energies

Article
Numerical Simulation Investigation on the Windage
Power Loss of a High-Speed Face Gear Drive
Yu Dai 1,2, *, Feiyue Ma 1,2 , Xiang Zhu 1,2 and Jifu Jia 1,2
1 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China;
feiyuema@csu.edu.cn (F.M.); zhuxiang2017@csu.edu.cn (X.Z.); jifujia@csu.edu.cn (J.J.)
2 State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing, Central South University,
Changsha 410083, China
* Correspondence: 210143@csu.edu.cn




Received: 3 May 2019; Accepted: 30 May 2019; Published: 31 May 2019


Abstract: Reducing the energy consumption and improving the efficiency of high-speed transmission
systems are increasingly common goals; the windage power loss is not negligible in these methods.
In this work, the multi-reference frame (MRF) and periodic boundary conditions (PBC) based on the
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method were adopted to investigate the windage phenomena of
a single face gear with and without a shroud, and the impact of the gear speed on the windage power
loss was analyzed. Furthermore, the effects on the distribution of static pressure due to the distances
between the shroud and the gear body in different directions, including the outer radius direction,
the inner radius direction, and the addendum direction were investigated. The results indicate that
the gear speed significantly affected the windage loss, as the higher the gear speed was, the greater the
windage power loss. Additionally, the shroud could effectively reduce the windage power loss, where
the optimal distance from the addendum to the shroud was not the minimum distance; however,
for the distances from the shroud to the inner radius and the outer radius, the smaller the distance
was, the smaller the windage loss. The results can provide a theoretical basis and technical reference
for reducing the windage power loss of various face gear drives.

Keywords: windage power loss; high-speed face gear; multi-reference frame (MRF); periodic
boundary conditions (PBC); shroud; computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

1. Introduction
All rotating machinery will stir up the surrounding air, resulting in windage power loss, restricting
fuel economy and reducing transmission efficiency, especially for aeronautical transmission systems.
The face gear drive is a new kind of meshing transmission between a cylindrical gear and a bevel gear,
which has been successfully applied in the main reducer of armed helicopters owing to its numerous
advantages [1–4]. Although the efficiency of a well-designed gearbox can reach 99%, the power loss
cannot be neglected in high-power applications. Due to the working conditions under ultra-high
speed, the contact area between the face gear and the surrounding air increases, which intensifies the
pressure difference between the tooth surfaces and produces a resistance moment opposite to the face
gear’s rotation; all of these factors will lead to the increase of the windage power loss of face gears.
Additionally, windage can be a major source of the heat produced and can dominate other losses [5,6].
Hence, it is necessary to investigate the windage power loss of the face gear rotating in the air and
explore effective methods to reduce energy loss, so as to improve the performance and expand the
engineering application of the face gear drives.
Recently, certain progress has been made in research on windage power loss of gears. In the early
period, due to the immaturity of computer methods, the windage loss could only be studied through

Energies 2019, 12, 2093; doi:10.3390/en12112093 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 2093 2 of 19

experiments and theories. Dawson [7,8] conducted multiple experiments to study the influencing
factors of the windage power loss of spur gears, and these studies yielded a rough empirical formula.
Anderson et al. [9,10] proposed a method for calculating the windage power loss and analyzed the
influences of size, pitch, width, and ratio of the spur gear on the losses. According to Dawson’s and
Anderson’s works, Diab et al. [11] presented two approaches to predict the windage losses of spur gears
based on a series of preliminary experimental and theoretical results, and they proposed formulas for
the two approaches. In addition, Handschuh et al. [12] and Farrall et al. [13] compared the experimental
and theoretical results of windage losses of helical gears and spiral bevel gears, respectively, and they
finally obtained the factors affecting the transmission efficiency. Subsequently, Eastwick et al. [14]
reviewed experimental studies of spur gears, helical gears, spiral bevel gears, and existing windage
power loss models, and they provided a comprehensive explanation of windage loss. Johnson et al. [15]
studied the windage loss of unmeshed spiral bevel gears rotating in air, and they came to the conclusion
that the windage power loss of clockwise rotation is greater than that of anticlockwise rotation.
With the rapid development of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technology in recent years,
CFD numerical simulation is increasingly being used to investigate the windage loss of gears, to acquire
more comprehensive windage information and to reduce research costs. Hill et al. [16] applied the
CFD method to investigate the influence of the gear structure on the windage losses with and without
a shroud, and they compared the results with the experimental data to verify the numerical value and
modeling method. Compared with the experimental results, the MRF approach based on the CFD
has been proven to effectively predict the power loss of ordinary gear transmissions [17], and this
approach was also applicable to the multiphase problems [18]. Pallas et al. [19] presented a correlation
method based on the classical approach through the CFD method for estimating the windage power
loss, and they finally pointed out that the volume flow rate significantly affects the windage power
loss of spur gears. To reduce windage power loss of spiral bevel gears in an aeroengine transmission
system, Arisawa et al. [20] developed the windage power loss through CFD simulations and put
forward a method for improving the effectiveness of the shroud. Based on the experimental results
and CFD simulations, Voeltzel et al. [21] studied the windage loss of rotating helical gears; their results
indicated that both tooth width and helical angle have an effect on the windage loss. A single-phase
computational research study was performed by Rapley et al. [22] for investigating the influence of
clockwise and anticlockwise rotation and boundary walls on windage losses of spiral bevel gears
with or without shroud. Marchesse et al. [23] applied CFD code to conduct two-dimensional and
three-dimensional numerical simulations of the windage loss in pure air, and they compared the results
with a special experiment. To reduce the dissipated power, Concli et al. [24] applied the CFD method
to predict the power loss generated by a single rotating gear and a meshing gear pair, and developed
an innovative calculation method to quantify the efficiency and the related operating temperatures
under different working conditions [25]. Delgado et al. [26] analyzed the experimental and theoretical
results of windage power loss with and without a shroud, pointing out that a shroud can significantly
reduce the windage loss of spur gears. Seetharaman et al. [27] proposed a simplified hydrodynamic
model for predicting the windage losses under the condition of oil jet lubrication and compared the
predicted results with the existing empirical formulas of spur gears to evaluate the accuracy of the
model. Webb et al. [28] investigated the relationship between the teeth and windage loss of spiral
bevel gears with a shroud based on the parameterized solid model and CFD method, and they showed
that the more teeth, the smaller the windage loss. Under the conditions of different gear speeds and
various shrouds, the windage loss of spur gears rotating in the air with oil particles was studied by the
CFD method, and the influence of oil droplets on the windage loss was quantitatively studied [29].
Besides, to reduce the solving time of the numerical simulation, a new strategy of an automatic mesh
generation in the CFD was developed to simulate the windage phenomenon. The simulation results
were in good agreement with the experimental data, validating the correctness of the method [30,31].
However, there are few studies on the windage power loss of face gears, which greatly limits their
performance promotion and engineering application. Considering this condition, in this paper, CFD
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

CFD numerical
Energies 2019,simulation
12, 2093 was applied to investigate the windage power loss of a face gear rotating
3 of 19
in the air. The study included the following three parts: First, the tooth profile of the face gear through
the tooth surface
numerical equation
simulation was introduced.
was applied to investigate Then, the CFD
the windage power numerical
loss of a face approaches,
gear rotating inincluding
the
governing equations,
air. The calculation
study included model,three
the following andparts:
mainFirst,
settings, were
the tooth finished.
profile Finally,
of the face the influence
gear through the of
gear speed and theequation
tooth surface distancewasbetween theThen,
introduced. gear the
body
CFDand the shroud
numerical on windage
approaches, includingpower loss were
governing
investigated, and the shroud that could most effectively reduce windage power loss of the face gear
equations, calculation model, and main settings, were finished. Finally, the influence of gear speed and
drive was recommended.
the distance between the gear body and the shroud on windage power loss were investigated, and the
shroud that could most effectively reduce windage power loss of the face gear drive was recommended.
2. Methods of Calculating
2. Methods thethe
of Calculating Tooth Surface
Tooth Surface Equation andConducting
Equation and Conducting Simulations
Simulations

2.1. Tooth
2.1. Surface Equation
Tooth Surface Equation
Windage power loss is defined as the energy loss caused by the friction between the rotating
Windage power loss is defined as the energy loss caused by the friction between the rotating
tooth surface and the surrounding gas medium [29,32]. Hence, the tooth surface shape of a face gear
tooth surface and the surrounding gas medium [29,32]. Hence, the tooth surface shape of a face gear
should be considered first through the theoretical equation. The flowchart of establishing face gear
shouldtooth
be considered first through
surface equations the
is shown in theoretical
Figure 1. equation. The flowchart of establishing face gear
tooth surface equations is shown in Figure 1.

tooth profile ns
ys
Op ωs ys
z0 ( y s 0 ) φ0s
zs 0 δs φks
M rs

v2  zs
ys O20 (O2 , Os 0 , Os )
vs δs
Os
xs 0 ( x20 ) δ2 δ2 y2 xs
Og
xs y 20 rbs
ω2 rs
base c ircle
reference c ircle

Figure 1. Flowchart
Figure ofof
1. Flowchart establishing facegear
establishing face geartooth
tooth surface
surface equations.
equations.

Regardless of the installation error, the shaper cutter tooth profile and the face gear machining
Regardless
coordinatesof arethe installation
illustrated in Figure error,
2a,b,the shaper cutter tooth profile and the face gear machining
respectively.
coordinatesSs0are
(xs0illustrated
, ys0 , zs0 ), Ssin
(xsFigure
, ys , zs ), 2a,b, respectively.
S20 (x20 , y20 , z20 ), and S2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) indicate the fixed coordinate
system of the shaping cutter, the rotation coordinate system of the shaping cutter, the fixed coordinate
tooth profile ns and the rotation coordinate system of the face gear, respectively. r and r are
ys
system of the face gear, bs s
the base circle radius and the reference circle radius of Othe
p ωs
shaper cutter, ys
respectively; n s denotes the
φ0s of the shaper cutter tooth profile; ϕ0s denotes the angle
unit normal vector z ( y )
sbetween the line from the
zs0 point
0 0
δsthe involute and point
φks
midpoint of the alveolar to point Os and the line between the starting of
Os ; ϕks is the central angle between the starting pointM rs involute and the tangent point between
of the
v
zs vector and the basic circle at any point2 of the involute; δs and δ2 are O
the normal
(O2 , Os 0 , Os )
the rotation angles of
yOs , O , O ) is the intersection
the shaper cutter and the face gear, respectively; andvO δ2 s 20
Os s 20 ( s s0 point of the
axisxof the shaper cutter and the face gear. δ
s xs 0 ( x20 ) δ2 2 y2
Og
rbs xs y20
rs
ω2
base c ircle
reference c ircle

(a) (b)
 Figure 1. Flowchart of establishing face gear tooth surface equations.

Energies 2019, 12, 2093 4 of 19

Regardless of the installation error, the shaper cutter tooth profile and the face gear machining
coordinates are illustrated in Figure 2a,b, respectively.
tooth profile ns
ys
Op ωs ys
φ0s z0 ( y s 0 )
zs 0 δs
φks
M rs

zs v2  O20 (O2 , Os 0 , Os )
vs y s δ
Os s
xs xs 0 ( x20 ) δ2 δ2 y2
Og
rbs xs y20
rs
ω2
base c ircle
reference c ircle

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. (a)
(a)Tooth
Toothprofile
profile of
of the
the shaper
shaper cutter;
cutter; (b)
(b) machining
machining coordinates
coordinates of
of the
the face
face gear
gear pair.
pair.

According to Litvin’s and Guingand’s [33–35] investigations, the tooth surface equation and unit
normal vector of the shaper cutter are calculated through Equations (1) and (2), respectively:

 ±rbs [sin(ϕ0s + ϕks ) − ϕks cos(ϕ0s + ϕ0s )]

 

→
r s =  −rbs [cos(ϕ0s + ϕks ) + ϕks sin(ϕ0s + ϕ0s )]
 
, (1)

$s
 

 ∓ cos(ϕ0s + ϕ0s )
 
(∂rs /∂ϕks ) · (∂rs /∂vs )

→
=  − sin(ϕ0s + ϕ0s )
 
ns = , (2)
(∂rs /∂ϕks ) · (∂rs /∂vs )

$s
 

where $s is the tooth width parameter in the z-axis direction.

According to Figure 2b, the transformation matrices between coordinate systems S20 , S2 , Ss0 ,
and Ss are as follows:
 cos δ2 − sin δ2 0 
 

S20 → S2 =  sin δ2 cos δ2 0 ,

 
(3)
 
0 0 1
 
 1 0 0 
 
S20 → Ss0 =  0 0 −1 , (4)
 
0 1 0

 cos δs − sin δs 0 
 

Ss0 → Ss =  sin δs cos δs 0 ,

 
(5)
 
0 0 1
Thus, the relationship between the rotation coordinate system of the shaper cutter and the rotation
coordinate system of the face gear can be obtained by the following Equation (6):

 cos δ2 cos δs − cos δ2 sin δs − sin δ2

 

S2 → Ss = (S20 → S2 )−1 · (S20 → Ss0 ) · (Ss0 → Ss ) =  − sin δ2 cos δs sin δ2 sin δs − cos δ2
 
,
 (6)
sin δs cos δs

0

Energies 2019, 12, 2093 5 of 19

According to the spatial meshing theory of the face gear, the relationship between the tooth surface
equation of the face gear and the tooth equation of the shaper cutter satisfies the following equation:

 cos δ2 cos δs − cos δ2 sin δs − sin δ2

 

→ →  →
r 2 = (S2 → Ss ) · r s =  − sin δ2 cos δs sin δ2 sin δs − cos δ2

 · r s , (7)

sin δs cos δs

0


It is known that the unit normal vector at any point on the gear tooth surface is perpendicular to
the velocity direction of the point. Suppose that there is an arbitrary contact point M(xs , ys , zs ) on the
tooth surface of the shaper cutter in the rotation coordinate system Ss ; as shown in Figure 2b, the unit
→ → → →
normal vector is n s , and the position vector is r s . The velocity v s and v 2 (shown in Figure 2b) of
contact point M in the rotation coordinate systems Ss and S2 can be expressed as:
 → → →
 v s = ωs × r s


→ , (8)
 → →
v 2 = ω2 × r s



→
The matrix representation of velocity v s is shown below:
 →
T
→
ωs = 0 0 ωs k s , (9)

→ →
The relationship between ωs and ω2 can also be calculated by the transformation matrix
→ →
ω2 = (S2 → Ss ) · ωs , (10)

By combining Equations (8)–(10), the relative velocity of the contact point M in the rotation system
→
Ss can be obtained. Since the relative velocity is perpendicular to the unit normal vector n s at the
contact point M, their dot product is 0.
→ → →
n s · ( v s − v 2 ) = 0, (11)

By substituting Equations (2) and (7)–(10) into Equation (11), the matrix form of the tooth surface
equation of the face gear is shown as the following equation:

ω sin δ
h i
 rbs cos δ2 (sin θ ∓ ϕks cos θ) − ωs2 cos θ2
 

 
→
r 2 =  −rbs sin δ2 (sin θ ∓ ϕks cos θ) + ωωs cos δ2
 h i 
, (12)
 2 cos θ 

−rbs (cos θ ± ϕks sin θ)


where θ denotes the relationship among δs , ϕ0s , and ϕks , that is θ = δs ± (ϕ0s + ϕks ). According to
Equation (12), it can be known that the tooth surface of the face gear is symmetrical in the direction of
the outer radius of the face gear, as shown in Figure 3. Therefore, it can be concluded that the rotation
direction of the face gears has no effect on the windage power loss.
Energies 2019, 12, 2093 6 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

S ym
metr
y
Neutra
l wire

Neutral wire
Figure 3. Symmetry of the face gear tooth surface.
Figure 3. Symmetry of the face gear tooth surface.
2.2. Fluid Governing Equation
2.2. Fluid Governing Equation
Any fluid flows in CFD simulations meet three basic governing equations of fluid mechanics,
Any fluid
including flows in CFD
the continuity simulations
equation, meet three
the momentum basic governing
equation, equations
and the energy of fluid
equation mechanics,
[36–38], which
including the continuity equation, the momentum equation,
can be respectively expressed as Equations (13), (14), and (15): and the energy equation [36–38], which
can be respectively expressed as Equations (13), (14), and (15):
→ → →
∂ρ ∂(ρ u )  ∂(ρ v ) ∂(ρw )
+ρ (ρu+) (ρv )+ (ρw ) = 0, (13)
∂t 
∂x  ∂y + ∂x =0 , (13)
t x y x
 → → →
→ ∂ p yx
 dt  bx
ρ du
ρF
∂ p xx
  + ∂p zx

= + + pyx p∂zzx

du p
∂x ∂y


 ρ  ρF  → xx  →  ∂→p


bx ∂ p ∂ p yy

 d v dt xyx  y zzy ,
+ ∂z
 →

 ρ dt = ρFby + ∂x + ∂y (14)
 

 p p p


 → dv 
→ xy 
→ yy  →zy
 ρ dwρ =  ρFby ∂ p xz  ∂ p yz  ∂ p zz , (14)


ρF

dt dt ∂xx y ∂zz

bz + + ∂y
+
 
∂(ρE)
 
∂ ρεdw ∂T ρF ∂ pεxz∂T p yz ∂ pεzz ∂T
= ( ) +bz ( x )+  ( ) + Sh , (15)
∂t ∂x ckdt∂x ∂y ck ∂y y ∂z czk ∂z
where ρ represents the fluid density, t denotes the time; u,v, and w indicate the velocity components in
the directions of the coordinate (ρE )  εp is
systems; Tthe pressure
 ε T on the
 ε T Fbx , Fby , and Fbz
= ( ) ( )  ( fluid)microelement;
S , (15)
refer to the unit mass forces in the t directions
x c k of
x thecoordinate
y c k y axes; z, p yx , hpzx , etc., are the components
z c kpxx
of viscous stress acting on the surface of the fluid microelement; E indicates the total energy of the
where  represents the fluid density, t denotes the time; u , v , and w indicate the velocity
fluid microelement; ck denotes the specific heat capacity; T refers to the total temperature; ε denotes
components in the directions of the coordinate systems; p is the pressure on the fluid microelement;
the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid, and Sh represents the viscosity dissipation term and satisfies
Fbx ,following
the Fby , and equation:
Fbz refer to the unit mass forces in the directions of the coordinate axes; pxx , p yx , pzx ,
etc., are the components of viscous stress acting on the surface of the fluid microelement; #E indicates
2
∂ufluid ∂v 2 ∂w 2 denotes
∂u ∂v 2 ∂u ∂w 2
∂v ∂w 2 to the total
"
the total energy
Sh = µ 2( ) + 2microelement;
of the ( ) + 2( )ck + ( + the)specific
+ ( heat ) + ( T+ refers
+ capacity; ) , (16)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
temperature; ε denotes the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid, and S h represents the viscosity
dissipation
Due toterm
the and
highsatisfies
rotationthe following
speed of theequation:
gear and the complexity of the tooth shape, there will
be strong swirling flow during the rotation process; thus, a low-Reynolds number turbulent model,
 u 2 v w 2 u v 2 u w 2 v w 2 
Sh  μ  2( (SST)
the shear stress transport )  2k(− ω)2 model,
 2( )is (  to
applied ) more
( accurately
)  ( describe
 )  , the drag and
(16)
  x y z  y x z x z
separation effects of the tooth surface on the air flow according to reference [5,19]. When y  the SST k − ω
model is used
Due to thewith
highcoarser
rotation mesh,
speedthe oflow-Reynolds
the gear and the ω model in of
k −complexity thethe
near wall
tooth is switched
shape, to the
there will be
high-Reynolds k − ε model in the far wall. The relationship can be expressed as:
strong swirling flow during the rotation process; thus, a low-Reynolds number turbulent model, the
 ∂(ρk)k  ∂ω
shear stress transport (SST) (ρkumodel,
) is applied to more accurately describe the drag and
 ∂t + ∂x i = ∂x∂ (Γk ∂x ∂k
)+G k − Yk + Sto
separation effects of the
 tooth surface on the j air flow according k reference [5,19]. When the SST

i j
, (17)
k  ω model is used with ∂ ( ρε
 coarser ) ∂ ( ρεu
+ mesh,
)
(Γω ∂x ) + Cω −k Y
the low-Reynolds
∂ ∂ω ωω+ model
Cω + Sin the near wall is switched
 i
=

ω

∂t ∂xi ∂x j
to the high-Reynolds k  ε model in the far wall. The relationship can be expressed as:
j
Energies 2019, 12, 2093 7 of 19

where Gk is the kinetic energy of turbulence; Gω indicates the equation associated with ω; Γk and
Γω refer to the effective diffusion terms of k and ω, respectively; Yk and Yω represent the effective
diffusion terms of k and ω, respectively; Cω denotes the orthogonal divergent term; Sk and Sω refer to
the user-defined quantities.

3. CFD Simulation

3.1. CFD Model

Figure 4a,b illustrate the overall calculation model with and without the shroud, regardless of the
influence of the meshing pinion, the shape of the gearbox, shaft, bearing, and other structures on the
windage power loss. Table 1 illustrates the main parameters of the face gear. Figure 4c demonstrates
the cross-sectional shape of the shroud. In this paper, CFD simulate the phenomenon of the face gear
rotating in air and the windage loss of each tooth is completely consistent, so the periodic boundary
condition (PBC) was adopted to simplify the calculation model and shorten the solution time [5,6,19],
as shown in Figure 4c, where c1 , c2 , and c3 represent the distance between the shroud and the gear body
of the addendum
Energies direction,
2019, 12, x FOR the outer radius direction, and the inner radius direction, respectively.
PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

gearbox gearbox shroud

face gear face gear

(a) (b)

(c)

shroud
gearbox shroud

c1
c3
c2

periodic boundary
face gear
condition
(d) (e)
Figure
Figure 4.
4.(a)(a)Overall
Overallcalculation CFD
calculation CFDmodel
modelwithout shroud;
without (b) overall
shroud; calculation
(b) overall CFD CFD
calculation modelmodel
with
shroud; (c) cross-section
with shroud; of theofshroud;
(c) cross-section (d) PBC
the shroud; (d) calculation CFD model;
PBC calculation and (e)
CFD model; andmesh modelmodel
(e) mesh with
shroud.
with shroud.

3500

3000
(Pa)
 face gear
Energies 2019, 12, 2093
face gear
8 of 19

(a) (b)
Table 1. Main parameters of the face gear.

Parameters Values
Teeth number of the face gear 51
Module (mm) 2.5
Pressure angle (◦ ) 25
Shaft angle (◦ ) 90
(c)gear (mm)
Inner radius of the face 64.0
Outer radius of the face gear (mm) 82.0
shroud
gearbox shroud

The computational domain was divided into tetrahedral meshes in the Workbench-Mesh. Figure 4d
presents the final mesh model, c1 where the maximum skewness, maximum aspect ratio, average
orthogonal quality, and the mesh c3quality were 0.814, 24.419, 0.702, and 0.303, respectively. Since the
SST k − ω modelcwas 2
adopted in the simulation, the mesh criterion requirement y+ < 5 was necessary
to adequately use the turbulent model. In the post-processing, the dimensionless wall parameter
y+ obtained was within the range from 0.159 to 1.32, validating the correctness of the mesh model.
Furthermore, to improve the accuracy and reliability of the simulation results, a grid independence
test was performedperiodic boundary
in this paper. Table 2 lists the number of mesh elements in six cases. Windage loss
face gear
is the focus ofcondition
this paper and static pressure is an important factor to evaluate the windage loss of
gears according to the existing literature [14], so the static pressure distribution on any symmetrical
(d) (e)
surface passing through the axis of the face gear is taken as the standard of the grid independence
Figure
test and 4. (a) 5Overall
Figure calculation
illustrates CFD model
the simulation without
results. Asshroud; (b) overall
seen from calculation
the figure, whenCFD model with
the number of mesh
elements reaches case 4, the static pressure can be considered stable. Therefore, the numberwith
shroud; (c) cross-section of the shroud; (d) PBC calculation CFD model; and (e) mesh model of mesh
shroud.
elements in all subsequent simulations was controlled at approximately 1.1 million.

3500

3000
Static pressure/(Pa)

2500

2000

1500
1 2 3 4 5 6
Case

Figure 5. Static pressure under the six cases of total mesh elements.
Figure 5. Static pressure under the six cases of total mesh elements.
Table 2. Cases of mesh elements.

Case Total Mesh Elements

1 412,752
2 657,916
3 895,308
4 1,157,804
5 1,305,782
6 1,549,800

3.2. Main Settings of Simulation

Despite the influence of other factors, the windage phenomenon of a face gear rotating in
the air can be considered as a steady-state process, so a steady-state solver based on the pressure
 4 1,157,804
5 1,305,782
6 1,549,800

3.2. Main Settings of Simulation

Energies 2019, 12, 2093 9 of 19
Despite the influence of other factors, the windage phenomenon of a face gear rotating in the air
can be considered as a steady-state process, so a steady-state solver based on the pressure solver was
solver was adopted in this paper. Considering the synergy between different computing domains,
adopted in this paper. Considering the synergy between different computing domains, the multi-
the multi-reference frame (MRF) was applied to simulate the windage phenomenon. To obtain a
reference frame (MRF) was applied to simulate the windage phenomenon. To obtain a more accurate
more accurate solution, the second-order windward methods of momentum, turbulent kinetic energy,
solution, the second-order windward methods of momentum, turbulent kinetic energy, and
and turbulent dissipation rate were adopted for the spatial discretization. Furthermore, the standard
turbulent dissipation rate were adopted for the spatial discretization. Furthermore, the standard
simple algorithm can be used for pressure velocity coupling and the influence of gravity cannot
simple algorithm can be used for pressure velocity coupling and the influence of gravity cannot be
be ignored. According to the existing research [39,40], this work makes the following reasonable
ignored. According to the existing research [39,40], this work makes the following reasonable
assumptions:
assumptions:
• The air around
The air aroundthetheface
facegear
gearwas
wasassumed
assumedto to
be be pure
pure andand Mach
Mach number
number of air
of the thewasair less
was than
less
3
than 0.3; that is, it was incompressible, and the density and viscosity were 1.225 3 kg/m and
0.3; that is, it was incompressible, and the density and viscosity were 1.225 kg/m and 0.01834
0.01834 kg/m · s, respectively.
kg/m  s , respectively.
• When the residuals of the continuity equation and the momentum equation were less than 0.0001,
 When the residuals of the continuity equation and the momentum equation were less than
the convergence state can be considered.
0.0001, the convergence state can be considered.
• All moving walls were supposed to be unsmooth with a roughness of 3.2 µm.
 All moving walls were supposed to be unsmooth with a roughness of 3.2 μm.
4. Results Analysis
4. Results Analysis
4.1. Analysis of the Gear Speed and Shroud
4.1. Analysis of the Gear Speed and Shroud
To observe the windage phenomenon more clearly, two planes named as Section 1 and Section 2
To
were madeobserve
on the the windage
gear phenomenon
body, as more6,clearly,
shown in Figure wheretwo planes
Section named
1 was as Section
the middle 1 and
plane thatSection
bisects
2the
were made on the gear body, as shown in Figure 6, where Section 1 was the middle plane that
tooth space and passes though the axis, and Section 2 was parallel to the surface of the addendum
bisects
and thethe tooth to
distance space and passes was
the addendum though
1 m the axis,
(m is the and Section
module 2 was
of the face parallel
gear). to the surface of the
addendum and the distance to the addendum was 1 m (m is the module of the face gear).

Figure
Figure 6. Description of
6. Description of Sections
Sections 11 and
and 2.
2.

Figure 7 demonstrates the velocity contours of the face gear on Section 1 without and with a
Figure 7 demonstrates the velocity contours of the face gear on Section 1 without and with a
shroud, respectively, and the initial shroud position is c = 10 mm, c = 10 mm, and c = 10 mm.
shroud, respectively, and the initial shroud position is 1c1  10 mm , 2c 2  10 mm , and c33  10 mm .
According to Figure 7a, it can be seen that the fluid velocity on both sides of the tooth surface was
inconsistent, which was caused by the single rotating face gear. The velocity on the side along the
rotation direction was greater than that on the other side, resulting in different pressure on both sides
and causing energy loss. It can also be seen that the teeth were the main source of windage loss. When
the gear with a shroud rotates in the air (as shown in Figure 7b), the fluid velocity near the face gear
teeth was significantly reduced and the extreme value of velocity was mainly concentrated on the edge
part of the shroud. Moreover, from the pressure contours of face gears without and with a shroud,
which are illustrated in Figure 8, it can be concluded that the extreme value of pressure without a
shroud was mainly concentrated on the tooth surface, and the pressure of the windward tooth face was
larger than that of the leeward tooth surface. This pressure was obviously reduced after the shroud
and causing energy loss. It can also be seen that the teeth were the main source of windage loss. When
and causing energy loss. It can also be seen that the teeth were the main source of windage loss. When
the gear with a shroud rotates in the air (as shown in Figure 7b), the fluid velocity near the face gear
the gear with a shroud rotates in the air (as shown in Figure 7b), the fluid velocity near the face gear
teeth was significantly reduced and the extreme value of velocity was mainly concentrated on the
teeth was significantly reduced and the extreme value of velocity was mainly concentrated on the
edge part of the shroud. Moreover, from the pressure contours of face gears without and with a
edge part of the shroud. Moreover, from the pressure contours of face gears without and with a
shroud,2019,
which are illustrated in Figure 8, it can be concluded that the extreme value of pressure
shroud, which
Energies are illustrated in Figure 8, it can be concluded that the extreme value of pressure
12, 2093 10 of 19
without a shroud was mainly concentrated on the tooth surface, and the pressure of the windward
without a shroud was mainly concentrated on the tooth surface, and the pressure of the windward
tooth face was larger than that of the leeward tooth surface. This pressure was obviously reduced
tooth face was
to thelarger than Thus,
that of the
can leeward tooth surface. This pressure was to
obviously reduced
afteradded
was the shroud was
face added
gear. to theit face gear.
be Thus, it that
concluded can the
be concluded
addition ofthat the addition
a shroud of agear
the face shroud
can
after the shroud was added to the face gear. Thus, it can be concluded that the addition of a shroud
to the face gear can effectively reduce the windage power loss.
effectively reduce the windage power loss.
to the face gear can effectively reduce the windage power loss.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Velocity contours on Section 1: (a) without shroud; (b) with shroud.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Velocity
Velocity contours
contours on
on Section
Section 1:
1: (a)
(a) without
without shroud;
shroud; (b)
(b) with
with shroud.
shroud.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Pressure contours of
Pressure contours of the
the single
single face
face gear:
gear: (a)
(a) without
without shroud; (b) with
shroud; (b) with shroud.
shroud.
Figure 8. Pressure contours of the single face gear: (a) without shroud; (b) with shroud.
Static pressure
Static pressurehas hasbeen
beenproven
proventotobebe anan important
important factor
factor in the
in the evaluation
evaluation of windage
of windage powerpower
loss
Static pressure has been proven to be an important factor in the evaluation of windage power
loss
in in open
open literature,
literature, so theso the static
static pressurepressure on Section
on Section 1 was also1 was also adopted
adopted to studytowindage
study windage loss
loss of the of
face
loss in open literature, so the static pressure on Section 1 was also adopted to study windage loss of
the face gear. The x-axis (shown in Figure 6) coordinates ranged from 0.052 to 0.093 based on the
gear. The x-axis (shown in Figure 6) coordinates ranged from 0.052 to 0.093 based on the initial position
the face gear. The x-axis (shown in Figure 6) coordinates ranged from 0.052 to 0.093 based on the
initial
of positioninofthe
the shroud the shroud
inner in the
radius inner radius
direction and thedirection
outer radiusand direction.
the outer radius
The rangedirection. The range
was divided into
initial position of the shroud in the inner radius direction and the outer radius direction. The range
was
42 divided
regions withinto
the42interval
regionslength
with the interval
of 0.001, andlength of 0.001,
the average and of
value theallaverage
pressuresvalue of allregion
in each pressures
was
was divided into 42 regions with the interval length of 0.001, and the average value of all pressures
in each
used region was
to represent theused to represent
pressure the pressure
of the region of the regionmethod.
by the rounding-off by the rounding-off
Figures 9 andmethod. Figures
10 illustrate the
in each region was used to represent the pressure of the region by the rounding-off method. Figures
9 andpressure
static 10 illustrate thefluid
and the staticvelocity
pressure and the1fluid
on Section alongvelocity onwith
the x-axis Section 1 along shroud,
and without the x-axis with and
respectively.
9 and 10 illustrate the static pressure and the fluid velocity on Section 1 along the x-axis with and
without shroud,
According respectively.
to Figure According
9, rotational speed actsto Figure
as an 9, rotationalrole
important speed actswindage
in the as an important role gears.
loss of face in the
without shroud, respectively. According to Figure 9, rotational speed acts as an important role in the
windage
It loss of facethat
can be concluded gears.
theIthigher
can bethe concluded
gear speed thatis,the
thehigher
greaterthethegear speed
static is, thedifference
pressure greater the andstatic
the
windage loss of face gears. It can be concluded that the higher the gear speed is, the greater the static
pressure
fluid difference
velocity and the
difference on fluid
both velocity
sides of difference
the gear teeth, on both
thatsides of greater
is, the the geartheteeth, that is,power
windage the greater
loss.
pressure difference and the fluid velocity difference on both sides of the gear teeth, that is, the greater
Additionally, static pressure and velocity had almost no change until close to the gear teeth, which
further verifies that the gear teeth were the main source of windage power loss instead of the gear
plate. For the face gear with shroud, the gear speed also significantly affected the windage power loss,
and the same conclusion applies; that is, that the greater the gear speed is, the greater the windage loss,
and the maximum static pressure appears near the inner radius and outer radius. It is also known from
Figures 9 and 10 that the shroud had a great influence on the windage power loss. Under the condition
of the same gear speed, the static pressure and fluid velocity of Section 1 were significantly reduced
to the gear teeth, which further verifies that the gear teeth were the main source of windage power
to the gear teeth, which further verifies that the gear teeth were the main source of windage power
loss instead of the gear plate. For the face gear with shroud, the gear speed also significantly affected
loss instead of the gear plate. For the face gear with shroud, the gear speed also significantly affected
the windage power loss, and the same conclusion applies; that is, that the greater the gear speed is,
the windage power loss, and the same conclusion applies; that is, that the greater the gear speed is,
the greater the windage loss, and the maximum static pressure appears near the inner radius and
the greater the windage loss, and the maximum static pressure appears near the inner radius and
outer radius. It is also known from Figures 9 and 10 that the shroud had a great influence 11 on the
outer
Energiesradius.
2019, 12,It2093
is also known from Figures 9 and 10 that the shroud had a great influence onofthe 19
windage power loss. Under the condition of the same gear speed, the static pressure and fluid
windage power loss. Under the condition of the same gear speed, the static pressure and fluid
velocity of Section 1 were significantly reduced after the shroud was applied on the face gear, which
velocity ofshroud
Sectionwas 1 were significantly reduced after the shroud was applied on the face gear, which
greatly
after thereduced the windage
appliedpower
on theloss.
face Thus,
gear, it is of practical
which greatly significance
reduced to investigate
the windage power the windage
loss. Thus,
greatly reduced the windage power loss. Thus, it is of practical significance to investigate the windage
power loss of the face gear with the shroud.
it is of practical significance to investigate the windage power loss of the face gear with the shroud.
power loss of the face gear with the shroud.
12000 120
12000 6000 120 6000
6000 inner radius outer radius
10000 9000 100 6000
9000
inner radius inner radius outer radius
10000 9000
12000 outer radius 100 9000
12000
inner radius outer radius

velocity/(m/s)
presure/(Pa)

12000
15000 12000
15000
8000 80

velocity/(m/s)
presure/(Pa)

8000 15000 80 15000

6000 60
6000 60
Static

40

Fluid
4000
Static

40

Fluid
4000
2000 20
2000 20

0 0
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.05
0 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0
0.05 0.06 x-axis
0.07 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.07
x-axis 0.08 0.09
x-axis x-axis
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. The distribution without shroud at different rotational speeds of: (a) static pressure; (b) fluid
Figure
Figure9.9.TheThe
distribution without
distribution shroud
without at different
shroud rotational
at different speedsspeeds
rotational of: (a) static
of: (a)pressure; (b) fluid
static pressure;
velocity.
velocity.
(b) fluid velocity.
2800 100
2800 6000 100 6000 inner radius outer radius
2400 6000 inner radius inner radius
9000 6000
9000 outer radius
2400 inner radius outer radius 80
9000
12000 9000
12000
outer radius shroud 80 shroud
velocity/(m/s)

2000 12000
presure/(Pa)

15000 shroud 12000

15000 shroud
velocity/(m/s)

2000
presure/(Pa)

15000 15000
60
1600 shroud shroud
shroud 60
1600 shroud
1200
40
1200
Static

40
Fluid
Static

800
Fluid

800 20
400 20
400
0 0
0.05
0 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.05
0 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.05 0.06 x-axis
0.07 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.06 x-axis
0.07 0.08 0.09
x-axis x-axis
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.10.TheThe
distribution withwith
distribution shroud at different
shroud rotational
at different speedsspeeds
rotational of: (a) static
of: (a)pressure; (b) fluid
static pressure;
Figure 10. The distribution with shroud at different rotational speeds of: (a) static pressure; (b) fluid
velocity.
(b) fluid velocity.
velocity.
AsAsseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure4d, 4d,the
theshroud
shroudmainly
mainlycovers
covers three
three directions
directions ofof the
the face
face gear,
gear, including
includingthe the
As seendirection
from Figure 4d, the shroud mainly covers three directions of the face gear, including the
addendum direction 1c1 , the inner radius direction
addendum c , the inner radius direction c 2 , andc 2 , and the outer diameter direction
the outer diameter direction c 3 . To c 3 . To
determine
addendum direction
the best placed position c , the inner radius direction c , and the outer diameter
1 of the shroud, the influence on 2the windage power loss of the distance from
direction c . To
determine the best placed position of the shroud, the influence on the windage power loss of 3
the
determine
the shroudthe bestgear
to the placed
in each position
of theof the directions
three shroud, the wasinfluence
investigatedon the windage
in this work. power loss of the
distance from the shroud to the gear in each of the three directions was investigated in this work.
distance from the shroud
Meanwhile, Figure 11a to the gear in each
demonstrates theoftrend
the three
of thedirections
power losses waswithout
investigated in this
and with work. at
a shroud
Meanwhile, Figure 11a demonstrates the trend of the power losses without and with a shroud
Meanwhile,
different speeds. Figure
It can be 11a demonstrates
concluded thepower
that the trendincreased
of the power with losses
the gear without and with aand
speed increasing, shroudthe
at different speeds. It can be concluded that the power increased with the gear speed increasing, and
at different speeds. It can be concluded that the power increased with the gear speed increasing, and
shroud can significantly reduce the power loss. The inertial and viscosity contributions to the total
the shroud can significantly reduce the power loss. The inertial and viscosity contributions to the
the shroud
power canwithout
losses significantly
and with reduce the power
a shroud loss. Theininertial
are illustrated and viscosity
Figure 11b,c, contributions
respectively. As can beto the
seen,
total power losses without and with a shroud are illustrated in Figure 11b,c, respectively. As can be
total power losses without and with a shroud are illustrated in Figure 11b,c, respectively. As can be
inertia was the main contribution to the windage power loss rather than viscosity, and this contribution
seen, inertia was the main contribution to the windage power loss rather than viscosity, and this
seen, inertia
increased withwasthethe main in
increase contribution
gear speed. to the windage
Furthermore, afterpower
addingloss rather than
a shroud, viscosity,
the inertial and this
contribution
decreased significantly.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

contribution
Energies 2019, 12, increased
2093 with the increase in gear speed. Furthermore, after adding a shroud,12the
of 19

inertial contribution decreased significantly.

1600
without shroud
1400 with a shroud

1200

Power/(W)
1000

800

600

400

200
6.0x103 9.0x103 1.2x104 1.5x104
Gear speed (r/min)

(a)
Viscous Viscous
Inertial Inertial
100 100
5.11% 3.98% 3.35% 2.86% 14.48% 9.02% 6.33% 4.26%

80 80
Power(W)

Power(W)

60 60

94.89% 96.02% 96.65% 97.14% 85.52% 90.98% 93.67% 95.74%

40 40

20 20

0 0
6000 9000 12000 15000 6000 9000 12000 15000
Gear speed(r/min) Gear speed(r/min)
(b) (c)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. (a)
(a) The
The trend
trend of
of the
the power
power losses
losses without
withoutand andwith
withaashroud
shroudatatdifferent
differentspeeds:
speeds:(b)
(b)the
the
inertial and
inertial and viscosity
viscosity contributions
contributions toto the
the total
total power
powerlosses
losseswithout
withoutaashroud;
shroud;(c)(c)the
theinertial
inertialand
and
viscosity contributions
viscosity contributions to
to the
the total
total power
power losses
losses with
with aa shroud.
shroud.

4.2.
4.2. Analysis
Analysis of
of the Distance cc1
the Distance 1

According to the open literature, four values for the distance c1 were set as 2.5 mm, 5 mm, 7.5 mm,
According to the open literature, four values for the distance c were set as 2.5 mm, 5 mm, 7.5
and 10 mm, and the other two distances c2 and c3 were set to 10 1mm. For ensuring the accuracy
mm,credibility
and and 10 mm, andsimulation
of the the other two distances
results, c1 was cthe
2
and were set tovariable
onlycindependent
3
10 mm. inForthe
ensuring the
simulations,
accuracy
and and credibility
all simulation of were
settings the simulation
consistent.results, c1 was
With the the only
monitors set independent
to 0.0001 andvariable in the
the simulation
simulations,the
convergent, and all simulation
static settingson
pressure contours were consistent.
Section With
1, with the fourthedistance
monitors set toare
values, 0.0001 and the
demonstrated
simulation
in convergent,
Figure 12a–d, the static
respectively. Aspressure contours
can be seen fromon Section
Figure 12, 1,thewith thepressure
static four distance values,1 are
on Section was
demonstrated
obviously in Figure
different with 12a–d, respectively.
the different values As candistance
of the be seen cfrom
1 . AsFigure 12, thedecreased,
the distance static pressure on
the static
Section 1onwas
pressure obviously
Section different and
1 first decreased withthen
the increased,
different values
when the of distance
the distance . As
c1 to
was set 7.5 the
mm,distance
the static
decreased,
pressure theminimized,
was static pressure on means
which Sectionthat
1 first
thedecreased and then
shroud worked increased,
better when the distance was
at this distance.
set toTo7.5observe
mm, thethestatic pressure
change ruleswas minimized,
of the which means
static pressure more that the shroud
clearly, the curveworked better
diagram at thisin
shown
distance.
Figure 13 was made. It can be concluded that the maximum static pressure occurred near the outer
shroud and inner radius, and it can be considered that the shroud can reduce the windage loss, but the
flowing air also causes energy loss near the shroud. Therefore, it is not suggested that the closer the
shroud is to the addendum, the better. As the distance decreased, the static pressure on Section 1
decreased first and then increased, which is consistent with the conclusion obtained from the static
pressure contours, and the two were mutually verified.
 Energies 2019, 12, 2093 13 of 19
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 12. Static pressure contours on Section 1 under different values of c1 : (a) 2.5 mm; (b) 5 mm;
(c) 7.5 mm; (d) 10 mm.

To observe the change rules of the static pressure more clearly, the curve diagram shown in
Figure 13 was made. It can be concluded that the maximum static pressure occurred near the outer
shroud and inner radius, and it can be considered that the shroud can reduce the windage loss, but
the flowing air also causes energy (c) loss near the shroud. Therefore, it is (d) not suggested that the closer
the shroud is to the addendum, the better. As the distance decreased, the static pressure on Section 1
Figure
decreased
Figure 12.and
first
12. Static pressure
then
Static contours
increased,
pressure on
on Section
which
contours 11 under
under different
is consistent
Section with thevalues
different of cc11: : (a)
of
conclusion
values (a) 2.5 mm;
mm;from
obtained
2.5 (b) 55 mm;
(b) mm;
the static
(c) 7.5 mm;
(c) contours,(d) 10
7.5 mm; (d)and mm.
10 mm.
pressure the two were mutually verified.

To observe the change2000rules of the static pressure more clearly, the curve diagram shown in
Figure 13 was made. It can be concluded
1800
2.5 that the maximum static pressure occurred near the outer
shroud and inner radius, and it can be5
considered that outer
inner radius
radius
the shroud can reduce the windage loss, but
1600 7.5
the flowing air also causes energy loss near the shroud. Therefore, it is not suggested that the closer
Static pressure/(Pa)

10
1400
the shroud is to the addendum, the better. As the distance decreased, the static pressure on Section 1
1200 shroud
decreased first and then increased, which is consistent with the conclusion obtained from the static
pressure contours, and the1000
two were mutually verified.
800
shroud
2000
600
2.5
1800
400 5 outer radius
inner radius
1600 7.5
200
Static pressure/(Pa)

10
1400
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
1200 shroud
x-axis
1000
Figure 13. Change rules of static pressure along the x-axis under different values of the distance c1 .
800 pressure along the x-axis under different values of the distance c1 .
Figure 13. Change rules of static
shroud
4.3. Analysis of the Distance c2600
4.3. Analysis of thetoDistance
According c 2400when the distance c was set as 7.5 mm, the minimum static pressure
Section 3.2, 1
andAccording
the minimum windage 200
power loss were obtained. Therefore, c2 was studied
to Section 3.2, when the distance c1 was set as 7.5the
mm,distance
the minimum on the
static pressure
basis of c1 = 7.5 mm. The four0.05 values of 0.06 0.07 c2 were0.08
the distance optimized 0.09to be 2.5 mm, 5 mm, 7.5 mm,
and
andthe10 minimum windage
the power loss were
keptobtained. Therefore,
Finally,the
thedistance c 2 wasonstudied
Section on
mm. Moreover, distance c3 is x-axis
unchanged. static pressure 1
the basis of c
is shown in Figure
1
 7.5 mm . The four values of the distance
14. It can be concluded that as the distance were optimized to be 2.5 mm,
c 2 c2 decreased, the static pressure on 5 mm,
SectionFigure
1 also13.decreased,
Change rules of static pressure
especially along the
in the vicinity of x-axis underwhich
the teeth, different
meansvalues of the
that windagecpower
the distance 1
.
loss also decreased.
4.3. Analysis of the Distance c 2

According to Section 3.2, when the distance c1 was set as 7.5 mm, the minimum static pressure
and the minimum windage power loss were obtained. Therefore, the distance c 2 was studied on
the basis of c1  7.5 mm . The four values of the distance c 2 were optimized to be 2.5 mm, 5 mm,
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
7.5 mm, and 10 mm. Moreover, the distance c 3 is kept unchanged. Finally, the static pressure on
7.5 mm,
Section 1 isand 10 mm.
shown Moreover,
in Figure thecan
14. It distance c 3 is kept
be concluded thatunchanged. Finally,
as the distance c 2the static pressure
decreased, on
the static
Section on
pressure 1 isSection
shown 1inalso
Figure 14. It canespecially
decreased, be concluded
in thethat as theofdistance
vicinity decreased,
c 2 which
the teeth, meansthethat
static
the
windage power loss
Energies 2019, 12, 2093
also decreased.
pressure on Section 1 also decreased, especially in the vicinity of the teeth, which means that the
14 of 19

windage power loss also decreased.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 14. Static
Figure 14.
Figure Staticpressure
14. Static pressurecontours
pressure contourson
contours onSection
on Section111under
Section underdifferent
under different
values
different values of ccc22:::(a)
of
values of (a) 2.5mm;
(a) 2.5
mm; (b)55mm;
2.5 mm; (b)
mm;
(b) 5 mm;
2
(c)(c)7.5
7.5mm;
mm;(d)
(d)10
10mm.
mm.
(c) 7.5 mm; (d) 10 mm.

Similarly,
Similarly,Figure
Similarly, Figure1515illustrates
Figure 15 illustrates the
illustrates thechange
changerules
rules of
the change rules
of static
static pressure
of static pressure on
pressure on onSection
Section1.1.
Section 1.ItItItcan
canbe
can beobserved
be observed
observed
that,
that,as
asthe
the distance
distance cc
2 decreased,
decreased, the the static
static pressure
pressure on on
SectionSection
1 along1 along
the the
x-axis
that, as the distance c2 2 decreased, the static pressure on Section 1 along the x-axis also decreased, x-axis
also also
decreased, decreased,
which
means that the windage power loss decreased. Moreover, the smaller the distance c2 , the smaller the
which
whichmeans that
thatthe
meansvalue the windage
windage power
power loss
loss decreased.
decreased. Moreover,
Moreover, the smaller
smaller the distancedistance cc 2, ,the
the
x-coordinate of the maximum pressure close to the outer radiusthe of the gear the
body. To summarize, 2
smaller
smaller
the the
thex-coordinate
following conclusionvalue
x-coordinate value
can beofofdrawn:
the
themaximum
maximum pressure
pressure
the smaller close
close to
the distance tobetween
the outer
the outertheradius
radius
shroud ofthe
of thegear
and gear body.
the body.
outer
Toradius
summarize,
To summarize, the
of the gear following
thebody,
following conclusion
conclusion
the smaller can
the can be drawn:
be drawn:
windage power the smaller
theloss.
smaller the distance
the distance
Therefore, between
between
in practical the shroud
the shroud
applications,
and
andthe
this theouter radius
outercan
distance radius ofofthe
thegear
be shortened asbody,
gear body, the
much smaller
thepossible
as the
smallerfor windage
theachieving power transmission
windage higher
power loss. Therefore,
loss. Therefore, ininpractical
efficiencypractical
and
applications,
applications,
lower this distance can be shortened
this distance can be shortened as much as
energy loss. as much as possible for achieving higher transmission
achieving higher transmission
efficiency
efficiencyand andlower
lowerenergy
energyloss.
loss.
1800
1800
2.5
2.5
1600
1600 55
7.5
7.5 inner
inner radius
radius outer radius
1400
1400
Static pressure/(Pa)
Static pressure/(Pa)

10
10
1200
1200

1000
1000
shroud
shroud
800
800

600
600
different
different
400
400 shrouds
shrouds
200
200 0.05
0.05 0.06
0.06 0.07
0.07 0.08
0.08 0.09
0.09
x-axis
x-axis

Figure15.
Figure
Figure 15.Change
15. Changerules
Change rulesof
rules ofstatic
of staticpressure
static pressurealong
pressure alongthe
along thex-axis
the x-axis
x-axis under
under thethe
under different
different
the values
values
different of
ofthe
of the
values thedistance
distance c2 .
distance
c .
4.4. cAnalysis
2
.2 of the Distance c 3

Based on the above research, the minimum static pressure and the minimum windage loss were
obtained in the case of c1 = 7.5 mm and c2 = 2.5 mm. Therefore, these two values were also used
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

4.4. Analysis of the Distance c 3

Energies 2019, 12, 2093 15 of 19
Based on the above research, the minimum static pressure and the minimum windage loss were
obtained in the case of c1  7.5 mm and c 2  2.5 mm . Therefore, these two values were also used in
in
thethe study
study of of
thethe distancec c.3 Similarly,
distance . Similarly,the parameter cc3was
theparameter wasoptimized
optimizedto to2.5
2.5 mm,
mm, 55 mm,
mm, 7.5
7.5 mm,
mm,
3 3
and 10 mm, and the static pressure on Section 1 is illustrated in Figure 16 under the condition that
and 10 mm, and the static pressure on Section 1 is illustrated in Figure 16 under the condition that all
all simulation settings are consistent. From Figure 16, it can be seen that as the distance c3 decreased,
simulation settings are consistent. From Figure 16, it can be seen that as the distance c 3 decreased,
the static pressure on Section 1 also decreased, which means that the windage power loss also decreased.
the static pressure
Moreover, the extremeon values
Sectionof1static
also pressure
decreased, which
appear near means that the windage power loss also
the teeth.
decreased. Moreover, the extreme values of static pressure appear near the teeth.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Static
Static pressure
pressure contours
contours on
onSection
Section11under
underdifferent
differentvalues of cc33 :: (a)
valuesof (a) 2.5
2.5 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) 55 mm;
mm;
(c) 7.5 mm; (d) 10 mm.
(c) 7.5 mm; (d) 10 mm.
Figure 17 demonstrates the change rules of static pressure on Section 1 under the different values
Figure 17 demonstrates the change rules of static pressure on Section 1 under the different values
of the distance c3 . It can be observed that, with the decrease of the distance c3 , the static pressure on
of the distance c 3 . It can be observed that, with the decrease of the distance c 3 , the static pressure
Section 1 also decreased, which means that the windage power loss decreased. Furthermore, the smaller
on Section
the distance1 calso decreased, which means that the windage power loss decreased. Furthermore, the
3 , the smaller the x-coordinate value of the maximum static pressure close to the outer
smallerofthe
radius thedistance , the smaller
gear body.c 3Hence, the x-coordinate
in practical applications,value of the from
the distance maximum statictopressure
the shroud the innerclose to
radius
thethe
outer
Energies
of 2019,radius
gear of PEER
12, x FOR
body can the gear body.
REVIEW
be reduced Hence,
as much in practical
as possible, applications,
similar the distance
to the conclusion from
obtained the Section
from shroud to
16 of 4.3.
19
the inner radius of the gear body can be reduced as much as possible, similar to the conclusion
1200
obtained from Section 4.3. outer radius 2.5
5 inner radius
1000 7
shroud
Static pressure/(Pa)

10
different
800
shrouds

600

400

200
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
x-axis

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Change
Change rules of static
rules of static pressure
pressurealong
alongthe
thex-axis
x-axisunder
underthe
thedifferent
different values
values of of
thethe distance
distance c3 .
c3 .

4.5. Practical Applications

Figure 18 summarizes the corresponding power values in the previous CFD simulation groups,
 200
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
x-axis

Figure 17. Change rules of static pressure along the x-axis under the different values of the distance
Energies 2019, 12, 2093 16 of 19
c3 .

4.5.
4.5. Practical
Practical Applications
Applications

Figure
Figure 18
18 summarizes
summarizes the
the corresponding
corresponding powerpower values
values in
in the
the previous
previous CFDCFD simulation
simulation groups,
groups,
where Numbers 1–10 represent Figure 12a–d, Figure 14a–c, Figure 16a–c. As can be seen, the windage
where Numbers 1–10 represent Figures 12a–d, 14a–c and 16a–c. As can be seen, the windage power
power
loss in loss in Number
Number 8 was
8 was the the lowest,
lowest, that is cthat 7.5cmm,
1 = is  7.5
c2mm , cmm,
= 2.5  2.5
andmm , and
c3 = c  2.5 mm .
2.5 mm.
1 2 3

500

400
Power/(W)

300

200

100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number
Figure 18. The trend of the corresponding power values in the previous CFD simulation groups.
Figure 18. The trend of the corresponding power values in the previous CFD simulation groups.
For a face gear drive, the shape and arrangement of the shroud needs to take the meshing pinion
For a face gearcomprehensively.
into consideration drive, the shape and arrangement
According of the study
to the above shroud onneeds to take the
the windage lossmeshing pinion
of the face gear,
into consideration comprehensively. According to the above study on the windage
the distance from the shroud to the gear body in the inner radius and outer radius direction should loss of the face
be
gear, the distance from the shroud to the gear body in the inner radius and outer
reduced as far as possible, and the distance between the shroud and the gear addendum should be radius direction
should be reduced
appropriately as farFor
reduced. as the
possible,
meshedand the distance
pinion, between
the shroud thereasonably
can be shroud and the gearaccording
arranged addendum to
should
Energies be appropriately
2019,
the existing 12, x FOR PEER
research reduced.
[21],REVIEW For recommended
and the final the meshed pinion,
shape the shroud
of the shroud canis be reasonably
shown arranged
in Figure 17
19.of 19
according to the existing research [21], and the final recommended shape of the shroud is shown in
Figure 19.

add

shroud

Figure 19. Recommended shroud for face gear drive.

Figure 19. Recommended shroud for face gear drive.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
To reduce the energy loss of the face gear drive, the windage phenomenon of the face gear with
To reduce
and without the energy
a shroud loss of the face
was investigated gearon
based drive,
a CFD themodel;
windage
the phenomenon of thedrawn
major conclusions face gear
fromwith
this
and without a shroud
work are described below: was investigated based on a CFD model; the major conclusions drawn from
this work are described below:
1. The steering of the face gear has no effect on the windage losses. The teeth are the main source of
1. The steering
windage lossofinstead
the face
of gear has plate.
the gear no effect
Gearonspeed
the windage
plays a losses. The role
significant teethinare
thethe main source
windage loss of
of windage loss instead of the gear plate. Gear speed plays a significant role
the face gear, and the greater the gear speed is, the greater the windage loss will be.in the windage loss
of the face gear, and the greater the gear speed is, the greater the windage loss will be.
2. The shroud can significantly reduce the windage losses of face gears. The distance from the
2. The shroud can significantly reduce the windage losses of face gears. The distance from the
shroud to the gear body in three directions has an effect on the windage losses, including the
shroud to the gear body in three directions has an effect on the windage losses, including the
distance from the shroud to the tooth addendum, the distance from the shroud to the outer radius
distance from the shroud to the tooth addendum, the distance from the shroud to the outer
and the distance between the shroud and the inner radius.
radius and the distance between the shroud and the inner radius.
3. The distance from the shroud to the face gear addendum should not be as small as possible. As
the distance decreases, the windage power loss decreases first and then increases. For the
distances between the shroud and the outer radius and inner radius, the smaller the distance
values are, the smaller the windage power loss—that is, the greater the efficiency of the face gear
Energies 2019, 12, 2093 17 of 19

3. The distance from the shroud to the face gear addendum should not be as small as possible.
As the distance decreases, the windage power loss decreases first and then increases. For the
distances between the shroud and the outer radius and inner radius, the smaller the distance
values are, the smaller the windage power loss—that is, the greater the efficiency of the face gear
drive. Furthermore, the shroud that effectively reduces the windage loss of the face gear drive
is recommended.

Author Contributions: All listed authors have contributed to this research. Y.D. proposed the research ideas and
guided the work; F.M. and Y.D. wrote this manuscript and performed the numerical simulations. X.Z. and J.J. put
forward some suggestions.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Defense Preliminary Research Project of China grant
number KY-44-2018-0219.
Acknowledgments: We would like to express our thanks to the editors of Energies and the anonymous reviewers
for their work in processing this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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