MODULE 5

LECTURE NOTES
FLUIDS (STATICS)
The phases of matter are solid, liquid and gas. A particular substance may undergo the three phases
from solid to gas by subjecting it to heat. For example, ice when heated melts and turns to liquid and
further heating turns it to gas (vapor) state. Solids have definite shapes whereas liquids and gases
take the shape of the container where they are confined. Liquids have definite volume but it takes
the shape of its container. Gases are free to spread out and they don’t have a definite volume and
shape. Gases take up the volume and the shape of their containers. Furthermore gases are
compressible. Liquids and gases are considered fluids. This module discusses the characteristics of
fluids.

Explore the movement of the molecules and atoms in different states of matter in these PhET
simulations.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/states-of-matter-basics

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/states-of-matter-basics/latest/states-of-matter-
basics_en.html

Density (ρ)

The density ρ of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mass m and its volume V.

density = mass / volume

ρ=m/V

The SI unit is kilogram/cubic meter or kg/m3. In the cgs, it’s gram/cubic centimeter or g/cm3.

Take this example. The density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3. It means that 1m3 volume of aluminum
has a mass of 2700 kg. In the case of iron, 1m3 has mass of 7800 kg. So iron has a higher density than
aluminum because, for the same volume, it has a larger mass.

Let’s compare two liquids. A 1m3 of water (at 4oC) has a mass of 1000 kg, thus its density is 1000
kg/m3. A 1m3 volume has a mass of 13600 kg. The density of mercury is 136000 kg/m3. It is 13.6
time denser than water.

Now, comparing the density of iron and mercury (which is in liquid phase at room temperature), a
solid block of iron (ρ = 7800 kg/m3) will actually float in mercury (ρ =13600 kg/m3).

Question: A certain liquid has a mass of 1,260 kg per m3. Check Table 11.1 (Densities of Various
Substances) and identify this liquid. If this liquid is poured on a container with pure ethyl alcohol will
it sink or float on the alcohol?

Pressure (P)

Pressure is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the force (F) and the area A where the force is
applied. It is assumed that this force is applied perpendicular to the area A (or the component of the
force perpendicular to the area).

Pressure = Force / Area

P=F/A

Based on this equation the SI unit of force is newton/square meter or N/m2; 1 N/m2 =1 Pa (pascal).
 In cgs system, it’s dyne/square centimeter or dyn/cm2. In the English system, it’s pounds/square inch
or 1 lb/in2 or simply psi.

There is a common unit used for pressure which is not based on the equation F/A. This unit is mmHg
(millimeters of mercury). It is based on the height of the mercury column (in a tube closed on one
end) that the atmospheric pressure can support.

Consider the figure on the left. At sea level the height of the
mercury column h which the air supports is 760 mmHg. So the
atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg at sea level. This is equivalent
h to 14.7 psi.
Air pressure
On top of a mountain, where there is less air, the height of the
column may only be 750 mmHg so the atmospheric pressure at
that location is 750 mmHg.

In the medical field, the sphygmomanometer is the instrument used in measuring blood pressure.
The unit used is mmHg. The figure below shows an example of such instrument. It shows the systolic
blood pressure (138 mmHg) and the diastolic blood pressure (73 mmHg).

(Photo Credit: By Jacek Halicki - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93172820)

The tire pressure gauge shown in the figure below uses the unit bar (outer scale) and the psi (inner
scale).

(Photo Credit By Antti - Porsche Tire Pressure GaugeUploaded by AVIA BavARia, CC BY 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28901348)

The table in the following page shows the conversion factors of the different units used for pressure.

The pressure which the instrument reads is called the gauge pressure Pg. The absolute pressure Pabs
is equal to the sum of the gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure: Pabs= Pg + Patm
So, if your deflated car tire is filled with air up to a pressure of 30 psi, as read in the pressure gauge,
the absolute pressure on the tire is

Pabs = Pg + Patm
= 30.0 psi + 14.7 psi
= 34.7 psi
The total pressure on the tire is equal to 34.7 psi.

Below is the table of the different units used for pressure and the conversion to Pa.

Conversion to N/m2 (Pa) Conversion from atm

5 2 5 2
1.0 atm =1.013 x 10 N/m 1.0 atm= 1.013 x10 N/m
2 2 6 2
1.0 dyn/cm =0.10 N/m 1.0 atm=1.013 x 10 dyn/cm
2 4 2 2
1.0 kg/m = 9.8 x10 N/m 1.0 atm=1.013 kg/cm

2 3 2 2
1.0 lb/in =6.90 x10 N/m 1.0 atm=14.7 lb/in
2
1.0 mm Hg = 133 N/m 1.0 atm=760 mm Hg

3 2
1.0 cm Hg = 1.33 x10 N/m 1.0 atm=76.0 cm Hg
2 3
1.0 cm water= 98.1 N/m 1.0 atm =1.03 x10 cm water

5 2
1.0 bar = 1.000 x10 N/m 1.0 atm=1.013 bar
2 2
1.0 millibar= 1.000x10 N/m 1.0 atm= 1013 millibar
(Credit: College Physics by OpenStax)

In the case of a liquid (assumed to be incompressible) the pressure at a given depth h, due to the
weight of the liquid above it, is given by the equation

P=ρgh

where ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3)

g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h is the depth of the fluid where P is measured (m)

The unit is Pa. Take this example. A tall glass container is filled with water as shown in the figure
below. Assume that the depth of the water down to the bottom of the container is 0.16 m (16 cm).

What then is the pressure at the bottom of the container?

P = ρgh
P =(1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.16 m)
8 cm
= 1,568 Pa
16 cm
Note that the total pressure at the bottom includes the
atmospheric pressure. Halfway below the surface at 0.08m the
pressure will only half of this value since P is directly
proportional to the depth. So at 0.8 m below the surface the
pressure is 1,568 Pa/2 or 784 Pa.

Question: Will the pressure at the bottom be lesser or greater if the water is replaced by olive oil?
You must have experienced this increasing pressure with depth when you took a dip in a swimming
or in the sea. It feels more painful to the eardrum as you move down deeper in the water.

Free divers, are divers who are able to dive

deep in the water without the aid of artificial
breathing apparatus (like scuba gear). Their
eardrums are able to withstand the pressure
underwater by filling the middle ear, the dead
space on the other side of the eardrum with
air. One technique involves pinching the nose
and blowing gently. Frenzel equalization is https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fre
another technique. Check out this video clip. edive_Anilao.jpg)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjVp-
v8VJog (3-part series)

Now, here’s another example of pressure

increasing with the depth in the fluid. Dams
are used to store water and generate
electrical power. They are built with the
bottom end much thicker than the upper
part. They are designed this way to be able to
withstand the tremendous water pressure at
the bottom. An example of such dams is
shown in the figure on the left.
(

(Photo Credit: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Maruyama_Dam_survey.jpg)

Finally here’s an application that you will often times encounter

in your medical career. You might be familiar with the figure on
the right if ever you have been hospitalized or visited somebody
at the hospital.

This is another example of the application of the equation P=ρgh.

The fluid is slowly injected intravenously into the body and the
fluid pressure must be higher than the blood pressure in the
veins.

Thus, the fluid container must be elevated to a height so that the http://www.differencebetween.
net/science/difference-
pressure allows the fluid to enter the veins.
between-5-dextrose-and-
You might have observed that if the height is lowered, thus dextrose-saline/)
decreasing the fluid pressure, the blood back flows into the tube
–scary the first time you see it.
Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s Principle states “A

change in pressure applied to
an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its
container.”

A common application of this principle is in hydraulic system, like the brake system in vehicles. The
figure below shows a simplified illustration of a cross section of a hydraulic system. The below the
pistons, which could freely move up and down the cylinders, is an enclosed hydraulic fluid.

F1 on A1

F2 on A2
The area A1 of the piston on the left is less than the area A2 of the piston on the right. So if a
downward force F1 is applied on the area A1, then the resulting increase in pressure F1/A1will be
transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid, and the same increase in pressure F2/A2 will be
applied on the larger piston. Pascal’s Principle says that

F2 / A2 = F1 / A1

If we solve for F2, the force on the larger piston,

F2 = (A2 /A1 )F1

This last equation says that the force F2 is larger by a factor A2/A1 than the force F1.

Suppose the area A2 is equal to 20 cm2 and the area A1 is 10 cm2, then the ratio A2 / A1 is 2. This
means that the force F2 is twice that of F1. If F1 = 100 N then the force F2 is 200 N.

The hydraulic lift acts as a machine which can lift heavy objects by using a smaller input force. The
larger piston can then be used to lift heavier objects by applying smaller amount of force F 1 on the
smaller piston.

Hydraulic brakes use Pascal’s principle.

The driver exerts a force of 100 N on the
brake pedal. This force is increased by the
simple lever and again by the hydraulic
system. Each of the identical slave
cylinders receives the same pressure and,
therefore, creates the same force output
F2 . The circular cross-sectional areas of
the master and slave cylinders are
represented by A1 and A2, respectively.
(Credit: College Physics by OpenStax)

Let’s consider a problem found in College Physics by OpenStax – page 430, #25.
What force must be exerted on the master cylinder of a hydraulic lift to support the weight of a
2000-kg car (a large car) resting on the slave cylinder? The master cylinder has a 2.00-cm diameter
and the slave has a 24.0-cm diameter.

In this problem the master cylinder has an area

A1 = πr2
= π (d/2)2
= π (2.00 cm/2)2
= π cm2
The slave cylinder has an area

A2 = πr2
= π(d/2)2
= π (24.0 cm/2)2
= 144 π cm2
From Pascal’s Principle

F1/A1 = F2/A2

and solving for the force F1 on the master cylinder

F1 = (A1/A2) F2

Substituting the values

F1 = [(π cm2) / (144π cm2)] [2000 kgx9.8 m/s2]

=136 N

It will only require 136 N of force on the master cylinder to be able to lift the 2000-kg car placed on
the slave cylinder of the hydraulic lift.

The figure below shows the slave cylinders lifting heavy loads.

Credit: https://www.sviinternational.com/weaver/

Archimedes’ Principle

The center figure below shows the weight in air of the metal cylinder. The figure on the right shows
the weight of the same cylinder when it is immersed in water. Its weight in water is smaller than its
weight in air. There is an upward force exerted by the water on the cylinder and this is equal to the
difference between the weight of the object in air and its weight in water. This upward force exerted
by the liquid is called the BUOYANT FORCE.

Questions: a) What is the weight of the cylinder in air?

b) What is the weight of the cylinder in water?
c) What is the buoyant force on the cylinder?

This simple experiment can be viewed in this YouTube link.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXgZF1jtWE8

Notice that the water level goes up (displaced) when the cylinder is displaced. (The cylinder looks
bigger because the acrylic container with water acts like a magnifying lens.)

Suppose that we can collect this amount of displaced liquid. For example, by attaching a spout on
the container where the water can flow out and be collected.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE states that “The buoyant force on an object (placed in a fluid) is equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces.”

Suppose that the displaced liquid has a weight equal to 1.7 N, then the buoyant force on the object
is 1.7 N. If the weight of the object is air is greater than 1.7 N then the object will sink; if it’s less than
1.7 N then the object will float to the surface of the liquid. If the weight in air is equal to the buoyant
force then the object will be in static equilibrium within the liquid.

Let’s try out a problem in College Physics by OpenStax, page 431, #42
Archimedes’ principle can be used to calculate the density of a fluid as well as that of a solid. Suppose
a chunk of iron with a mass of 390.0 g in air is found to have an apparent mass of 350.5 g when
completely submerged in an unknown liquid.

(a) What mass of fluid does the iron displace?

The weight of the iron in air is 0.390 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 3.822 N

The weight of the iron when fully immersed in the unknown liquid is 0.3505 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 3.435 N

From Archimedes’ Principle the weight of the displaced liquid is equal to the buoyant force on the
iron. So,

Weight of liquid displaced = 3.822 N – 3.435 N

= 0.387 N

This is equivalent to a mass of (0.387N) / (9.8 m/s2) = 0.03949 kg or 39.5 g. The mass of the displaced
liquid is 39.5 g.

(b) What is the volume of iron, using its density as given in Table 11.1

The density of iron is 7800 kg/m3. Since density is defined as

ρ=m/V

the volume can be calculated as

V = m / ρ.

Substituting the values,

V = (0.390 kg) / (7800 kg/m3)

= 5 x 10-5 m3
Converting to cm3,

(5 x 10-5 m3) x (106 cm3 /m3) = 50 cm3

The volume of the iron is 5 x 10-5 m3 or 50 cm3.

(c) Calculate the fluid’s density and identify it.

The displaced fluid has the same volume as that of the immersed iron. So the volume of the
displaced liquid is 5 x 10-5 m3 or 50 cm3. The mass of the displaced liquid was found in (a) and equal
to 0.03949 kg. Therefore, the density of liquid is

ρ=m/V
= (0.03949 kg) / (5 x 10-5 m3)
= 790 kg / m3

The density of the fluid is 790 kg /m3 and comparing this value with that found in Table 11.1, we
note that it matches the density of ethyl alcohol. It is highly probable that the liquid is ethyl alcohol.