PRISONERS OF GEOGRAPHY

1. Intro
The author uses ten maps to explain the geopolitical strategies of world powers. He
shines light on the unavoidable physical realities that shape the fates of nations.
Prisoners Of Geography explains how the location of a country dramatically affects its
success and the amount of power it has in the world, and how this has determined the
outcomes of major world events for centuries.
Title: Prisoners of Geography
Author: Tim Marshall
Publisher: Scribner
No of Pages: 305 Pgs
Yr of Publication: 2015
2. Russia
a. North European Plain; pathway from Europe into Russia
Chapter 1 explores Russia, where the North European Plain opens a path from
western European armies directly into Russia. Russia is an aggressive presence
in the Baltics because it fears invasion from the West North European Plain,
which stretches from France across Belgium, the Netherlands, Northern
Germany, Poland and ends at the Russian Urals. As the name suggests, this
area is flat and makes the European gateway to Russia vulnerable and difficult to
defend.
b. German Invasion of Russian; World War II
Any country within the North European Plain could conceivably send an army
across the flatlands and directly into Moscow. As Putin knows all too well, this is
exactly what has happened to Russia throughout its history. During both world
wars, this is the path the Germans took in their military campaigns. But that’s not
all - since 1812, invaders from the Northern European Plain have attacked
Russia an average of once every 33 years
c. Russia’s desire to control the buffer zone
This has contributed to Russians’ desire to control a buffer zone of countries
between it and the rest of the world. For generations now, Russia’s strategy for
neutralizing the threat from the North European Plain has been to control Poland
and all the Baltic states that lie between it and Russia, which include Lithuania,
Latvia, Estonia and Belarus.
d. Carpathian Mountains; natural barrier against invasions
it’s only 300 miles wide around Poland and the Baltic states. If Russia can station
a strong defensive front here, it can more easily hold off potential Western
invaders
e. Moldova; bottleneck around Carpathian Mountains
Moldova is so loc that it is the only access around the Carpathians Mountains in
its South, there by any country having a hold of this region will essentially be in a
safe position to prevent any invasion from this side. Moreover, defending this
area simply renders the defense of complete North European Plain unrequired.
f. Russian Oil and Gas; shaping foreign policy
Russia also controls the central heating in the homes of the Baltic people. It can
set the price people pay for their heating bills each month, and, if it chooses,
simply turn the heating off. 25 percent of Europe’s gas and oil comes from
Russia; but often the closer a country is to Moscow, the greater its dependency.
This in turn reduces that country’s foreign policy options. Latvia, Slovakia,
Finland, and Estonia are 100 percent reliant on Russian gas; the Czech Republic,
 Bulgaria, and Lithuania are 80 percent dependent; and Greece, Austria, and
Hungary 60 percent. The better your relations with Russia, the less you pay for
energy.
3. China
a. China’s border delineated by natural fmns
Chapter 2 describes how China’s borders are delineated by its natural formations
such as the Tibetan Plateau, Himalayas, jungles, deserts and Pacific Ocean even
while it is able to reach out to other parts of the world through trade and military
might
b. Fear of Indian invasion
China and India are far and away the two most populous countries on the planet,
so there’s tension over how ugly any major conflict between them could become.
It is perhaps fortunate that there is a natural buffer zone between these two world
powers in the form of the Himalayan mountains, which run along the western
border of China.
c. Tibetan Plateau
This is unfortunate for Tibet, since it’s smack dab in the middle of this buffer
zone. Tibet’s homeland is the Tibetan Plateau, which is right next to the
Himalayas, on China’s side of the divide. So, in the theoretical event of India
sending an invading army over the Himalayas, they could occupy the Tibetan
plateau and have a commanding position, looking down upon mainland China,
from which they could launch their attack.
d. Fear of water shortage
There is another motive behind China’s actions: water. Tibet has long held the
nickname “China’s water tower,” since three of China’s main rivers – the Mekong,
the Yellow River and the Yangtze – all have their sources in Tibet. So, not only
would India have a superior offensive position in Tibet, if they occupied this area,
they could also cut off China’s main water supply.
e. Possible hinderance to Chinese prosperity
China’s fears of Indian invasion and water shortages keep their grip on Tibet
strong. This is China’s primary strategic reason for occupying Tibet. If they don’t
control it, they’re leaving the door open for India to take it and thereby leaving
themselves extremely vulnerable. However, as far as China is concerned,
whether or not India would ever want to deprive China of water is irrelevant. The
fact is that they could, and this is enough of a threat to China’s prosperity for
them to continue occupying Tibet.
4. United States
a. Country with many resources
Chapter 3 examines the United States, a nation with many resources and good
geography. Oil, gas and coal reserves are abundant in nature. Invaluable
elements such as iron, silver, gold and uranium are readily available, along with
many other minerals.
b. Invulnerable to invading army
The geographical position of the United States is unique in that it makes the
country practically invulnerable to any invading army. Its only neighbours are
Canada and Mexico, and they’re not just friendly, they’re also big enough that
any invading army attempting to reach the United States by going through these
countries would have to establish impossibly long supply lines.
c. Two Oceans; protection and trade
Perhaps the best protection the United States has working in its favour are the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, which border the country’s west and east coasts,
 respectively. This effectively cuts off the east and the west from attacks, since
any invading force would have to contend with an entire, volatile ocean before
even reaching its target. The two oceans allow the United States to trade both
with the east and the west with much efficiency.
d. Good economy due to common language and heritage
It has generally enjoyed stability because of its common language and heritage.
One of the main reasons behind the unity of the states is because the people of
United States all speak and understand the same language, moreover, unlike
Latin America, the settlers did not just stay in the coastal regions with sole
purpose of extraction of raw materials, rather, much like Australia, they settled
inwards into the states as well.
e. Millions having access to firearms
The United States’ lenient gun laws have resulted in every small town having the
potential to take up arms and immediately defend itself from invasion without any
help from the federal government. This is a country with the right to bear arms
written into its social fabric, so guns are within easy reach for millions of
Americans. Any invading force would have a new set of armed civilians in every
settlement they come across.
5. Western Europe
a. Divided by mountains and rivers
Chapter 4 looks at Europe, which is divided by mountains and rivers, contributing
to separate nations with different languages and cultures that are prone to war.
These natural landscapes shaped the delineation in the past as well, and they
have continued to be the main factors in the formation of countries in Europe.
The Balkan countries’ mountainous terrain led to the emergence of so many
small states in the region, and is one of the things that has kept them from
integrating
b. Fertile and more arable land in the north
The same Northern European Plain that haunts Russia has provided France,
Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands with fertile soil and a wealth of productive
crops. As a result, they’re the nations associated with hard work and money. And
with a surplus of crops and goods to trade, northern Europe became home to
bustling cities of commerce and major urban hubs. In contrast, countries in
southern Europe have far less arable land. Greece, for example, doesn’t have
enough fertile land to be a major agricultural exporter, and this also means that
the country can only develop a small handful of those major cities of commerce
that are so abundant in the north.
c. Economic Crisis in south due to geographical reasons
In 2012, when the Eurozone crisis was at its peak, nasty stereotypes began
appearing in German media with increasing frequency, in attempts to explain why
some regions of Europe were experiencing such a severe economic downturn. In
particular, these generalizations portrayed northern Europeans as industrious
hard workers, and southern Europeans as a bunch of lazy slackers. But rather
than being attributable to work ethic, the true reason for the struggles of some
southern European countries lies in geography. There are about 1,400 Greek
islands. 200 are inhabited. It takes a decent navy just to patrol this territory, never
mind one strong enough to deter any attempt to take the islands over. The result
is a huge cost in military spending that Greece cannot afford.
d. Disconnected rivers; implications
 Europe’s major rivers do not meet. This partly explains why there are so many
countries in what is a relatively small space. Because they do not connect, most
of the rivers, act at some point, as boundaries.
e. Poor soil on southern Europe coastal plains
The contrast between northern and southern Europe is also at least partly
attributable to the fact that the south has fewer coastal plains suitable for
agriculture, and has suffered more from drought and natural disasters than the
north.
f. North Europe more prosperous than the south
Due to geography, however, some areas of Europe have thrived more than
others. Abundance of natural resources, arable and fertile land in the north in
comparison to south, where there is more drought and resultantly, poor soil has
resulted in southern Europe being less prosperous than norther Europe. France
is the only European country to be both a northern and southern power. Spain is
also struggling, and has always struggled because of its geography. Its narrow
coastal plains have poor soil, and access to markets is hindered internally by its
short rivers.
6. Africa
a. Geographical Contrast
Chapter 5 discusses the many challenges that Africa has faced, such as
geographic barriers and political borders. The north is covered with a desert,
while the south is full of jungles. There are also mountains in the middle of the
continent. These factors have made it hard for Africans to develop their land and
prosper economically.
b. Beautiful yet impractical waterways
Geography has given Africa beautiful but impractical waterways. The relationship
Africa has with its oceans and waterways is a complex and frustrating one, and
this isn’t just as a result of its vast deserts. Africa is home to some of the world’s
most stunning beaches and coastlines, as well as legendary rivers. But as we’ll
see, African countries have been dealt a difficult hand when it comes to being
able to use these waterways for commercial gain. The Zambezi River is one of
the continent’s longest and most spectacular rivers. Its 1,600-mile waterway runs
through six countries and is punctuated with breathtaking waterfalls, such as
Victoria Falls. These stunning features may be great for adventurers, but they
severely limit the river’s usefulness for transportation. Simply put, cargo ships
and waterfalls don’t mix. The impracticality of Africa’s rivers as useful trade routes
has made both trade and contact between the continent’s different regions very
limited. This has, in turn, significantly hindered economic development across the
continent and prevented major trade routes from forming.
c. Smooth and shallow shoreline
Africa’s picture-perfect coastline is all but useless when it comes to setting up
harbors. Unlike much of the jagged coastlines found along Europe and the United
States, where the ocean sharply declines into deep waters that are perfect for
docking boats, Africa’s shoreline is mostly smooth and shallow. This makes it
impossible for cargo ships to load and unload goods for importing and exporting.
While this remains a problem, human ingenuity is starting to find a way around
Africa’s problematic geography. Tanzania and Angola, for instance, have formed
partnerships with China to start creating man-made deep-water harbors.
d. Colonization and Impractical delineation
Colonization of Africa is the reason behind its economic backwardness. All the
colonists had only one purpose, to extract the wealth of the nations at the cost of
 the nation’s stability. They have exploited the poor, less developed nations and
then left them after taking out what they could leaving the tribes to fight amongst
themselves for power and authority. Some have even tried to establish local
governments but they have done impractical delineation which goes against the
natural dictates of the land, thereby causing further problems for the countries.
7. The Middle East
a. Largest continuous desert
Chapter 6 explores the Middle East, where mountains and deserts alternate. The
Arabian Desert is the largest continuous sand desert in the world, incorporating
an area the size of France. Ar Rub’al Khali Desert is the largest continuous sand
desert of the world. It has rendered much of the area useless and is one of the
reasons why the landmass of Saudi Arabia is so big and has no other claimant to
the region. It currently possesses no economic value.
b. Israel - Palestine Conflict
Israel - Palestine conflict is an ongoing dispute, beginning in mid-20th century.
The Israel occupation of West Bank and Gaza Strip has lasted 55 years. It is
another example of foul distribution by the west, by giving the land of Palestine to
the Jews with total disregard for the Palestinian occupants. Moreover, the
situation worsened over the years as the plan of Israel to overtake the entire land
was no longer to hide. They have resorted to mass bombings and killings of
Palestinians.
c. Shia-Sunni Conflict
Borders also create conflict in this region. The most important division within
Islam is almost as old as the religion itself: the split between Sunni and Shia
Muslims dates back to 632 CE, when the prophet Muhammad died, leading to a
dispute over his succession. The Sunni Muslims forms the majority - 85 percent
of the total. Upon the death of the prophet, those who would become Sunni
argued that his successor should be chosen using Arab tribal traditions. They
regard themselves as Orthodox Muslims. The name Shia derives from shiat Ali,
literally “the party of Ali,” and refers to the son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad.
Ali and his sons, Hassan and Hussein, were all assassinated and thus denied
what the Shia feel was their birthright - to lead the Islamic community. From this
sprang several doctrinal disputes and cultural practices dividing the two main
branches of Islam that have led to disputes and warfare although there have also
been long periods of peaceful coexistence
d. Iraq ethnic diversity
There are also divisions within the division. Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra. In
antiquity, the regions very roughly corresponding to the above were known as
Assyria, Babylonia, and Sumer. When the Persians controlled the space they
divided it in a similar way, as did Alexander the Great, and later the Umayyad
dynasty. The British looked at the same area and divided the three into one, a
logical impossibility
8. India and Pakistan
a. Unique geographical loc Chapter 7 focuses on Pakistan and India. The area
has been naturally gifted to have one of the most imp geographical loc of the
world, in terms of fertile land, minerals, relief, landscapes, access to warm
waters, deep-sea ports, spices etc. India’s unique location in South Asia that has
allowed it to develop strong ties with nearby countries while also making it
vulnerable due its long coastline on one side and mountainous northern border
on another side. Chapter focuses on Pakistan’s location within both Central Asia
(through its north-western area) and South Asia (through its southern region). It is
 separated from all land-locked countries except for Afghanistan but connected via
sea routes with Iran at one end of Iran’s coast line and Oman at another end.
b. Improper demarcation of borders by English
Pakistan and India have been separated due to ideological differences. The two-
nation theory still holds correct till date. The two nations cannot simply disregard
their way of life and merge together in one. Keeping this in view it is safe to
assume that English demarcation, with total disregard for the Muslim majority
areas and the last-minute changes to the delineation of boundary between the
two states, has resulted in turmoil between the two states. One of which is the
Kashmir Issue.
c. Kashmir Conflict; Bone of contention
Both the countries have fought over the Kashmir region for decades. Other
internal pressures are present as well. The Kashmir issue is partially one of
national pride, but it is also strategic. Full control of Kashmir would give India a
window into central Asia and a border with Afghanistan. It would also deny
Pakistan a border with China and thus diminish the usefulness of a Chinese-
Pakistani relationship.
d. Chinese Involvement
China wanted Tibet, both to prevent India from having it, and to prevent an
independent Tibet allowing India to base military forces there. The Indian state of
Arunachal Pradesh: China claims it as “south Tibet.” As China’s confidence
grows, so does the amount of territory there it says is Chinese. Moreover, China’s
economy is one of the most rapidly growing economies of the world. Pakistan’s
relations with China have continued to strengthen. China is willing to invest in
Pakistan as it has much economic benefits for both the countries. CPEC is one
such example.
9. Korea and Japan
a. Aftermath of World War II
Chapter 8 discusses Japan and South Korea. They were divided after World War
II. Koreans rely on alliances with larger nations to preserve a precarious peace.
Meanwhile, the nation of Japan has drawn together a series of isolated islands to
create an economic force that far exceeds its physical size.
b. Korean economic disparity
With the seemingly endless threats it poses to neighbouring countries, North
Korea is becoming a major headache – especially for South Korea. Even though
South Korea has twice the population and 80 times the economic power of North
Korea, not to mention having a superpower like the United States on its side,
South Korea has remained the vulnerable one.
c. Geo adv of high gr for North Korea
You may be wondering how this difficult arrangement has lasted so long and,
once again, the answer lies in geography. This is because of the hills and
elevated terrain located along North Korea’s side of the border, which is located
only 35 miles away from Seoul, South Korea’s capital city, where half of the
country’s 50 million citizens live. Another geographic feature working against
South Korea is that the 35 miles of land separating Seoul from North Korea are
flat, making the hills along the North Korean side of the border even more
dangerous.
d. Tactical Disadv
Within these hills, military experts estimate that North Korea has 10,000 weapons
stashed, ready to fire 500,000 rounds into the city of Seoul within 60 minutes. So,
if a conflict were to occur, South Korea knows that it would have to immediately
 contend with millions of civilians fleeing south from Seoul, while at the same time
trying to create a strong defensive line in that area. Therefore, if North Korea
were to launch a surprise attack, their army could move quite easily over the flat
terrain and into the heart of the enemy’s capital city, landing a devastating blow.
On the other hand, if South Korea were to launch a surprise attack, it would
immediately hit a series of geographical speed bumps that would slow down
ground troops and make them vulnerable to attack. This is partly why these two
opposing nations have remained in a political deadlock for over 50 years.
e. Burden of reunification
The economic costs of reunification will be borne by South Korea. The costs
would hold back the economy of a united peninsula for a decade, risking the
prosperity of one of the world’s most advanced nations.
f. Japanese clustering
Three-quarters of the land is not conducive to human habitation. This leaves the
Japanese living in close proximity to one another along the coastal plains. Its
mountains mean that Japan has plenty of water, but its rivers are unsuited to
navigation and therefore trade, a problem exacerbated by the fact that few of the
rivers join one another. So, the Japanese became a maritime people, connecting
and trading along the coasts.
g. Lack of natural resources in Japan
Japan is the world’s largest importer of natural gas, and the third-largest importer
of oil. It was the thirst for these products, notably iron and oil, that caused Japan
to rampage across the far-less developed Southeast Asia. It occupied Taiwan in
1895 and followed this up with the annexation of Korea in 1910. Japan occupied
Manchuria in 1931, then conducted a full-scale invasion of China in 1937.
Japan's previous belligerence and militarism is not entirely gone: just been buried
beneath the rubble of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and a shattered national psyche.
h. Japan vital for US to counter China
Slowly the Japanese Self-Defence Forces have turned into a modern fighting unit
because Americans, realizing they were going to need military allies in the Pacific
region to counter the regional might of China, were prepared to accept a
remilitarized Japan.
10. Latin America
a. Political neglect in the region
Chapter 9 will cover the difficulties of Latin America. The Amazon rainforest is not
being conserved, and land for farming has been limited because of a growing
population. To top it off, there’s also political neglect in this region.
b. European colonialists focus on exporting the wealth
Latin America’s European settlers stayed near the coasts, so all roads from the
interior were developed to connect to the capitals but not to one another. The
colonialists concentrated on getting the wealth out of each region, to the coast
and on to foreign markets. Even after independence the predominantly European
coastal elites failed to invest in the interior, and what population centres there are
inland remain poorly connected with one another.
c. Bolivia-Chile conflict 1879
Bolivia and Chile: Particularly bitter relationship. In 1879 Bolivia lost a large chunk
of its territory, including 250 miles of coastline, and has been landlocked ever
since. It has never recovered from this blow, which partially explains why it is
among the poorest Latin American countries. This in turn has exacerbated the
severe divide between the mostly European lowlands population and the mostly
indigenous peoples of the highlands. Despite the fact that Bolivia has the third-
 largest reserves of natural gas in South America it will not sell any to Chile, which
is in need of a reliable supplier.
d. US-Mexico war 1846
Before the 1846–48 war with the United States the land that is now Texas,
California, New Mexico, and Arizona was part of Mexico. After the annexation of
these states by the United States in 1845, dispute erupted due to both the
countries laying claim to the areas. The conflict led to half of Mexico’s territory
being ceded to the United States.
e. Paradigm Shift; Latin America opening to China
The Latin American countries do not have a natural affinity with the United
States. The United States used force in Latin America almost fifty times between
1890 and the end of the Cold War. Moreover, US intervention in Latin American
countries has resulted in political turmoil in the region due to various regions such
as impractical demarcation and wrong political structures adopted by the US in
the countries. The borders of the British territory of Belize and neighbouring
Guatemala. They are straight lines, drawn by the British. China has now replaced
the United States as Brazil’s main trading partner, and may do the same with
several other Latin American countries. Brazil’s seven largest ports combined can
handle fewer goods per year than the single American port of New Orleans. 25
percent of Brazilians live in the favela slums. Still, exceptions remain, such as the
Nicaraguan Grand Canal. The Nicaragua Grand Canal project is funded by a
Hong Kong businessman adamant that the Chinese government not be involved.
The cost estimate is four times the size of the entire Nicaraguan economy.
Nicaragua is the second-poorest country in the Western Hemisphere
f. Argentina gifted with navigable river system, Rio de la Plata
Argentina is better placed to become a First World country than is Brazil. Control
of the flat agricultural regions of the Rio de la Plata, the navigable river system,
and therefore the commerce that flows down it toward Buenos Aires and its port.
This is among the most valuable pieces of real estate on the whole continent. It
gives Argentina an economic and strategic advantage. But its leadership has
botched that natural advantage so far.
11. The Arctic
a. Global Warming
Chapter 10 will focus on another region that’s important to global warming: the
Arctic Ocean. Global Warming is a phenomenon that has resulted from various
malpractices of the current world civilizations. It as an undeniable fact that the ice
caps of the world are melting at an alarming rate, causing floods and destruction.
Resultantly, people have had to relocate as well.
b. Resource extraction conflict
Global warming has melted ice caps, opening up new areas for mining and
drilling. This area is now becoming a point of conflict over resource extraction as
well. The Arctic region includes land in parts of Canada, Finland, Greenland,
Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Alaska).
c. Melting of ice resulting in passage through Candian Archipelago
The melting of the ice cap already allows cargo ships to make the journey
through the Northwest Passage in the Canadian archipelago for several summer
weeks a year, thus cutting at least a week from the transit time from Europe to
China. The first cargo ship not to be escorted by an icebreaker went through in
2014. The polar route was 40 percent shorter and used deeper waters than if it
had gone through the Panama Canal. By 2040, the route is expected to be open
for up to two months each year.
 d. Norway has made High North its foreign policy priority
Norway knows what is coming and has made the High North its foreign policy
priority. Its air force regularly intercepts Russian fighter jets approaching its
borders; the heightened tensions have caused it to move its centres of military
operations from the south of the country to the north, and it is building an Arctic
battalion.
12. Recoms