Notes: Psychology

Variables> hypothesis>testing the theory

We begin with an observation that we want to understand, we generate theories (explanatio

ns) of those observations, hypotheses (predictions) are generated from these theories, we te
st these hypotheses, and the data we collect may support our theory or give us cause to mo
dify the theory. The processes of data collection (research) and generating theories are intris
ically linked: theories lead to data collection and data collection informs theories!

In describing this process we’ve also seen that a good theory should:
■explain the existing data
■explain a range of related observations
■allow statements to be made about the state of the world
■allow predictions about the future
■have implications.

Scientific statements are ones that can be verified with reference to empirical evidence, whe
reas non-scientific statements are ones that cannot be empirically tested

research process
Generate a hypothesis
Collect some data
Interpret the data
Create a theory
Test the theory
Test the theory
Types of hypothesis:
experimental hypothesisH1
null hypothesisH0

two-tailed hypothesis ‘women and men differ in their intelligence’

Measuring things:
Variables:
Most hypotheses can be expressed in terms of two variables: a proposed cause and a propos
ed outcome.
Levels of measurement (measurement error)
Nominal data are measured on a scale on which two things that are equivalent in some sens
e are given the same name (or number)
Ordinal data tell us not only that things have occurred, but also the order in which they occu
rred
Interval data we must be certain that equal intervals on the scale represent equal difference
s in the property being measured
Ratio data go a step further than interval data by requiring that in addition to the scale meeti
ng the requirements of interval the ratios of values along the scale should be meaningful
A final property of variables is that they can be discrete or continuous
Validity
The items in your self-report measure/questionnaire must relate to the construct being mea
sured (content validity).
Criterion validity is whether the questionnaire is measuring what it claims to measure

Reliability
which is the ability of the measure to produce the same results under the same conditions
split-half reliability
Cronbach’s alpha-
You can then compare people’s scores on the two halves for all of the different splits and co
mpute an average split half reliability score known as Cronbach’s alpha. For psychological me
asures, if Cronbach’s alpha is above about 0.7 then you’re doing pretty well.

Hypotheses
Listed below are some popular theories in psychology. For each one try to generate a hypothe
sis that might arise from the theory. For each hypothesis, state the null hypothesis and say wh
ether it is a one-tailed or two-tailed hypothesis.
1Galton suggested that intelligence is hereditary (runs in families) – see
2Bandura suggested that people learn their behaviours from watching others (observational le
arning) – see
3Pavio et al. (1968) suggested that things are easier to remember if you visualise them.
4Piaget suggested that children develop logical thinking skills as they get older – see

people’s responses can be influenced by what they think the person testing them wants them t
o do: this is known as a demand characteristic.

correlational or cross-
sectional research (where we observe what naturally goes on in the world without directly int
erfering with it) vs
experimental research (where we manipulate one variable to see its effect on another)
Correlational research provides a very natural view of the question we’re researching
ecological validity

David Hume (1748, 1739–40), said that to infer cause and effect: (1) cause and effect must oc
cur close together in time (contiguity); (2) the cause must occur before an effect does; and (3)
the effect should never occur without the presence of the cause
tertium quid (‘a third person or thing of indeterminate character’)
These extraneous factors are sometimes called confounding variables or confounds for short

variables that we think are a cause are known as independent variables (because their value d
oes not depend on any other variables)
variable that we think is an effect is known as a dependent variable (because the value of this
variable depends on the independent variable or cause)
TABLE 36.1
Qualitative Quantitative
Data Qualitative Quantitative
Setting Natural Artificial (laboratory)
Focus Meanings Behaviour
Model Holistic Philosophy of science
Approach Inductive Deductive
Aim Uncover cultural patterns Uncover scientific laws
Basis Idealism Realism

discourse analysis

In theory-driven analysis you analyse discourse or interactions with respect to existing theory
. In data-driven analysis you collect data with no particular theory in mind and let the analysi
s inform the development of a theory

You begin with an initial observation or research question that is probably informed by data.
You then generate a hypothesis to explain this observation and in doing so identify variables
that can be measured. You then collect data to test the theory (and measure the variables yo
u previously identified). Finally you analyse these data (either by fitting a statistical model if
we’ve collected numeric data, or through an analysis of text, discourse or interactions). The r
esults should feed back into your theory by either supporting your ideas or, more often, prov
oking modification of your original theory. The modified theory is then tested (so you get stu
ck in this eternal loop of generating and testing theories until the day you die).

Some of the most common types of study in psychology include:

o Experiments
o Psychological scales and questionnaires
o Observations
o Interviews

Psychological Scales and Questionnaires

The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct covers 4 main principles, that all Psychologists should
uphold in the UK.

These include (BPS, 2018):

 Respect
 Competence
 Responsibility
 Integrity