. In the metric system its unit is usually expressed
in meter³/tonne. Thus, we say that the stowage factor of cotton bales is 3m3 /tonne.

Broken Stowage ​(BS) It is the space lost between the packages when stowing it in
cargo holds. Two factors contribute to this loss of space, which are:

• Type of the cargo, and

• Shape of the cargo hold.

• It is maximum when the packages are large and of irregular shape. Broken
stowage is expressed as a percentage of the volume of cargo.

To find the actual volume required to load unit weight break bulk cargo, broken
stowage must be added to stowage factor.

∴ Volume occupied by such a cargo = SF + (SF × BS/100)

Load density is the maximum amount of weight that can be loaded safely on a unit
area. In the metric system it is expressed as tones/meter². Load density of various
decks is provided in the stability booklet, capacity plan, etc. The height of the cargo
can be decided with the help of load density of the deck and stowage factor of the
cargo.

Cargo density is defined as the mass of a cargo per unit volume. In the metric
system its unit is tonnes/meter³. Therefore we can say that cargo density is
reciprocal of stowage factor. High density cargoes will have low stowage factors and
low density cargoes will have high stowage factors. The owner of a ship wants that
the space on the ship is completely utilized and also she is loaded down to her
maximum permissible draft. Only in that case he will earn maximum. Cargoes, which
have high stowage factor and less density, will not be able to bring the ship down to
her maximum permissible load line. In other words the ship’s space will get filled up
with less amount of cargo. The owner would then like to charge freight on the
volume of cargo loaded. If a heavy cargo is loaded on the ship, it will bring her to her
maximum permissible draft before the hatches are full. In this case the owner would
like to charge the freight based on the deadweight carried. Based on which the
freights are charged, the cargoes are divided into two categories. These are –

• Deadweight Cargo • Measurement Cargo

Deadweight Cargoes
Deadweight cargoes are those cargoes on which freight is charged on its weight.
These cargoes have low stowage factors.

Measurement Cargoes
Measurement cargoes are those cargoes on which freight is charged on the volume
occupied by the cargoes. These cargoes have a high stowage factor.
Cargoes of stowage factor 1.2 meter³/tonne or more are treated as measurement
cargoes. In this case freight is charged on the volume occupied by the cargo.
Cargoes of stowage factor less than 1.2 meter³/tonne are treated as deadweight
cargoes and freight is charged on their weight. Cargoes having stowage factor 0.56
meter³/tonne or lesser are termed as high density cargoes. When such cargoes are
loaded in bulk, there are special requirements.

Ullage: The measurement of liquid cargoes in shore tanks is usually made by

measuring the actual depth of liquid in the tank by “dipping”, i.e. lowering a steel tape
into the tank and reading the depth of oil. Since a ship's tanks are nearly full after
loading and before discharge, it is simpler to measure the “ullage” or the space
remaining between the top of the oil in the tank and the top of the tank.
Seaworthiness: The fitness of a ship in all respects to cope with conditions likely to
be encountered at sea; this includes not only her hull, machinery and equipment, but
also her crew competency, sufficient provisions, stores and bunker quantity.
Cargo Worthiness​: The fitness and readiness of the ship to load a particular type of
cargo is called cargo worthiness of the ship.

Derrick Rigs:
Parts of a Simple Derrick.
Importance of preventer guys.
The union purchase system.
Rigging of derricks for loading and discharging of cargoes
Maximum load to be used for angle between runners.
Swinging derrick with powered guys.
Putting winches in double gear.
The working of ship’s cranes.
Hoisting, lowering and securing a derrick and crane.
Operational checks to be done on ship’s cargo gear before handing over to
stevedores including checks on limit cut outs
Contents and use of the Rigging Plan

Union purchase

3. The runner wires of both derricks are coupled or married through swivels to a
union hook and worked in conjunction with each other.
the preventer side guys are rigged so as not to obstruct the movement of
cargo between the hatch and quay. Sometimes the inner side guys are
replaced by schooner guy who always remains clear of the cargo working
area.
 PRECAUTIONS WHEN WORKING ON UNION PURCHASE SYSTEM
The SWL of a union purchase rig must be calculated in accordance with
classification society or dock labour regulations. In the absence of the same
COSWP for merchant seamen to be complied with. SWL not exceed 1/3 SWL
of the weakest derrick.

The operating angle of the derrick should preferably be not less than 30 deg
to the horizontal and in no case should it be less than 15 deg
the maximum included angle between the cargo wire should not exceed 120
deg so that forces in the rig are kept to a minimum.
To ensure this unduly long slings must not be used and winch man must not
lift the load above guard rails and hatch coamings beyond minimum required
for safety.
Runners should not be allowed to rub against the hatch coamings and guard
rails or bulwarks as this will result in their damage.
 The slewing guy should be set up in conjunction with the preventer guy but
allowing the preventer guy to take the weight.
 The preventer guy and the slewing guy should be secured independently at
the derrick head and to individual deck or superstructure attachments of
sufficient strength and suitable placement.
 Narrow angles between derricks and the outboard guys and between
outboard guys and the vertical should be avoided as this materially increases
the loading on the guys. The angle between the outboard derrick and its
outboard guy and preventer should not be too large as this may cause the
outboard derrick to jack knife. In general the inboard derrick guy and
preventer should be secured as nearly as possible at an angle of 90 deg to
the derrick
 Winch man should be experienced and should co-ordinate well.
 Rigging takes long time : Derricks for lifting cargo on board is required to be of
adequate strength and stability for each load, having regard in particular to the
stress induced at its mounting or fixing points , securely anchored, adequately
ballasted or counterbalanced and supported by outriggers as necessary to ensure
its stability when lifting.
4. Ships' derricks should be properly rigged and ensure that rigging plans are
available containing the following information:-
(1) position and size of deck eye-plates;
(2) position of inboard and outboard booms;
(3) maximum headroom (i.e. permissible height of cargo hook above
hatch coaming);
(4) maximum angle between runners;
(5) position, size and safe working load of blocks;
(6) length, size and safe working load of runners, topping lifts, guys
and preventers;
(7) safe working load of shackles;
(8) position of derricks producing maximum forces
(9) optimum position for guy and preventers to resist maximum forces as at
(10) combined load diagrams showing forces for a load of 1 tonne or the
safe working load;
(11) guidance on the maintenance of the derrick rig.
5.Use of derricks in union purchase
When using union purchase the following precautions should be strictly taken
to avoid excessive tensions:-
(i) the angle between the married runners should not normally exceed 90° and
an angle of 120° should never be exceeded;
(ii) the cargo sling should be kept as short as possible so as to clear the
bulwarks without the angle between the runners exceeding 90° (or 120° in
special circumstances);
(iii) derricks should be topped as high as practicable consistent with safe
working;
(iv) the derricks should not be rigged further apart than is absolutely
necessary.
The following examples will show how rapidly loads increase on derricks,
runners and attachments as the angle between runners increases:
a) At 60° included angle, the tension in each runner would be just over half the
load;
b) At 90° the tension would be nearly three-quarters of the load;

c) At 195° the tension would be nearly 12 times the load.

When using union purchase, winch operators should wind in and pay out in step,
otherwise dangerous tensions may develop in the rig. An adequate preventer guy
should always be rigged on the outboard side of each derrick when used in union
purchase. The preventer guy should be looped over the head of the derrick, and as
close to and parallel with the outboard guy as available fittings permit. Each guy
should be secured to individual and adequate deck or other fastenings. Narrow
angles between derricks and outboard guys and between outboard guys and the
vertical should be avoided in union purchase as these materially increase the loading
on the guys. The angle between the outboard derrick and its outboard guy and
preventer should not be too large and may cause the outboard derrick to jack-knife.
In general, the inboard derrick guys and preventer should be secured as nearly as
possible at an angle of 90° to the derrick.
Use of stoppers
Where fitted, mechanical topping lift stoppers should be used. Where chain
stoppers are used, they should ALWAYS be applied by two half-hitches in the
form of a cow hitch suitably spaced with the remaining chain and rope tail
backed round the wire and held taut to the wire.

A chain stopper should be shackled as near as possible in line with the span
downhaul and always to an eye plate, not passed round on a bight which
would induce bending stresses similar to those in a knotted chain. No stopper
should be shackled to the same eyeplate as the lead block for the span
downhaul; this is particularly hazardous when the lead block has to be turned
to take the downhaul to the winch or secure it to bits or cleats. The span
downhaul should always be eased to a stopper and the stopper should take
the weight before turns are removed from the winch, bits or cleats.

6.Maintenance of derrick systems

 Wires, blocks, sheaves, heel pins and other moving parts are greased in
accordance with shipboard PMS.
 Testing is carried out annually / quadrennial (four yearly).
 All test certificates for new equipment like wires, shackles, sheaves, ropes,
blocks etc maintained on board.
 While inspecting blocks / sheaves, following are
checked
 Misalignment of sheaves
 Heavily scored sheaves
 Incorrect sheave groove to wire diameter ratio
 Frozen guide rollers.
 Inadequate internal lubrication
 While inspecting wires, following are checked
 Wire fatigue
 Kinking flattening
 Inadequate internal / external lubrication.
 Broken/ brittle strands.
 Limit switches are tested as provided
Testing of crane limit switches
For a crane, there are generally five limit switches and one slack wire
detector. The limit switches are provided to ensure that the cranes run
within safe limits.
1.Runner hoist limit switch
This is located at the jib head and trips the crane power when the hoist block touches
the limit lever. This safeguard against the runner block being hoisted too far and
hitting the jib head sheaves.
2.Jib topping upper and lower limit
All cranes/ derricks manufacturers specify the angle range (or the radii) over which
the SWL applies. Hence to limit the jibs movement between the upper and lower
angular limit, limit switches are provided. Both the limit switches are placed around
the base of the jib, the upper limit switch above and the lower limit switch below,
their position carefully adjusted such that the jib touches the limit lever when the
angular limit is reached.
3.Jib slewing port and starboard limit
At most times when there is a single pedestal crane between two hatches, the crane
would have a 360º free rotation. In such a case there would be no slew limit
switches. But when there are obstructions, for e.g. another crane, mast or
superstructure then slew limit switches are used and placed such that they activate
just before the jib could touch the obstruction. The feature is common on twin cranes.
4.Slack wire detector
It is placed either forward of the hoist drum or at the jib head. It activates when the
tension on the runner wire reduces below a certain limit. This could happen when
the cargo block has reached the tank top or the wharf and further lowering will cause
the block to rest on it. It could also take place if the block gets snagged somewhere.
In such cases if the runner wire becomes slack the slack wire detector activates
cutting off the power. This is to safeguard against sudden release of a snagged
block and to prevent a slack wire from jumping the sheave when tension is again
taken up.
All these limits switches are set and checked at the time of installation and
periodically during surveys. The operation shall be conducted with proper formal risk
assessment. The testing of limit switches is done under close monitoring, without
having any load on the fall. Experienced and skilled crane operators shall be
involved in the operating the cranes during tests under monitoring of competent
officers.
Jib Cranes
Cranes have replaced derricks on many modern ships. Positioned between the holds
on platforms which can be rotated through 360 degrees, deck cranes provide an
immediately operational unit requiring only one man to operate it. Double gearing is
a feature of most designs, providing a higher speed at lighter loads. Various types of
cranes exist for particular duties, for example, a general duties crane uses a hook
and a grabbing crane is for use with bulk cargoes.
A general cargo crane has three​ separate drives that ​provide the principal
movements:
1. A hoisting motor for lifting the load.

2. A luffing motor for raising or lowering the jib.

3. A slewing motor for rotating the crane.
1.Luffing
In the movement of jib up and down, the limit switch works when:
 ​Jib is limited to a certain angle of inclination.
 ​The movement of the jib above this limit is prevented by luffing limit switch;
this stops the motor and luffing drum.
2​.Hoisting
The up and down movement of the hook from the jib by means of running wire; the
hoisting limit switch works when:
 ​It
is mainly provided to avoid the damage occurred to the base plate fitted on the
cargo ​ ​hold where the hook lands during a heaving up operation.
 ​The hoisting motor will stop at a distance before the hook block touchethe
base plate.
Slewing
The rotation movement of the whole crane through 360 with all the
machinery; the aft most crane ​ ​near to the accommodation can be rotated
only 180° and it is provided with a slewing limit ​ switch.

Slack wire limit

If the operators by mistake pay more wire rope, which is lowering, the wire
gets slack. Then ​ ​the slack wire limit switches activate and stop the hoisting
operation by stopping the hoisting ​ motor and drum. ​This is to avoid winding
of the wire irregular in the drum while heaving and causing damage to ​ ​the
drum, supporting brackets, and other parts related to the hoisting. The
operator’s cab is ​ ​designed to provide a clear view of all cargo working areas
so that the crane operator can ​ ​function alone.

Rigging Plan
A booklet from official document, which gives detail of cargo gear and lifting
alliances. Every vessel with derricks and cranes must have a rigging plan. The
rigging plan consist of following information
o Position and size of the deep eye plate
o Position of in bound and out bound booms
o Maximum head room ( the permissible height of cargo hook above hatch coaming)
o Maximum angle between runners
o Position, size and SWL of blocks
o Length, size, and SWL of runners, topping lifts, guys and preventers o SWL of
shackles
o Position of derricks producing maximum forces
o Optimum position for guys and preventers to resist such maximum forces o
Combined load diagram showing forces for load of 1 ton.

Hatch-covers:
Types of hatches. Opening and closing of chain-pull and hydraulic hatch covers.
Closing arrangements. Battening down a hatch.
Maintenance of hatch covers:
Procedures to check weather tightness of hatch covers
Securing of hatch pontoons
Maintenance and use of side cleats and cross-joint wedge mechanism
Importance of clear drainage channels and drain holes.
Importance of compression bars and sealing gaskets
Need to check hydraulic system for leakages
Procedure for securing hatches in open position to guard against accidental
movement.
Hatch covers are installed at the upper decks or middle (tween) decks of ca​r​go holds
(compartments) for loading and discharging operations. When not handling cargo,
the hatches are closed to protect the cargo from the elements. They are typically
installed on general cargo ships, bulk carriers, container ships, or​el​oil carriers, etc.

The purpose and function of hatch covers is to prevent ingress of water into ca​r​go holds
and thereby preventing cargo(es) from being affected by elements such as rain, waves,
windstorms, etc.In addition to the foregoing purpose, hatch covers also function to
maintain seaworthiness in the event that stability is compromised due to the ingress of
water into the cargo holds. They also act to prevent the escape of cargo(es) and dust
from entering the cargo holds.

Hatch covers should be installed in accordance with the relevant Regulations/Rules of

the organizations such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), International
Convention on Load Lines​, ​Classification Societies​, ​the International Labour
Organization (ILO) and national regulatory bodies. Hatch covers, like hull construction,
are constructed to withstand flexing due to powerful external forces such as waves,
swells, etc. at sea. However, hatch covers might be deformed locally as a result of long
periods of usage over time or contact with other objects; such deformations cannot be
discovered easily, thus watertight integrity of the hatch covers cannot be ensured. It is
therefore recommended that when hatch covers are suspected of being deformed, the
hatch covers should be subjected to thorough inspection by the vessel's Classification
Society​.

Hatch covers are classified according to their construction​, ​opening/closing​, ​stowage​,

and securing devices​. ​The following types of hatch covers are generally fitted to suit
particular types of vessels:

Single Pull type

This type of hatch cover is fitted on medium-sized general cargo ships and small bulk
carriers.
Multi-panel covers may be operated by a wire (i.e. single pull) activated by ship's gear,
usually by deck cranes or winches. Alternatively, they may be pulled open or closed by
means of chains on either side of the welded steel panels​. ​The covers are
strengthened by thick, deep longitudinals, which provide longitudinal strength, with
transverse floors of smaller scantlings to provide rigidity and the ability to withstand
loads on top of them.
Side Rolling type
The side rolling type of hatch cover is fitted to large bulk carriers,OBO carriers, and
combination carriers. It consists of two large panels at each hatchway; the panels open
athwartships to provide access to the hold. The panels are heavy, requiring hydraulic
lifting and/or chain driving systems to raise them into a position that allow them to be
rolled open. The hatches then open sideways with the center joint positioned along the
centerline of the vessel.
Folding type (single,multi)
The folding type of hatch cover is fitted to small and medium-sized ships, and is either
operated by hydraulic systems or wires. The covers may be flat topped panels, box, or
single skin design.

Pontoon type (PiggybackType)

This type of hatch cover is not installed with any self-opening/closing devices​, ​and the
opening/closing is conducted by shore cranes with lifting lugs or lifting sockets. Pontoon
type hatch covers are used primarily for cargo ships with box type cargo holds.

Pontoon type (Lift away type)

This type of hatch cover is not installed with any self opening​/c​ losing devices and
opening/ closing is conducted by shore cranes​. ​It is mostly used for container ships.

Pontoon type (Tarpaulins)

This type of hatch cover is mostly fitted to small and medium-sized general cargo ships,
timber carriers, etc. These hatches are closed using ship cargo handling gear to place
the hatch pontoons​, ​covering them with tarpaulins and then battened down with wooden
wedges/batten bars/hatch nets/ropes.

Roll Stowing type (Elman type)

This type of hatch cover is fitted to general cargo ships and small to medium bulk
carriers. The hatch panels roll onto a drum for stowage.

Inspection , Maintenance and Repair of hatch covers

(“Pontoon ​– ​Piggy back” and “Lift away” type hatch )
1) Compression bars
The compression bars are fitted on both sides and each end of the hatch coaming
top​. ​They are designed to be in contact with the rubber gasket so that it prevents the
ingress of water into cargo holds through the hatch coaming. It is preferable to fit
stainless or corrosion resistant steel components to resist corrosion as much as
practicable​. ​Each item should be fitted at the same horizontal level​.
2) Quick acting cleat (side and end), Cleat holders/Holes/Bed plate
Quick acting cleats should be fitted at their original positions without any corrosion or
bending. The rubber washers that are fitted to the cleats should have proper
elasticity.
3) Cross joint cleats (wedge Cleat sockets​/B ​ ed plate
Cross joint cleats should be fitted at their original positions and maintained to avoid
weakening and bending. The surrounding plating should always be maintained so
that it cannot be weakened by corrosion or possible physical damage resulting from
being hit by other objects.
4) Rubber seal packing (gasket), retaining channel
Rubber seal packings are fitted in a retaining channel (socket) that is, in turn, fitted at
the hatch panels. Rubber gasket is designed to be in contact with and compressed
by compression bars so as to prevent the ingress of water into cargo holds​.​The
rubber gasket should have adequate elasticity and be tightly fitted/adhered to the
retaining channel, with the retaining channel should be in good order and condition.
If the rubber gasket can be compressed more than 25% of its uncompressed state​, ​it
is considered to lack elasticity and requires renewal.
5) Double drainage channel
Double drainage channels are fitted to prevent water ingress into the cargo holds
and allow water to flow over the compression bars into drain holes for drainage
outside of the hatch coaming tops. The drainage channel should be maintained to be
in good condition and any foreign substances such as rust scale and residual cargo
from spillage should be removed.
6) Double drainage sill
Double drainage sills are fitted inside of the hatch coaming and play a role to prevent
ingress of water that enters the double drainage channel over the compression bar
into cargo holds​.
7) Non​-​return drainage valve
Non-return valves are fitted so that water that has entered the double drainage
channel over the compression bar can be drained into the outside of the hatch
coaming top. Its role is also to prevent counter​-​flowing of seawater from the weather
deck. It should be fitted with standard devices sufficient to prevent counter-flowing. In
some cases​, ​there are pieces of fire hose​, ​etc​. ​fitted where the non​-​return valve
should be located​. ​This is not a permanent solution but temporary, and therefore a
non-return valve should be fitted immediately​.

Side Rolling type

With regard to the general check, maintenance and repair of side rolling type of hatch
covers, please refer to the Paragraph Single Pull type hatch covers.
However, as these hatch panels are extremely heavy, the hatch coaming, coaming
stays, panel rests, landing pads, etc. should be maintained continuously without
deformation (twist), physical damage or corrosion.
In addition, the hatch hydraulic system should always be in good working order and
condition without undue delay while opening​/​closing the hatch panels. When there is
undue delay, cargo might be affected by rain while the hatch panels are closing.

Pontoon type (Tarpaulins)

After closing hatch pontoons, each hatch is covered with three layers of tarpaulin and
then tightened by batten bars and wooden wedges being inserted between hatch
coaming plating and hatch cleats​. ​Thereafter​, ​it is battened down by lashing using hatch
ropes and/or nets to withstand any strong wind​, ​waves​, ​or swells that might be
encountered at sea​. ​Hatch pontoons should be maintained in good condition and coated
well to prevent corrosion. If there is any deformation (twist) or severe local corrosion
found or suspected, the affected pontoons should be thoroughly inspected and repaired
as appropriate.

REFERENCES FOR MANAGEMENT/MAINTENANCE OF HATCH COVERS Hatch

covers should be inspected on a regular basis or whenever by the Planned
Maintenance System (PMS). It is paramount to first inspect the condition of hatch
covers and then to conduct weather​-​tightness test(s) as required or considered to be
necessary. If any defect is found, it should be properly dealt with or rectified
immediately, as a permanent manner as far as practicable​.
In some cases, defective parts of hatch covers cannot be repaired except as a
makeshift or temporary repair, most commonly the mostly the rubber gasket and
non​-​return valves​. ​The temporarily repaired equipment should be permanently repaired
at the first available opportunity, especially on vessels engaged in the carriage of grain
cargoes.
Hatch covers should be opened and closed carefully and during opening​/ c​ losing hatch
covers, the process should be inspected to determine if the hatch covers open and
close smoothly without any undue delay or any deformation​/​twist /misalignment. In
addition to the above​, ​the operations of equipment should be inspected to determine if
quick acting cleats/joint cleats (wedges) are in good operational condition. If they are
found in poor operational condition (not cleated well, etc.), it may be considered that the
hatch panels or coaming top might have been damaged through deformation, twisting,
etc., in which case thorough inspection should be carried out as soon as possible and
the damaged parts should be repaired as appropriate.

WEATHER-TIGHTNESS (LEAK) TESTS

As it is insufficient to ensure weather-tight integrity of hatch covers by visual inspection
only, weather-tightness (leak) tests such as light, chalk, hose and ultrasonic
(ultrasound) are conducted as an additional means​, ​as briefly described below.
1 Light test
This test is conducted after closing and cleating hatch covers. A surveyor stands in the
center of tank tops or tween decks and checks for any hole(s) in the hatch covers,
decks and coaming​, ​or leaks in the rubber gasket​. ​Such deformations may be seen to
the surveyor as light shining through the gap. This test should be conducted in daylight
and with empty cargo holds or empty tween decks. The brighter the hole​, ​the larger the
hole​.
2 Chalk test

This method implements chalk, which is rubbed onto the compression bar top edges
when the hatch cover is opened​. ​After the hatch covers are closed and cleated​, ​an
inspection is conducted to ensure full compression of the rubber gasket​. ​A continuous
chalk line on the rubber gasket means that the hatch cover is weather-tight​. ​A thin line
indicates a lack of full pressure (compression) in regard to weather-tightness, and any
gaps in the chalk line indicate a lack of pressure between the compression bar and the
rubber gasket​, ​i.e​. ​a lack of weather-tightness​.

3 Hose test
This type of test is conducted by using a fire hose with a jetty type nozzle. After hatch
covers are closed and cleated, water pressure of two to three bars is supplied to the fire
hose, which is then sprayed at the hatch covers’ sides​, ​and ends across the joints by
way of the rubber seals, approximately 1​-​1.5 m away from the area to be tested while
the surveyor moves at a slow walking speed. After the test, an inspection should be
conducted by opening the hatch covers to check for any leakage. If there is any leak
found, it should be rectified immediately​. ​If there are leaks​, ​the water will enter the inner
(double) drain channel before overflowing into the cargo hold. It is a good practice to
monitor the non-return drain valves during the test​. ​The tests should be conducted in a
correct manner (i.e​. ​hose nozzle 12 mm in minimum​, ​distance 1​.​5 meters in maximum​,
right angle and pressure 2 bars (IACS UR S12))​.

4 Ultrasonic (ultrasound) test

Ultrasonics are sounds that cannot be heard by the human ear, i.e. sound with a
frequency above 20 kHz, and can be precisely measured​. ​The signal may be measured
aurally or digitally. This testing method uses an ultrasonic (ultrasound) machine. The
sound is measured when the hatch cover is open (called open hatch value "OHV") and
then the transmitter is placed in the cargo hold center (preferably) and the hatch cover is
closed. After that, the sound is measured again at the sides/ends/between hatch panels
by the receiver​. ​If the reading exceeds 10% of OHV​, ​it may be considered that there is a
leak and the hatch is not weather​-​tight. Once there is a leak, inspections should be
conducted to establish the cause of the source/nature of the leak and necessary
counter-measure should be taken.
GENERAL MATTERS RELATING TO HATCH COVER HANDLING
The following should be taken into consideration when opening and closing hatch
covers: ​-
1 Always wear a safety helmet, shoes, and working clothes (always required when
working on the main deck)​.
2 ​Before commencing the relevant work, the cargo hold should be inspected carefully for
safe working conditions in the cargo hold (gas emissions, projecting materials, etc.).
3 Commence work only after it has been verified​/​confirmed that there are no people or
objects at the hatch coaming top and its surrounding areas.
4 Have the crew monitor the working condition throughout the work to enable swift
safety measures in case of emergenc​y.
5 Conduct work slowly when handling hatch covers at the initial and final stages​.
6 Verify after opening the hatch cover that the fittings such as safety hooks, pins, etc.
have been safely secured.
7 Remove foreign substances remaining at the hatch drainage channel before closing
the hatch cover
8 Verify that hatch cleats, etc. are properly cleated and, if not, that the condition is
rectified properly. Also verify that the non-return drain valve is open and the hatch
hydraulic oil system is filled with oil​.
9 Check hatch covers when the vessel has encountered boisterous weather at sea; if
any abnormality is found​, ​it should be rectified immediately​.
10 Grease properly where needed​.
11 Where hatch covers are covered with tarpaulin, pay keen attention, taking into
consideration the difficulty involved in re-covering if the tarpaulin is taken off at sea.

CARGO DAMAGE CASES DUE TO DEFECTS OF HATCH COVERS

This section introduces several cargo damage cases caused by defects in hatch
covers, etc.
Wet damage to grain cargo due to ingress of seawater into cargo hold at sea This is a
wet damage case, which occurred with side roll type steel hatch covers. Seawater
entered the cargo hold through the hatch covers, hold access hatch covers, and hold
ventilators. It is recommended that all watertight openings be maintained in good order
and condition to prevent any possible claims due to ingress of seawater into cargo
holds​.
Water damage to coal due to ingress of seawater into cargo hold at sea This is a wet
damage case which occurred with multi​-​panel single chain pulling type steel hatch
covers. The incident was caused by the poor condition of the hatch covers and the fact
that the hatch cleats were not cleated before sailing from the loading port​. ​Water in the
cargo hold can be attributed to fresh water sprayed in the course of loading operations
and also to ingress of seawater into the cargo hold through hatch covers at sea.

Experience indicates that there would be no particular problem to coal cargoes coming
into contact with seawater. When a ship is carrying coal, its crew may be inattentive of
the hatch covers. However, cargo damage incidents have occurred on coal carriers
(mostly old vessels) due to ingress of seawater through defective hatch covers (in most
cases​, ​rubber gaskets were not properly fitted or defective). It should be borne in mind
that once a wet damage incident has occurred in consequence of defective hatch
covers​, ​it is difficult for the carrier to defend any potential claims arising therefrom.
Accordingly, in connection with ensuring watertight integrity of hatch covers, they should
be maintained in good condition as outlined above.

Items of Cargo Gear, their use, Care and Maintenance:

Ropes, wires & chains: Natural and synthetic ropes-manila, polypropylene,
terylene, nylon. Breaking stress of ropes, wires and chains as given in the Chain
Register. Calculation of SWL using Factor of Safety given,. Care of ropes and wire
used for cargo gear.Maintenance of wire ropes. When to condemn a wire rope.
Slings: Types of slings used for lifting cargo of different types. Use of snotters,
canvas slings, vehicle slings, trays, pallets, nets, hooks and slings.
Blocks: Parts of a block, Types of block, snatch blocks. External and internal
binding. Markings on a block. Size of a block and sheave, size of rope/wire to be
used in a block. Relationship between diameter of sheave and diameter of
rope/wire. Care and maintenance of blocks. Overhauling blocks.
Tackles: Parts of a tackle, using a tackle to advantage or disadvantage.
mechanical advantage. Velocity ratio or power gained, efficiency of a tackle;
relationship between effort and load. Types of purchases used on ships. Reeving a
three-fold purchase.
Shackles: Types of shackles. Marking on shackles.
Cargo hooks: Swivels, Marking on cargo hooks.
A wire rope should not be used if:
1. If it shows signs of corrosion
2. There is a tendency towards separation of wire strands
3. Excessive wear and tear by flat appearing on the individual wire
4. There is excessive reduction in measure of diameter about 8-10%
5. No of broken wires in any length of 10 diameter exceeds 5% of the total
number of wires in the rope.
6. If the statutory life of wire rope has expired as per the manufacturer although
the wire may look good outwardly.
7. After failing any test.

Care and maintenance of wire ropes:

How to Care and Maintain Wire Ropes

Care and maintenance for wire rope are essential. Here are some tips for the proper
maintenance of steel wire ropes that will help ensure they function safely and
optimally:
Protection Will Extend the Life of Wire Ropes

Protection and inspection will extend the life of your wire ropes. To protect wire ropes
you must store them in a cool, well-ventilated, dry place, preferably up off the floor to
protect from possible water damage. Take care not to drop ropes, especially when in
a reel or coil. This will damage the ropes.
Daily Inspection is Required

Make sure a professional examines the ropes before each and every use. These
experts know what to look for and can identify deterioration, corrosion, and wear that
an untrained eye may not see. Ropes must be removed every few months for a
thorough inspection to make sure they are strong and undamaged to maintain
safety.
Lubrication is Key

An important final ingredient in the manufacturing of wire ropes is lubrication. This

keeps the ropes strong and pliable. Original lubrication is eventually lost to heat and
evaporation due to stretching and bending of the cable. Regular use of the rope
requires relubrication after the original evaporates, The reason a rope must be
relubricated is to protect the wire and its core and to minimize corrosion, thus
extending the life of the cable.
Cleaning the Rope

Also, if the cable gets dirty and particles get inside, it must be cleaned with a
petroleum solvent and wire brush before relubrication. A steam cleaner or
compressed air would also do the job, but either way, it must be dried and lubricated
immediately thereafter. Moisture must be avoided at all costs for the preservation of
your wire rope. However, to prevent safety hazards, excessive lubrication must be
avoided.
Corrosion and Oxidation

To lengthen the life of wire ropes, it’s important to avoid corrosion and oxidation of
the ropes caused by salt air, salt brines, acid, sulfur, gasses, humidity, or fumes.
When shutting down a machine for an extended amount of time, the wire ropes must
be removed, cleaned, re-lubricated, and stored properly. To reduce corrosion of the
cable, adequate lubricant must be properly applied in the field.
Removing from Reels or Coils

When removing the rope from reels or coils, the coils or reels must rotate. Unloading
of the rope in a different manner will cause a kink in the rope, severely limiting its
strength. Unwinding a rope from a stationary reel will result in kinks.
Lowering and Recovery

Due diligence must be exercised during lowering and recovery operations to ensure
even spooling on winch drums. Smooth re-spooling is necessary to keep the wire
rope in tiptop shape.
When to Remove a Wire Rope

Wire ropes are used for their strength and durability, but nothing lasts forever. You
can extend the life of your wire ropes by following the guideline listed here, but when
it shows signs of wear such as a reduction in diameter, broken wire, kinks,
birdcaging, nodes, flattened areas, misplacement of outer wires, heat damage,
corrosion, loose wires or loop formations, it must be removed from service.
CARE OF CARGO-HANDLING GEAR. The following simple rules will help
prolong the life of cargo-handling gear. Cargo handlers should-

■ Apply a light coat of oil to the wire rope slings periodically. A lubricated
sling will wear five times longer than a dry sling.
■ Clean cargo-handling gear regularly.
■ Ensure manila rope slings are dry before storing to prevent mildew.
■ Keep gear not in use in the gearbox or locker to prevent damage.
■ Know the safe working load of all gear.
■ Not exceed the safe working load of any part of the rigging or of the
cargo-handling gear at any time.
■ Never overload a sling and never apply loads suddenly.

GENERAL-PURPOSE GEAR. General-purpose gear is used with many

types of cargo. This type of gear includes-

■ Endless slings.
■ Single slings.
■ Combination slings.
■ Chain slings.
■ Canvas slings.
The ends of slings are usually made up into eyes, either with or without
thimbles. The eyes fit on the cargo hook and attach to the drafts or loads of
cargo. By these eyes, a sling is joined to another sling, a hook, or a ring,
either directly or by using a shackle. Thimbles in the eyes strengthen the
sling by protecting it from sharp bends around pins, hooks, shackles, links,
rings, and similar objects.

■ a. ​Endless Slings.​ Splicing the ends of a piece of wire or fiber rope

makes an endless sling. It is simple to handle and can be used in
several different ways to lift loads. The endless sling is most commonly
used as a choker hitch. When the endless sling is used as a choker,
personnel pass it around the draft or cargo forming a loop on top of the
draft. The other end is passed through this loop, pulled tight and
attached to the cargo hook. To balance the load, personnel spread
apart the two parts of the sling on the bottom of the draft.
(1) The endless sling is also used with chime or running hooks. It may be
used as a basket sling or a vertical sling.
(2) Personnel should not use endless slings to lift bagged cargo such as
sugar, flour, and cement. These types of items require canvas slings.

b. ​Single Slings. A single sling is made of fiber or wire rope. Each end of
the single sling is made up with an eye, a hook, a ring, or a thimble,
depending on the intended use of the sling. A single sling may be used as a
vertical sling, a basket sling, or a choker sling with a choker hitch. Single
slings made of fiber rope are used for light loads and for cargo that might be
damaged by wire slings. Slings made of wire rope have a variety of uses.
They are made in lengths ranging from 5 to 150 feet or longer for special
cargo. Running hook wire rope slings may be used to hoist drafts of lumber,
dunnage, iron pipe, building steel, strong boxes, and large cases. Each
running hook sling is made with 18-inch eyes at each end. Personnel use
the sling by wrapping it around the draft, attaching one eye to the sliding
hook, and putting the other eye on the cargo hook.

c. ​Combination Slings. Combination slings combine two or four single

slings to form a bridle, basket, or choker sling. Combination slings can lift
virtually any type of load. When several slings are passed under large crates
or boxes to form a basket sling, cargo handlers should use spreader bars to
prevent crushing.

d. ​Chain Slings. These slings are used mainly for handling steel rails, pipes,
beams, and angles. Chain slings are used in bridles or single legs. Cargo
handlers should use dunnage between the chain and the draft to prevent
slipping. If necessary, dunnage also should be used between individual
pieces in the draft. When hoisting cargo of this type, cargo handlers should
make a round turn (complete) with the chain around the draft. Cargo
handlers also use chain choker slings. Chain choker slings are used to
handle such cargo as steel rails, pipes, and steel beams. Cargo handlers
place dunnage in such a way to give the sling a better grip. The sling's links
are wrought iron; this iron will stretch before it breaks, thus giving warning.
Other types of iron may simply crystallize and snap. Watch for warning signs
such as stretching links, fracturing, and stretching hooks.

e. ​Canvas Slings. A canvas sling is a rope sling with a section of canvas

sewn between the ropes (Figure 4-8). The main type of canvas sling in use
is the dirt sling. In commercial practice, canvas slings similar to dirt slings
are used for handling cargo such as nitrate

SPECIAL-PURPOSE GEAR. Special-purpose gear is made for use with

certain types of cargo. It includes-

■ Cargo nets.
■ Pie plates.
■ Pallets.
■ Bridles.
■ Plate-handling clamps.
■ a. ​Cargo Nets.​ Cargo nets are usually made of manila rope, but nets of
wire rope are used for special cargoes. The standard Army cargo net is
14 by 14 feet with a 7 7/8-inch square mesh. The square meshes are
made of 2 1/2-inch circumference manila rope. The line around the
circumference of the net is made of 3-inch circumference manila rope.
Cargo nets are used to handle loose packages that are not all the same
size. The package must be strong enough to withstand pressure. When
making up a draft in a cargo net, cargo handlers should stack the cargo
so that the crushing effect of the net is kept to a minimum.

b. ​Pie Plates.​ The crushing effect of a cargo net may be reduced by

using a round "pie plate" (Figure 4-9). Pie plates are constructed of two
dunnage layers. They vary from 54 to 72 inches in diameter. Personnel
place the pie plate in the center of the net and tack the cargo so that all
the weight is on the pie plate. If pie plates or pallets are not available,
cargo handlers use cargo boards to reduce the crushing pressure of the
cargo net. Cargo boards are constructed of two layers of dunnage
nailed together to make a solid board measuring 4 by 6 feet. The cargo
board is placed in the center of the net and is used in the same way as
a pie plate.
c. ​Pallets.​ The four basic types of pallets used in military cargo handling
are the stevedore, general-purpose, sled, and warehouse pallets.
(1) A stevedore pallet, which is reversible, is used to handle loose cargo at
water terminals (Figure 4-10). The standard stevedore pallet is 4 feet wide, 6
feet long and 8 inches high. The stringers are made of 3- or 4- by 4-inch
lumber. The deck boards are made of lumber 2 inches thick. The outside
boards may be random widths. The outside stringers are set in 4 to 6 inches
from the ends so that a pallet bridle may be inserted. The inside stringers are
arranged to permit easy entrance of forks for movement by forklift trucks.
(2) A general-purpose pallet is a four-way-entry wood pallet, 48 inches long,
40 inches wide, and approximately 5 1/2 inches high (Figure 4-11). This pallet
is used mainly for the shipment of palletized cargo and often accompanies the
cargo from shipper to consignee.
(3) The sled pallet is a heavy timbered platform with runners (Figure 4-12).
Supplies and equipment are normally banded to the pallet.

Figure 4-11.
General-purpose

pallet

Figure 4-12. Sled pallet

■
(4) A warehouse pallet is used to handle cargo in warehouses. It is
much lighter than the stevedore pallet. The most common size of
warehouse pallet is 48 by 48 inches, but a 40- by 48-inch size is also
made. The warehouse pallet can be the open end type that is moved by
a forklift or hoisted by a pallet bridle, or the closed end type that is
moved by forklift only.
(5) When items of cargo are palletized, the tiers are laid so that one tier
ties together with another to give stability to the unitized load and to
keep the cargo from falling off the pallet while it is being moved. Cargo
handlers can obtain greater use of the pallet area by building the load in
a definite pattern whenever possible.
 d. ​Spreaders.​ A spreader (Figure 4-13) is any device used to keep the
side pressure of the sling legs away from the load being hoisted. Some
commonly used spreaders include-
■ Vehicle spreaders with wheel nets.
■ Heavy-lift spreaders.
■ Barrel sling spreaders.
■ Pallet bridle spreaders.
■ (1) A vehicle spreader is made of lengths of hardwood, pipe, or
steel beams. It permits a straight pull on the sling and wheel nets.
This keeps pressure away from the sides of the vehicle to be
hoisted.
(a) Wheel nets are used for hoisting sedans and other light vehicles (refer to
Figure 4-13). The wheel nets included in the cargo set vehicle are 8 by 3 feet,
with 6-inch mesh. Manila rope that is 3 inches in circumference is used in the
net with the exception of the frame which uses 3 3/4-inch manila rope.
(b) When using the sling and wheel net, the winch operator lowers the cargo
hook until the wheel nets are on the ground. The nets are spread out in this
position so there is enough clearance between the top of the cargo net and
the bottom of the vehicle spreader to allow the vehicle to enter.
(c) The vehicle is pushed until its wheels are in the net. Cargo handlers may
also use other types of slings to load vehicles. For example, a four-legged
bridle can be used if the vehicle has been fitted with lifting eyes.
(2) Heavy-lift spreaders are made of steel beams because stronger material is
required to keep greater pressure away from the side of the heavy lift (Figure
4-14).
(3) Barrel sling spreaders may be triangular, straight, or square (Figure 4-15).
They are usually made of plate steel with holes for the shackles which hold
the chime hooks. Cargo handlers may hoist a number of drums at one time
with the use of the barrel sling spreader.
 Figure 4-15. Barrel sling
spreader

Figure 4-14. Heavy-lift spreader

(4) Pallet bridle spreaders keep pressure away from the sides of the draft
(Figure 4-16). The straight types are made of steel or hardwood.
e. ​Bridles. Bridles are lifting devices designed to hoist special types of cargo.
They may be used in conjunction with spreaders. A list of the most common
types of bridles follows.

Figure 4-16. Pallet

bridle spreaders

(1) Pallet bridles are used for quick, efficient handling of palletized cargo
(Figure 4-17). Cargo handlers should insert the lifting bars at the bottom of the
nets into the ends of the pallet to use the bridle. Then they should spread the
sling nets around the cargo as far as they will reach and slip the eyes over the
cargo hook. The bars at the top serve as spreaders.
 Figure 4-17. Pallet bridle

(2) Beam bridles are used to remove hatch beams from their sockets (Figure
4-18). Cargo handlers should place the hooks on opposite sides of the beam
in the lightening holes or rings as provided. The beam will then ride level and
straight up and down. Tag lines are attached to the bridles for control and
safety.

Figure 4-18. Beam bridle

(3) Vehicle bridles are used for efficient handling of various types of vehicles.
The size of the bridle depends on the size of the vehicle to be hoisted. Cargo
handlers should use vehicle spreaders with wheel nets for passenger
vehicles. Heavy-lift spreaders are used for trucks.
(4) Heavy-duty bridles are used to reduce side pressure on heavy lifts. Bridles
use a combination of wire rope, shackles, hooks, rings, or chain. Cargo
handlers should know the safe working load of this type of gear when using
these bridles. Table 4-1 gives the recommended minimum size of shackles,
chain, hooks, and rings to be used with various sizes of wire rope.
f. ​Plate-Handling Clamps. Plate-handling clamps are designed exclusively
for handling steel plates. They are used to lift the plates into position to be
properly slung with wire rope slings. They are safe for use only when the steel
plate is not lifted to a great height. They are not used to hoist steel plates into
or out of a hold. If the plates hit the coaming or the side of the hatch, it will
release the tension and the clamps will drop the plates. The two most
common types used in military cargo handling have serrated jaws and a 5-ton
capacity (Figure 4-19).

Ventilation and Control of Sweat :

Need for ventilation of cargo spaces
Ship sweat and cargo sweat, and differentiate between them.
Factors affecting sweat.
Control of sweat by ventilation,
Operation of ventilation system
Cargoes requiring special ventilation due to emission of gases, absorption of
oxygen, dust, release of moisture.
Temperature variations leading to sweat damage, ship and cargo sweat,
monitoring of dew-point temperature and ventilation to prevent sweat.

Cargo-handling Safety:
Inspection of cargo gear prior work.
Precautions during cargo operations while using cargo gear.
Effective communication during loading and discharging.
Precautions to be taken whilst operating hatch covers.

Cargo Plan
A ship’s cargo plan shows the distribution and other details such as load / discharge
port(s) as well as the units and quantities of all parcels of various cargoes aboard the
vessel. The plan is produced before departure from the final port of loading. Copies of
the plan are thus, made before the vessel sails. The copies are forwarded to agents at
ports of discharge to allow the booking and reservation of stevedore gangs, as
appropriate.
Loading as well as securing must be planned. The objective of pre-planning is that
personnel, ship and cargo may be reasonably protected at all stages of carriage, and
during cargo operations.
The cargo plan should include relevant details of loading and cargoes, i.e., total quantity,
description of package, bales, pallets, tonnage, port of discharge, identification marks
and special features if and when required. The port of discharge is normally “highlighted”
in one specific colour, reducing the likelihood of a parcel of cargo being over carried to
the next port.
▪ Most plans normally have the following details in addition to the one stated
above:
▪ Name of the vessel and the Master under whose command she is;
▪ List of loading / discharging port(s), in order of call;
▪ Sailing draughts fore and aft;
▪ Hatch wise tonnage breakdown with colour key to identify discharge ports;
▪ Voyage number;
▪ Volume and location of empty space inside holds remaining on board;
▪ List of dangerous cargo, if any;
▪ List of special cargo, if any;
▪ Statement of deadweight, fuel, stores, water, etc.;
▪ Any pre-slung cargo, deck cargo, IMO cargo, containers, etc.;
▪ Chief Officer’s and Master’s signature.
The plan provides at a glance, the distribution of the cargo and shows possible access to
it in the event of fire or the cargo shifting. It also helps the agents / stevedore to decide
about booking of gangs, equipments, forklift, etc. Port-wise colouring helps to limit “over
carriage” and the possibility of short delivery at the port of discharge.

General Precautions
All cargo should be loaded having due regard to the order of discharge. Cargo plan must
be carefully made keeping this in mind when planning the position of cargo and the order
of loading and unloading, the effects these operations will have upon access and the
safety of personnel. Many accidents have occurred in the past due to this.
1) Cargo information, including gross weight of the cargo or cargo units and any
special properties detailed onboard or in the shipping documents, should be
recorded and used in planning.
2) Load density and space available must be checked carefully.
3) Wherever practicable, where more than one port is involved for loading or
unloading, cargo should be loaded in layers rather than columns or walls, so as to
avoid the development of high vertical walls of cargo. When walls are
unavoidable, they should be in forward underdeck or aft underdeck area with
adequate depth and proper lashings. Walls of cargo should never exist in port
and starboard wings.
4) Care should be taken not to over-stow lighter cargoes with heavier cargoes which
may lead to a collapse of the stow. Fragile cargo should not be over-stowed with
heavy cargoes.
5) Cargo should be stowed so as to leave safe clearance behind the rungs of hold
ladders and to allow safe access as may be necessary at sea.
6) There may be the need to walk across or climb onto deck cargo. Safety during
attendance must be ensured.
7) Deck cargo should be stowed in accordance with the Statutory Regulations and
kept clear of hatch coamings to allow safe access. Access to safety equipment,
firefighting equipment (particularly fire hydrants) and sounding pipes should also
be kept free. Any obstructions in the access way such as lashings or securing
points should be painted white to make them visible more easily. Where this is
impracticable, arrangements regarding safety of crew and support for the cargo
must be made.
8) General cargo includes individual items of any type of cargo, bagged or baled
items, cases or crates, individual drums or barrels, pieces of machinery or small
items of steel construction. Care must be taken to cross check the packaging.
Thus, a huge carton containing very small units of oil such as vegetable oil cans
of one litre is highly unacceptable. This is because general cargo is susceptible to
crushing damage from other items of cargo or damage from the ship’s steel work,
general handling damage.
9) An old thumb rule for allotting quantity of cargoes is 30% to 35% on tween decks
and above and 65% to 70% in lower holds. However, reference should always be
made to the “​Loading and Stability Manual​” for guidance.
10) Pumping out of bilges while the vessel is in loaded condition should be possible.
11) Proper and adequate laying of appropriate dunnage in order to spread the weight
of heavy cargo should be ensured.
12) Adequate dunnage must be used in holds particularly in case of bagged cargo if
susceptible to moisture damage. It should never be stowed against the steel in
the cargo compartment, some type of dunnage or cargo battens must be placed
between the cargo and the steel work.
13) Cargo that has value to any individual (examples are shoes, clothing, spirits,
grocery items and electrical goods) must be protected from pilferage. Usually
such cargo is stowed in lockers. Anti-pilferage watch is maintained for this
operation.
14) If there is any risk in handling damage then the items should be clearly marked
with the symbols such as “Fragile Goods / Cargo”, “Handle with Care”, “This Side
Up” with Arrows etc.
15) Detailed and useful information on general cargo types is available through some
books such as “​Thomas Stowage​”.

The shipowner is generally responsible for the stowage of cargo onboard the vessel. In
the handling, stowage and carriage of cargo, the general principles stated above will
apply for the safety of ship and crew. The other aspects which must be considered by
the ship’s staff are:
i. The highest possible port speed (i.e., for quicker turnaround) and
ii. The most efficient use of space.

To minimise the risk of cargo shift, it is recommended that the cargo in holds should be
trimmed as much as possible. The ship’s Master should be aware of the possibility of
harmful effects from corrosion and increased temperature of cargoes and cargoes which
may liquefy if the moisture contents exceeds a certain limit (above TML – Transportable
Moisture Limit – Reference IMSBC Code). If cargo needs to be distributed differently
from the loading manual, calculations must always be made to determine, for each part
of the voyage, showing the SF (Shear Force) and BM (Bending Moment) values are
never exceeded.

Note:
The MS Merchant Shipping (Carriage of Cargoes) Regulations 1999 specifies that the
owner and Master must ensure that:
● The cargo and cargo units carried on or under deck are loaded, stowed and
secured so as to prevent as far as practicable, throughout the voyage, damage or
hazard to the ship and the persons onboard and loss of cargo overboard.
● Appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of heavy cargoes
or cargoes with abnormal physical dimensions to ensure that no structural
damage to the ship occurs and to maintain adequate stability throughout the
voyage.
● Appropriate precautions are taken during loading and transport of cargo units
onboard RO-RO ships, especially with regard to the securing arrangements
onboard such ships and on the cargo units and with regard to the strength of the
securing points and lashings.
● Cargo on ships required to carry a Cargo Securing Manual is stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual
CH-5

INDIAN MARITIME UNIVERSITY SEMESTER II

T.S. Chanakya

Course B.Sc.(NS) Syllabus -2018-4th Revision

Code- UG 21 T4305

Subject – CARGO HANDLING AND STOWAGE

Question Type-Hand Out

Compiled by Capt. Deepak Karan

Some contents & diagrams are downloaded from internet-public domain – URL
mentioned for reference. Information are used for educational purposes only

Ventilation and cargo sweat

1. Humidity: Amount of water vapour contained in parcel of Air
2. Absolute humidity(not much in use)
 is the measure of water vapor (moisture) in the air, regardless of temperature. It is
expressed as grams of moisture per cubic meter of air (g/m3).
 The maximum absolute humidity of warm air at 30°C/86°F is approximately 30g of
water vapor – 30g/m3. The maximum absolute humidity of cold air at 0°C/32°F is
approximately 5g of water vapor – 5g/m3.
3. Relative humidity:

 The most commonly used measure of humidity is relative humidity.

 Relative humidity can be simply defined as the amount of water in the air relative
to the saturation amount the air can hold at a given temperature multiplied by 100.
 Air with a relative humidity of 50% contains a half of the water vapour it could hold
at a particular temperature.
 4. Dew Point:

 Dew point is an indicator of how much water is in the air and relative humidity is a
measurement of how close the air is to saturation.
 The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated
with water vapor.
 When further cooled, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew).
When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air,
water will condense on the surface.
5. Hygroscopic and Non Hygroscopic cargo
 Cargo ventilation on ships is important for both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic
cargoes.
 Hygroscopic cargo has natural water/moisture content. for instance, agricultural, fish
and forest cargoes.

 This type of cargo is mainly plant products, which absorb, retain, and release water
within the cargo.
 This water leads to significant heating and spreading of moisture in the cargo and result
in caking or spoiling or cargo. Hygroscopic products include grain, rice, flour, sugar,
cotton,tobacco, cocoa, coffee and tea.
 For example rice has a moisture content of around 14 per cent. It is important to note that
these cargoes can absorb and release moisture. It is more likely that damage is caused
when moisture is absorbed.
 A hygroscopic cargo with a moisture content and temperature such that water vapour
will leave the cargo and enter the hold air will result in the build up of moist air and
increase the risk of sweat.
 Non-hygroscopic
 Non-hygroscopic cargoes contain no moisture; for example, steel. Whilst non-
hygroscopic cargoes may be wet before shipment, e.g., because they have been
affected by rain before loading, it is better to avoid shipment of wet cargo rather than face
the difficult task of deciding whether or not to ventilate.
 Non-hygroscopic cargoes do not give off moisture, but may absorb or be damaged by it.
6. Why there is need of cargo ventilation?

Why is there a need for ventilation of cargo spaces?

1.Most cargoes are loaded in cargo holds which are closed before proceeding to sea to prevent
any external elements like bad weather, water, heat, cold from affecting the cargo inside. But
when the voyage is long, keeping the hatch totally closed, can cause various problems
such as:

a) Deterioration of cargo due to ship/ cargo sweat

b) Ventilation of cargo may be necessary to remove heat, dissipate gas, help prevent
condensation and/or remove taint.

c) Heat may be generated by live fruit, wet hides, vermin, and commodities liable to
spontaneous combustion

d) Cargo damage due to heating of cargo. if we do not ventilate the cargo spaces there will
be an increase in the temperature of the hold, especially when the ship is sailing from a
colder to a warmer region as the deck which is exposed to the sunlight will heat up and
by conduction the temperature of the air inside the hold will begin to rise.
e) An increase in the sea water temperature will also have the same effect on the shipside
plating and consequently on the hold temperature.

2. Hazards posed due to presence of a dangerous gases in the hold emitted by cargo (Toxicity,
flammability etc).

3. Gases which may require dissipation include inflammable and explosive gases such as those
emitted by coal, vehicle exhausts in Ro-Ro ships, CO2 and ethylene from ripening fruit and
vegetables.

4. The removal of existing or residual taint by means of ventilation may be carried out in
conjunction with an ozonating unit and may be required to reduce the probability of sensitive
cargo becoming affected by the taint, or to improve working conditions for labour.

5.Accelerated corrosion of the ship's structure

 7.Dew point

 All air contains water vapour of varying quantities.

 The dew point indicates the amount of moisture in the air.
 The higher the dew point, the higher the moisture content of the air at a given temperature.
 Conversely, the dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.
 Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature to which the air would have to cool (at
constant pressure and constant water vapour content) in order to reach saturation.
 A state of saturation exists when the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour
possible at the existing temperature and pressure.
 Condensation of water vapour begins when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew
point and beyond.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OxwRKe_dIA
8.Ship Sweat : Rule #1

a) Condensation occur when, WARM, MOIST, UNSATURATED air cooled to its Dewpoint
b) Load – Warm moist area
c) Sails – Cooler area
d) Cold air +cold sea water cools the hold bulkheads
e) When warm unsaturated air of the Hold comes contact to the ship hold cold
structure/steel/ bulkheads then hold air cooled to dew point , condensation starts
f) Water droplets formed at the ship steel structure.
g) Water droplets falls on Cargo, gets damaged

Ship sweat
a) Load at warm moist area- Warm +Moist + Unsaturated air

2.Sails to cooler area

Case 2 : : When cargo itself is warm and moist ,ship sweat also aggravates .moisture
releases in cargo hold comes contact with cold steel and condenses & water droplets
produces

Case3 : 3 .Unseasoned, wet cargo ,green dunnage also releases the moisture content in
the hold .comes contact with ship structure ,water droplets produces
Ship’s sweat, Formation of condensation on the underside of the hatch covers,

Characteristic damage to a grain cargo

arising from ship’s sweat. A distinctive linear pattern of superficial deterioration
(discolouration and mould growth) at the surface of the stow, where liquid moisture has
dripped back down onto this bulk grain cargo from the underside of the closed hatch
covers. The banding pattern mirrors the layout of the metal structures above
9.Cargo sweat

1.Loads in cold area

2.Sails to warmer areas

3.! IF IF!! warm moist air is introduced to cargo hold

4.Introduced air will be cooled by the cold cargo

5.If introduced air is cooled to dew point ,condensation will start and water droplets will be
formed on cargo

Reason : In appropriate Ventilation , !!! IF

Load in cold Area

Reaches Warm Area

Reaches Warm Area
Summary :

9.a Cargo sweat: Consider the following case:

 A ship has loaded steel cargo at Antwerp in January for shipment to Singapore. Antwerp in
January is a winter zone and the temperature is low.
 As the cargo spaces would be sealed after completion of loading, the cargo and the
air temperature inside the hold will be cold.
 During the voyage to Singapore the outside atmospheric temperature will rise as the ship
passes from winter to the tropical zone.
 Compared to the volume of air inside the hold, the volume of air brought into the
hold through the ventilator ducts at any given time is small.
If ventilation is permitted - the warm moist air entering the cold cargo space will be
cooled and if cooled below its dew point will condense on the cold steel cargo surface
causing cargo sweat. This can cause the steel to rust.

Here the solution is to restrict ventilation. Do not ventilate when passing from a cold area
to a warm area, always allow the air and cargo in the hold to warm up naturally.

9.b Ship Sweat Exactly the same phenomenon causes ship's sweat.

 Consider a ship having loaded cargo in a warm region is proceeding towards a cold
region. For example: bagged rice is loaded in Bangkok, in November, for shipment to
Inchon in South Korea.
 At the time of loading, the ambient temperature in Bangkok was 26 degrees C. The cargo
and the air inside the cargo hold is warm and moist and would continue to remain so for
some time after the hold is sealed.
 Air and seawater temperature starts to drop as the voyage progresses.
 As the seawater and the outside air cools the air inside the hold which is in close contact
with the steel plates also cools.
 When this parcel (air inside the hold adjacent to the steel plates) is cooled below its dew
point, water vapour is given out which condenses on the ship's structure forming "ship's
sweat".
 This does not directly cause a cargo problem but when the moisture droplets run down
the beams and drips onto the cargo, which it invariably does, it may result in cargo
damage and subsequent claims.
10.Rules for ventilation

a) Dewpoint Rule
1. VENTILATE if the dew point of the air inside the hold is higher than the dew point
of the air outside the hold.
2. DO NOT VENTILATE if the dewpoint of the air inside the hold is lower than the
dewpoint of the air outside the hold.

Hold Dew Outside Dew Remarks

point point
30 27 Ventilate
30 33 Do not ventilate

b) Three Degree Rule

 In many instances it is impracticable to measure hold dewpoint temperatures accurately,

or at all
 In such cases. ventilation requirements may be estimated by comparing the average
 cargo temperature at the time of loading with the outside air temperature several
times a day.
 Ventilation may then be carried out on the following basis;
 #1 . VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is at least 3°C cooler than
the average cargo temperature at the time of loading.
 #2 DO NOT VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is less than 3°C
cooler than the average cargo temperature at the time of loading, or warmer.
 In order to apply the Three Degree Rule, it will be necessary for the ship’s staff to take a
number of cargo temperature readings during loading.
 Hand-held infrared thermometers are ideal for this task and are relatively inexpensive

Average Hold temp Outside temp Remarks

during loading
30 27 Ventilate outside at least
3deg cooler
30 28 Do not ventilate
Outside <3deg cooler
10 c.Practical Rule – From book

Outside Dewpoint Hold temp Remarks

temp
26.8 24 Do not ventilate
25.5 26 Ventilate
21.1 21 If required then only
,otherwise man entry

DPOA>HT-Don’t Ventilate

DPOA<HT -ventilate

10 d.General Note

 RULE OF THE THUMB: "HOT TO COLD, VENTILATE HOLD

 COLD TO HOT, VENTILATE NOT
Information taken from - https://nauticalclass.com/need-for-ventilation-of-cargo-spaces/

11.a The sea conditions – If, in adverse sea conditions, there is a risk of sea spray entering the
ventilation openings to the cargo spaces, no ventilation should take place and the ventilator openings
should be closed and sealed.

11.b. Inspections of the cargo spaces – The cargo spaces should be inspected regularly to check for
signs of sweat (providing it is safe to enter).

11c. Hours of darkness – Providing ventilation can and should be carried out, based on the above
considerations, ventilation should continue to take place night and day.

A failure to ventilate at night will probably be viewed unfavourably by a court or arbitration tribunal,
unless of course there was a valid reason not to ventilate.

11d. Shippers’ instructions – Shippers may have special instructions for ventilation. If these are at
odds with what the vessel would expect, it would be prudent to obtain the views of an expert

11e. Expert advice – If there is any doubt about ventilation, expert advice ought to be sought.

12.a. Hygroscopic cargo –

 Cold to warm climate If a stable cold cargo is carried to a warm climate, ventilation
will always be unnecessary.
 Indeed, in some circumstances ventilation may lead to cargo damage

12.b. Hygroscopic cargo –

Warm to cold climate:- Vigorous surface ventilation of the cargo spaces will almost
certainly be required due to the likelihood of ship sweat developing

12.c Non-hygroscopic cargo –

 cold to warm climate: Ventilation is never required.
 Cargo sweat is liable to occur if warm moist air comes into contact with cold
cargo. Therefore holds should usually remain sealed to allow the cargo and
internal air to warm gradually during the voyage

12.d Non-hygroscopic cargo –

 warm to cold climate
 Ventilation is largely irrelevant. The development of significant ship sweat is very
unlikely.
 12 e Combined cargoes :

 Problems may arise if hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes with different

inherent temperatures are loaded into the same compartment.
 Their ventilation requirements may differ, resulting in damage to one or other of
the products in spite of normal routines being followed.
 As far as possible, hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes should not be
 stowed together.
 12f. Temp monitoring
 Temperature Monitoring

 Many bulk cargoes are liable to spontaneous combustion or ship or cargo sweat. The
only possible way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by
monitoring the temperature of the cargo holds.
 Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports', ie pipes that are fitted beside the cargo
hold access ladders into which thermometers can be lowered to obtain the hold
temperature.
 The best practice is to leave the thermometers within the ports and withdraw them when
a reading is desired.
 However, if the ship is not fitted with temperature ports, the sounding pipes could also
be used to obtain temperatures. Whichever method is used for measuring temperature:

 i) The thermometers should be reset before introducing them into the pipes
 ii) the thermometers should be left in the pipes for some time (2-3 minutes at least)
 iii) the temperature should be measured at least 2-3 height levels within the hold
 iv) the temperature should not be measured solely at the surface of cargo as it is likely to
be quite different from that at the bottom of the cargo hold.
13.Ventalation system

o Vessels are normally fitted with one of two systems:

o Natural (Airflow not assisted by Fan)
o Mechanical.(airflow assisted by fan)
o Controlled atmosphere (controlling a space’s temperature and carbon
dioxide)
o Natural ventilation simply describes a system whereby ambient air is allowed to
enter and leave the hold naturally, via trunking connecting the hold to and above
deck level.

o Mechanical ventilation describes a system whereby air movement is forced,

usually by electrical fans that are fitted in the ventilation trunking. These can
usually be operated so as to either draw air into or eject air out of the hold.

14. Location of ventilators

15. ventilation carrying out methods
15.aThrough ventilation: In this case air is passed through the entire area of the hold right
 down to the bottom.
 This can be achieved by means of ducts, double layering of the bottom dunnage and use
of side battens to allow free flow of air.
 The air entering through one set of ventilators reaches the bottom of the compartment via
 trunkings, rises upwards through the cargo and finally exhausts out of another set of
 ventilators.
 In case of natural ventilation this is achieved by turning the leeward ventilator
 into the wind and the windward ventilator away from the wind, thereby achieving a
 greatest air flow rate which is required for through ventilation.
 Some cargoes like Rice bags are stowed in blocks to encourage through ventilation.

15.b Surface ventilation:

 Certain cargoes like coal give off flammable gas and generate heat due to exothermic
reaction. If the heat generated over a period of time is sufficiently high, then the presence
of the flammable gas and the atmospheric oxygen in the right proportion could lead to
spontaneous combustion.
  Hence it is important that the flammable gas is expelled but at the same time too much
oxygen should not be injected into cargo.
 This is achieved by only ventilating the cargo on the surface known as surface
ventilation.
 This is achieved by trimming the windward side natural ventilator to the wind and the
 leeward side ventilator away from the wind giving a very easy flow to the wind.
 If the ventilator has trunkings which lead to the bottom of the hold - it should be kept shut.
 This type of ventilation also helps to control the rise in temperature of both the cargo
and the hold spaces
 . Cargoes requiring surface ventilation must be compactly stowed

16. Types of Ventilators

16.a For natural Natural ventilation

16.b Mechanical ventilation

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 Mushroom ventilators are usually closed by turning the wheel which is set on top.
 This brings a damper plate inside the mushroom cowl into contact with the lip of the
ventilator trunk.
 A rubber (neoprene) seal is set into the damper plate, and it must be in good condition to
ensure a watertight fit.
 The seal can be inspected when the ventilator is open by looking upwards into the
ventilator cowl from a position on deck beside the ventilator.
 The grille in a mushroom ventilator is usually fitted in several parts, located in the position
illustrated, and must be renewed if damaged.
 The shaft of the wheel must be greased and working freely. If the shaft is coated with
grease and the grease has become contaminated with dust and grit from the cargo the
shaft is likely to jam. Before the ventilator is opened, the contaminated grease should be
removed from the shaft.
 Then the treated part should be wiped with a rag soaked in paraffin before the ventilator
is opened and closed and the shaft greased.
 The wheel must be clearly marked with the OPEN and CLOSE directions, and the
marks should be checked to be sure that they have not been reversed – mistakes can
easily occur on older ships when the original plates have wasted, and been replaced by
painted signs.
17.Mechanical forced ventilation

 This method overcomes the disadvantages of thenatural ventilation system.

 The design of the ventilator is shown in below figure.
 The whole arrangement is permanently fittted on deck or on mast house.
 Electrical blowers are fittted inside the ventilator to either inject the air into or exhaust
the air from the compartment

Requirement Setting Result

 Surface  The blowers of the  As the air with the gases is
ventilation ventilators on one expelled from the compartment,
required side of the automatically fresh air enters
 Harmful gases compartment are through the ventilators on the
to be expelled operated in the opposite side, without the help
exhaust mode of the blowers.
 Opposite side  This process enables the gases
blowers-no need of to be physically dragged out of
running blowers the compartment and be
replaced by fresh air.
 When through  Blowers of one set  With the build-up of pressure
ventilation is of ventilators are inside the compartment, the air
required and operated in the is automatically exhausted out
expelling of inlet mode to force of the other set of ventilators
gases is not of the fresh air into the without operating the
paramount compartment. blowers.
importance,  Other set of
Blowers-No need of
running
  As blowers of only one set of ventilators will be operated at a time, these should be
periodically inter-changed during the voyage to avoid over-stressing the same blowers.
 To restrict ventilation
 Stop the blowers
 close the trunking.by turning wheel on top of the ventilator,flaps
gets closed
 These Flaps are also effective in preventing entry of water during bad weather and in
controlling a fire, which may occur inside the compartment. They are commonly referred
to as Fire Flaps.
 Spark arrestor are also fitted

18.Dry cargo - Dehumidifiers

Humidity in the hold of a ship is usually high when at sea and when carrying cargoes that are
easily damaged then a supply of dry air may be an essential. Bringing humidity levels down to
appropriate levels will require the use of a dehumidifier which may or may not be equipped with
a recording function that registers the humidity level on a constant basis.

Dehumidifiers draw the air from the hold passing it through a desiccant such as silica gel to
absorb moisture. Dehumidifiers may also be used after hold washing to speed drying in
preparation for the next cargo.

Reducing the humidity. Humidity and condensation can cause damage to cargoes and also to
the holds or tanks containing them. Dehumidifying of the areas prevents these problems, and
the two most widely used systems employ either refrigeration or desiccant.

In the refrigeration systems the air is cooled, and the amount of water vapour it can hold is
reduced, with the excess condensing on the chiller surface. The condensed water has to be
either collected into a container or pumped away.

In the desiccant method, a medium (silica gel, for instance) is used to absorb the moisture from
air before it is blown into the hold to replace the humid air. Heat is then used to dry the
desiccant. The released water vapour is vented outside the controlled atmosphere.

Dehumidifier – A substance or a machine used to reduce humidity in holds or cargo tanks.

Calcium chloride and silica gel are water-absorbing chemicals (desiccants) commonly in use.
19.Fumigation :

 Many agricultural products shipped in bulk, such as grains, seed cakes and logs, may
have insects living on or within the cargo and may also have larvae or eggs
 present.
 In order to prevent the spread of insects and pests within cargoes, fumigation may be
carried out
 Fumigation is the introduction of poison into a space to suffocate any insects or
pests within
 Fumigation is the process of releasing toxic gases (pesticides) into a cargo hold or
compartment for the purpose of eliminating or avoiding infestation by insects or other
pests that may cause the cargo to deteriorate.
 Fumigation may take place either prior to and/or after loading of the cargo. In-transit
fumigation is preferred by shippers and charterers because it reduces time in port.
 Hazards :The hazards associated with fumigation on board ships are:
 • Toxicity, risk of poisoning
 • Flammability
 • Heat
 Due to these hazards, fumigation and the handling of fumigants should only be carried
out by authorised professional fumigators under the supervision of a fumigator in charge
 “in-transit fumigation”- controversial , “in-transit fumigation” may affect the safety and
health of crew and other persons on board significantly.
 Generally speaking, in-transit fumigation should be avoided,
 Types of fumigation
The most widely used fumigants are phosphine-evolving gases (hydrogen phosphine) such as
aluminum phosphide, magnesium phosphide, gastoxin or magtoxin.
 These fumigants come in solid form, i.e., pellets, and are usually placed on the surface of the
stow or inserted just beneath it.
 Methyl bromide is applied in gaseous form from cylinders which connect to the holds via specially
provided pipework. Methyl bromide fumigation is not allowed in-transit and requires the crew to
be disembarked whilst it is carried out
20..Cargo ventilation Requirement

IMSBC CODE

Ventilation means exchange of air from outside to inside a cargo space.

.1. Continuous Ventilation means ventilation that is operating at all times.

.2. Mechanical Ventilation means power-generated ventilation.

.3. Natural Ventilation means ventilation that is not power-generated.

.4. Surface Ventilation means ventilation of the space above the cargo