Mohammed V University in Rabat

Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers

FI - IMIAé
Advanced Fluid Mechanics

Ch 1 : Potential flow theory

The potential flow theory has been for long time used in aerodynamics. It presents a simplified theory
that allows understanding phenomena such as lift and drag mechanisms and others.

In all that follows, we consider the permanent (stationary) flow of an incompressible fluid.

I- Definitions:
I.1- Planar or 2-D flow:
A flow is said to be planar or 2-d if its velocity field can be expressed in a Cartesian
coordinate system (O, x, y, z), judiciously chosen as follows:

u = u ( x, y, t )
r
V v = v( x, y, t )
w = 0


In other words, the speed vector remains normal at a given constant direction (here Oz)

I.2- Irrotational flow

a- circulation of the speed vector:

The circulation Γ of the speed vector along a curve C is defined by:

r →
Γ = ∫ V. dl
C

If the curve C is closed, and if S is a surface based on C, we have:

r → → r r
Γ = ∫ V. dl = ∫∫S rot (V ).n.dS
C

b- Irrotational flow
r 1→ r
A flow is said to be irrotational if the vorticity Ω = rot (V) is zero at any point in the
2
considered domain.

It follows from this definition that the circulation of the velocity vector, in the case of an
irrotational flow, along a curve γ = AB depends only on the respective positions of A and B.
Indeed, let γ = AMB and γ'= AM'B, we have:
 r r r M
∫γ + (− γ ') V.dl = ∫∫S rotV.n.dS A γ

M' γ' B

r r r
S being a surface resting on the closed contour γ + ( − γ ' ) having ∇ ∧ V = 0 :

r r r r r
∫γ + (− γ ') V.dl = ∫γ V.dl + ∫
−γ'
V.dl = ∫∫S rotV.n.dS = 0

r r
Consequently : ∫γ V.dl = ∫γ ' V.dl

c. Velocity potential, stream function:

In the case where the flow considered is irrational, it is possible to find a function ϕ (x, y)
r →
such that one can write dϕ = V. dl and therefore:

r →
∫AB V. dl = ϕ(B) − ϕ(A )

r r
ϕ is then defined by: V = ∇.ϕ

ϕ is called the velocity potential.

Equation verified the velocity potential:

The considered flow being for an incompressible fluid, in steady state, the continuity equation
v r r
is reduced to ∇.V = 0 . By replacing in this equation the components of the speed vector V by
their expressions as a function of ϕ, it comes:

∇ 2ϕ = 0

ϕ is therefore harmonic.

d. Stream function:
dx dy
A streamline is defined by = , or in another form − vdx + udy = 0 . The continuity
u v
equation implies that the above differential form defining the streamlines is then exact. There
is therefore a function ψ such as a streamline can be defined by dψ = 0 or ψ = constant , the
function ψ is called stream function. We also have, from the above:

∂ψ ∂ψ
u= et v = -
∂y ∂x
We can easily show that the stream function is also harmonic, that is to say that we have:
∇ 2ψ = 0

Indeed, having:

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= et v = - et u = et v =
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂ 2ψ ∂v ∂  ∂ϕ  ∂ 2ϕ
=− =−  =−
 
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x  ∂y  ∂x∂y

and

∂ 2 ψ ∂u ∂  ∂ϕ  ∂ 2 ϕ
= =  =
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y  ∂x  ∂y∂x

if the potential function is of class C2, which we will assume to be satisfied, we have therefore
∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
= and consequently = − , hence the stated result.
∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂x 2 ∂y 2

Property :
Let us consider two streamlines defined by and respectively ψ = ψ1 and ψ = ψ 2 .

A ψ = ψ1

B
ψ = ψ2

r
The fluid flow rate (per unit of length in the direction normal to V ) which passes between the
two stream surfaces generated by these two lines is given by
r r
q v12 = ∫ V.ndl = ∫ udy − vdx , dl being an element of the curve AB, connecting the two
AB AB
streamlines and given that the normal vector to dl is given by (dy, -dx). It follows that the
flow rate has the expression:

∫AB dψ = ψ A − ψ B = ψ1 − ψ 2
The flow rate passing between the two stream surfaces generated by two given streamlines is
equal to the difference between the values of the stream function on these two surfaces.
II. Complex potential:
II.1. Definitions
A complex function f of the complex variable z is called holomorphic in a domain D of the
complex plane if it is differentiable at any point from D. It is analytical in D if it is
holomorphic on D except maybe in a finite number of so-called singular points.

We can represent the permanent flow of an incompressible fluid by a complex analytic

function as follows:

f ( x + iy) = ϕ( x , y) + iψ ( x + iy)
or

f ( z ) = ϕ( x , y) + iψ ( x + iy) , avec z = x+iy

where ϕ represents the velocity potential and ψ the stream function of the considered flow, f
is called complex potential and satisfies the property of the following analytical functions:

df ∂f ∂f
= f ' (z) = = −i
dz ∂x ∂y

∂f ∂ϕ ∂ψ ∂f ∂ϕ ∂ψ
or = +i and = +i
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

This property is verified if ϕ and ψ satisfy the so-called Cauchy conditions:

∂ϕ ∂ψ ∂ϕ ∂ψ
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

If ϕ and ψ respectively represent the potential of the speeds and the stream function, we know
that they satisfy these conditions.

df
The quantity W = = f ' (z) = u − iv is called the complex velocity or conjugate velocity.
dz

II.2. Examples:

• Planar straight flow

f (z) = U o ze iα
 y

U0
α

• Source and sink of strength qv

q
f (z) = v log(z)
2π

y y

x x

qv > 0 : source qv < 0 : sink

qv
f ' (z) =
2πz
q q
f ' (re iθ ) = v e −iθ = v (cos θ − i sin θ )
2πr 2πr

q
Note : source or sink at M0(x0,y0) , f (z) = v log(z − z 0 ) ; z0=x0+iy0
2π

• Flow around an angle or in an angle

Consider the complex potential given by:

f (z) = a.z n

using polar coordinates:

f (reiθ ) = a.r n (cos(nθ) + i sin( nθ))

The stream function then has the expression: ψ(r, θ) = a.r n sin(nθ)

π
Let's look for a particular streamline line ψ = 0 : sin(nθ) = 0 ⇒ nθ = kπ : θ = k
n

for k=0 θ =0
π
and for k = 1 θ=
n

θ = 0 and θ = π / n being two streamlines, they cannot be crossed by the fluid, consequently
one can suppose that they materialize a wall. This therefore makes it possible to represent the
flow in an angle or around and angle.

π/
n=1/2

This procedure can be generalized by considering that a particular streamline can materialize
a wall and the complex potential therefore represents the flow around the obstacle which
could materialize the curve.

II.3. Superposition principle:

The superposition of several potential flows whose complex potentials are respectively f1, f2,
......, fi, .... is a potential flow with complex potential f = f1 + f2 + f3 + ....... + fi + ....
II.2. Torque of the forces exerted by a fluid or the singularities immersed in a fluid:

Consider the permanent potential flow of an incompressible ideal fluid. Let (S) be a cylinder
with an axis parallel to Oz and a section having the closed curve as its contour (C).

(C)

r
ky
r r x
kz kx

The result of the surface forces (pressure forces) applied by the fluid external to (S) on it is
given by:
r r
F= ∫∫S − p..n.dS

Note: The sign (-) results from the orientation of the normal towards the outside of the surface
generated by the closed contour (C).

If we consider the unit of length (or height of the cylinder considered), the expression of the
resultant is given by the curvilinear integral on the contour (C):
r r
F = − ∫ p..n.ds
C

s being the curvilinear coordinate along (C).

The result can be represented by its expression in complex form, called complex efort in the
form: F = Fx + iFy
 r dy r dx r
The normal is given by: n = k x − k y ( ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 )
ds ds

The complex effort will therefore have as expression:

F= ∫C p(−dy + idx )

its conjugate has for expression:

F= ∫C p(−dy − idx ) = − ∫C p(dy + idx ) = −i ∫C p(dx − idy)

i.e. :

F = −i ∫ pdz z = x − iy ; being the conjugate of z

C

The calculation of the resultant F therefore requires the calculation of the above integral, this
calculation cannot be done without determining the pressure p on the contour (C). Since we
are dealing with a non-viscous fluid, we can use the Bernoulli relation for the case of an
irrotational flow. Let p0 be the pressure at a point of zero speed in the flow, the Bernoulli
relation is written:

r
V2
p+ρ = p0
2

and the pressure can then be deduced from the above relation as a function of the speed
vector:

r
V2
p = p0 − ρ
2

Transferring this expression to that of complex effort, we obtain the following expression:

V2 V2
F = −i ∫ (p0 − ρ )dz = −i ∫ p0dz + i ∫ ρ dz
C 2 C C 2
The first term of this expression is zero (integral of a constant on a closed contour), it remains
then to calculate the second term. We have :

V 2 = W 2 = WW , W being the conjugate speed

and so :

ρ
2 ∫C
F=i WWdz

Wdz = (u + iv)(dx − idy)

= (udx + vdy) − i(udy − vdx )
= dϕ - idψ
and :

Wdz = (u − iv)(dx + idy)

= (udx + vdy) + i(udy − vdx)
= dϕ + idψ

Given that (C) is a streamline ψ y is constant and we have, on (C) dψ = 0 and consequently
dψ = -dψ. It comes then that on the contour (C) , from where :

ρ ρ
2∫
F =i WW dz = i ∫ W 2
dz
C 2 C

df
and having W = , we therefore have:
dz

2
ρ  df 
F = Fx − iFy = i ∫   dz first Blasius formula
2 C  dz 

Calculation of the moment:

The calculation of the resultant moment exerted by an ideal (non-viscous) fluid in permanent
flow at velocity potential over an obstacle is done in a manner analogous to that used above
for the calculation of the resultant.
The resulting moment with respect to an axis parallel to Oz and passing through a point M0
(x0, y0) is given by:
r r
MM o z = ∫ M 0 M ∧ (−pn )dS
S
r
MM o z = ∫C p{(x − x 0 )dx + (y − y0 )dy}

We can easily notice that:

r
{
MM o z = Re ∫ i(z − z 0 )d F
C
}
2
ρ  df 
and having : dF = i   dz
2  dz 

it follows that the moment can be calculated by the following expression:

ρ 
r 2 
 df  
MM o z = − Re∫ (z − z 0 )  dz second Blasius formula
2 

C  dz  

These relations allow the computation of the tensor of the external forces by the only data of
the complex potential. The calculation of the integrals involved in the Blasius relations can be
carried out using the residue theorem (References 1,2).

II-4 Examples:

II-4.1- Flow around a cylinder without circulation:

Let’s study the flow resulting from the superimposition of a uniform velocity V∞ = U flow
parallel to the Ox axis and a doublet (see TD) originally centered.

The complex potential of a doublet centered at the origin, of moment k is given by

k
fd = −
2πz
The complex potential of a uniform flow is f U = Uz . If we take the doublet such that its

moment is related to the speed U of the uniform flow by the relation k = −2πUR 2 , where R is
a positive real constant, the complex potential of the resulting flow is then given by the
expression:

 R 2 
f ( z ) = U z +
 z 


we deduce the expression of the stream function, in polar coordinates:

The streamline defined by corresponds to (Ox axis) and r = R (Cylinder with axis normal to
the Oxy plane centered in O and radius R).

R
x
ψ=0

ψ=0

The complex potential f can therefore represent the flow around a cylinder. We note the
existence of two singular points (f '(z) = 0) at z = ± R where the speed is zero. Using Blasius
relations and the residue theorem, we show that the torsor of external forces is zero (To be
done as an exercise).

If now, in addition to the doublet and the uniform flow, we add a vortex centered at the origin
and of circulation Γ, the complex potential of the resulting flow becomes:

 R2  Γ
f (z) = U. z +  − i Log (z)
 z  2π

We know that the circle centered at the origin is a streamline for the flow around a circle
without circulation studied previously and we know that it is also it for a vortex centered at
the origin. This circle is therefore a streamline for the flow resulting from the superposition of
the two. This result can also be found by searching for the expression of the stream function
which is given by:

The flow can have one of the following paces depending on the values of R, U and Γ:

The calculation of the combined speed W allows the determination of possible stopping point
positions (zero speed).

df  R2  Γ
W= = U.1 − 2  −
dz  z  2πz

The breakpoints are such that the speed is zero, i.e. W = 0; their affixes are given by the roots
of the following equation:

Γ
z 2 − 2iaRz − R 2 = 0 with a =
4πUR

(
we then have two breakpoints defined by: z = R ia ± 1 − a 2 )
There are then two cases:

1st case: z = 1 − a 2 > 0 (a 2 < 1)

In this case Γ < 4πUR (case of low circulation), we set a = sinγ; we have then
z = R (i sin γ ± cos γ ) and the stopping points are on the circle (figure a)

1st case: z = 1 − a 2 > 0 (a 2 > 1)

( )
In this case Γ > 4πUR (case of heavy traffic), and we have z = iR a ± a 2 − 1 , we then have
two stopping points located on the axis Oy (figure b: in the case of the figure there is a point
inside the circle).

External efforts:

ρ  df 
2

Fx − iFy = i ∫   dz
2 C  dz 

We find :

Fx = 0
Fy = −ρΓU

It is noted that there can be no force on the cylinder unless the circulation is not zero. This
effort (directed along Oy) is opposed as a sign to the circulation; thus, it is directed upwards if
the circulation Γ is negative.

II-5. Conformal mapping:

II-5.1 Definition, properties:

Conformal transformations constitute a mathematical tool allowing to study flows around

obstacles of complicated shapes by their transposition on geometries of simple shapes. One of
the most well-known transformations is that of Kutta-Joukowski, which makes it possible to
study the flow around an aircraft wing profile by means of that around a cylinder.

Y
y
h
M2
m2
β β
M1
m1
H

Plan z x Plan Z X
( généralement plan ( généralement plan

We define a conformal transformation by a one-to-one correspondence h and its inverse h-1 =

H if h and H are holomorphic. We will note :

Z = h (z) and z = H (Z)

A conformal transformation checks the following properties:

* it is such that h '(z) and H' (Z) do not cancel out on the domain considered

* it keeps the angles

* it is transitive

II-5.2. Example: Joukowski transformation:

 1 k
Z = h (z) = z + 
2 z
y Y
k ∈ R et k > 0

Q'
Q
x X
P P
'
Plan z Plan Z
( plan auxiliaire) ( plan physique)

This transformation transforms a circle into an airplane wing profile and vice versa. It shows
the interest that such a procedure can have; indeed it can reduce the study of the flow around
an aircraft wing profile to that around a cylinder that we have already analyzed before.

II-5.3. Compliant transformation and complex potential

Let f (z) be the complex potential of a known flow and F (Z) be the potential of the flow to be
studied; if z = H (Z), then we have F (Z) = f (H (Z))

Conformal transformation retains complex potential; it therefore retains traffic and flows. The
combined velocities are linked by the relation:

w
W = H'.w =
h'

Indeed W = F '(Z) = f (H (z)) = H'.f (z)

Examples:

a- Flow around a cylinder without circulation:

 y R2
z = Z+ Y
Z
r
U∞

x X

Plan z Plan Z
( plan auxiliaire) ( plan Physique)

The complex potential for the flow represented in the auxiliary plane, namely that of a
uniform flow is known, it has for expression and the conservation of the complex potential by
the conformal transformation makes it possible to write:

R2
F( Z) = f (z) = f ( Z + )
Z

is :

R2
F( Z) = U ∞ ( Z + )
Z

result already established previously.

b- Flow around a plane wing profile with circulation:

 y Y

γ
Γ
x X
r
v∞ r
θ
V∞
Plan z θ Plan Z
( plan auxiliaire) ( plan physique)

The complex potential in the auxiliary plane is expressed

 R 2  γ

f (z) = v ∞ . z − z 0 + −i Log (z − z 0 )
 
z − z 0  2π


We propose to determine the expression of the complex potential as a function of the variable
Z in the physical plane.

The conservation of circulation gives conforming transformation with so that we have

The transformation adopted is that of Joukowski

calculation of the lift on an aircraft assistance profile (see TD)

References for complex functions the residue theorem: (as examples)

1- J. Bass - Mathématiques Tome III fascicule 1 analyze

PC second year - Masson

2-M. R. SPIEGEL - Complex variables

SCHAUM series