Key Recall – Topic 1a Biological Molecules

What is a polymer? A big molecule made from large numbers of smaller units called monomers

Give three examples of monomers Glucose, fructose & galactose

found in carbohydrates.

Name 3 disaccharides and state which Maltose = alpha glucose + alpha glucose
monomers they contain.
Sucrose = alpha glucose + fructose

Lactose = alpha glucose + galactose

What is a condensation reaction? The formation of a bond between monomers with the removal of water

What is a hydrolysis reaction? The breakage of a bond between monomers using water

What type of bond is found between Glycosidic bonds

the monomers of disaccharides?

What types of molecules are reducing All monosaccharides and some disaccharides
sugars?

How could you test for the presence of Add Benedict’s reagent and heat. If reducing sugars are present, a red
reducing sugars? precipitate forms.

What types of molecules are non- Disaccharides which are not reducing sugars.
reducing sugars?

How could you test for the presence of Perform a Benedict’s test. If the result is negative, take a fresh sample and
non-reducing sugars? add HCl and boil then neutralise. Heat with Benedict’s reagent. A red
precipitate indicates the presence of non-reducing sugars.

Can you draw the structures of alpha

and beta glucose?

What makes starch and glycogen good Insoluble and so do not affect the water potential within cells.
storage molecules?
Compact so they don’t take up too much room.

How does being ‘branched’ make Allows glucose molecules to be released quickly when respiration rates
glycogen ideal as a storage molecule in increase due to activity.
animals?

How does cellulose differ from starch? Feature Cellulose Starch

-beta glucose alpha glucose

● Monomer
-bonds form all bonds are below
● Bonds
both above and
below
● Chains helix
-straight chains
● Branches unbranched
-branched

How do the features of cellulose relate Straight chains of Beta glucose form many hydrogen bonds between them
to it’s function? forming microfibrils which provide collective strength for its role as

How would you test for the presence
of starch?
Describe the structure of a triglyceride
and explain how it forms.
Describe the basic structure of a fatty
acid
What’s the difference between a
saturated, monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids?
How does a phospholipid differ from a
triglyceride?
What are the important properties of
triglycerides?
What are the important properties of
phospholipids?
How could you test for the presence of
lipids?
Draw the basic structure of an amino
acid.
There are 20 different amino acids.
How do they differ from one another?
How does a dipeptide form?
What is meant by the term ‘primary
structure’?
What is meant by the term ‘secondary
structure’?
What is meant by the term ‘tertiary
structure’?
structural support for plant cells.
Cellulose is also insoluble.
Add iodine solution – If starch is present the colour change will be from
brown to blue-black.
Three fatty acids joined to a glycerol molecule by condensation reactions to
form ester bonds.
Variable length hydrocarbon chain (R) with a carboxyl group at one end
(COOH). Formula = RCOOH
●Saturated fatty acids contain only single bonds between carbons
●monounsaturated fatty acids contain one double bond between two of the
carbons in the chain
●polyunsaturated fatty acids contain more than one double bond between
carbons in the chain
One of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate molecule
● They contain lots of energy making it good for storage
● Insoluble so they don’t affect water potential
Hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic fatty acid tails enable the
double layer of the formation phospholipid bilayers making up cell
membranes. This allows the membrane to act as a barrier to water-soluble
substances.
Shake the sample with ethanol, add to water. A milky emulsion indicates
that lipids are present.
They have different R groups.
A peptide bond forms directly between the N of the amine group of one
amino acid and the C of the carboxyl group of another amino acid, with the
loss of H from the amine group and OH from the carboxyl group to form
water in a condensation reaction.
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Formation of hydrogen bonds between amine and carboxyl groups of amino
acids within the polypeptide chain to form either alpha helix or beta pleated
sheet.
Folding of the polypeptide chain by the formation of hydrogen bonds, ionic
bonds and disulphide bridges between R groups of amino acids to give the

What is meant by the term
‘quaternary structure’?
How could you test for the presence of
proteins?
What is the role of an enzyme?
How does an enzyme-substrate
complex form?
How do the ‘lock and key’ and
‘induced fit’ models of enzyme
function differ?
Why is the induced fit model the
currently accepted model?
Why is the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction slower when the
temperature is below the optimum?
Why is the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction slower when the
temperature is above the optimum?
Why is the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction slower when the pH
is lower than the optimum?
Why is the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction slower when the pH
is higher than the optimum?
Why does adding more substrate
increase the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction?
Why does the rate reach a maximum
at ‘saturation’ point
Why does adding more enzyme
increase the rate of an enzyme
catalysed reaction?
How do competitive inhibitors reduce
enzyme activity?
chain a 3D shape.
Some proteins consist of more than one polypeptide and some are
associated with non-protein prosthetic groups to make them functional.
Biuret test – add sodium hydroxide followed by copper II sulphate solution.
The presence of protein will cause a colour change from blue to purple.
To lower the activation energy of a specific reaction, speeding up the rate.
When a substrate binds to the complementary shaped active site of an
enzyme.
Lock and Key Induced fit
Substrate and active site a The active site changes shape and moulds
complementary shapes and around the substrate to become
so fit together. complementary as they bind
As the active site changes shape it puts a strain on the bonds within the
substrate when catalysing the breakdown of a molecule.
OR In a reaction where two molecules are being joined together, the
changing shape of the active site holds them close together, reducing any
repulsion between them.
Enzymes and substrate molecules have less kinetic energy and therefore
move around in solution more slowly. This makes it less likely that there will
be successful collisions between enzyme active sites and substrate
molecules.
Higher temperatures provide more kinetic energy to the molecules within
the enzyme (amino acids) causing some bonds in the tertiary structure to
break. This causes the active site to change shape (denature) preventing the
substrate from binding.
The presence of H+ ions when the pH is low disrupts some of the ionic and
hydrogen bonds in the enzymes active site causing it to change shape and
denature.
The presence of OH- ions when the pH is high disrupts some of the ionic and
hydrogen bonds in the enzymes active site causing it to change shape and
denature.
Collisions between substrates and active sites become more likely.
There are so many substrate molecules that enzymes are working at their
maximum rate and all active sites are occupied.
Collisions between substrates and active sites become more likely.
Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme, preventing the
substrate from binding.
How can the effect of competitive Increasing the concentration of substrate increases the chance of substrate
inhibitors be reduced? binding to active sites.

How do non-competitive inhibitors Non-competitive inhibitors bind to a region on the enzyme other than the
reduce enzyme activity? active site (allosteric site). This disrupts the tertiary structure causing the
enzyme and therefore the active site to change shape.

How could you estimate the rate of an Draw a tangent against the curve and calculate the gradient.
enzyme catalysed reaction from a
Gradient = change in y (product) ÷ change in x (time)
graph?
Key Recall – Topic 1b More Biological Molecules
What are ribosomes made of?
Draw a DNA nucleotide
How do an RNA nucleotides differ from
DNA nucleotides?
How are nucleotides joined together to
form a polymer?
How does a DNA molecule differ from an
RNA molecule?
Why in the past did scientists doubt that
DNA was capable of carrying the genetic
code?
Why does DNA need to replicate?
How does the process of semi-
conservative replication take place?
How did Meselson and Stahl provide
evidence for semi-conservative
replication?
Draw a molecule of ATP
What happens to an ATP molecule when
energy is required by a cell?
How is ATP formed?
How much of a cell’s contents are made
up by water?
rRNA and protein
DNA RNA
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Bases: A, T, C, G Bases: A, U, C, G
Phosphodiester bonds form between the phosphate group of one
nucleotide and the pentose sugar of the next nucleotide as a result of
condensation reactions.
DNA forms a double helix with hydrogen bonds between two
polynucleotide strands as a result of complementary base pairing,
whereas molecules of RNA form single polynucleotide strands and are
short in length compare to DNA.
Because DNA has a relatively simple chemical composition. Some
argued that genetic information must be carried by proteins which are
much more chemically varied.
DNA replication allows stem cells to divide to produce new cells,
meaning that there is genetic continuity between generations of cells.
Hydrogen bonds between the bases on polynucleotide strands are
broken by DNA helicase, free DNA nucleotides are attracted to their
complementary exposed bases, and the nucleotides are joined together
by DNA polymerase to form a DNA molecule with one new strand and
one original strand.
They supplied heavy nitrogen (N15) to dividing bacteria so that all DNA
made during replication contained (N15). They then switched to light
nitrogen (N14) so that any new DNA made contained (N14). The result
showed that new molecules produced during replication contained one
strand containing (N15) and one containing (N14).
A hydrolysis reaction catalysed by the enzyme ATP hydrolase breaks a
phosphate bond to release energy. The products are ADP and Pi.
A condensation reaction catalysed by the enzyme ATP synthase forms a
bond between ADP and Pi during photosynthesis and respiration.
80%
State 5 important properties of water.
● Acts as a metabolite

● Good solvent

● Large latent heat of vaporisation, allowing heat loss through

evaporation
● High specific heat capacity so it can buffer changes in
temperature
● It is very cohesive

What is an inorganic ion? AN ion which does not contain carbon.

What is the role of iron ions in the body? Fe2+ forms a prosthetic group bound to each of the four polypeptides in
the quaternary structure of haemoglobin and binds oxygen allowing it’s
transport around the circulatory system to respiring cells.

What is the role of hydrogen ions in the H+ lower the pH and so are important to ensure that conditions are at
body? their optimum for enzyme catalysed reactions.

What is the role of sodium ions in the Na+ are important for co-transporting glucose and amino acids across
body? cell membranes, allowing for absorption in the small intestine an the
kidney.

What is the role of phosphate ions in the PO43- are important form phosphate groups in molecules such as ATP,
body? DNA and RNA.
Key Recall – Topic 2a Cell Structure and Division

How does plant cell ultrastructure differ In addition to the organelles found in animal cells, plant cells have:
from animal cell ultrastructure?
● A cellulose cells wall with plasmodesmata (channels)

● A vacuole

● Chloroplasts

How do algal cells differ from plant cells?

● Algae can be either unicellular or multicellular

● Chloroplasts are a different shape and size to plant cell chloroplasts

How do fungal cells differ from plant cells?

● Fungi can be either unicellular or multicellular

● They don’t have chloroplasts

● Their cell walls are made of chitin, not cellulose

Describe the structure and function of the Large organelle, surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double
nucleus in Eukaryotic cells. membrane) containing many pores. It contains chromosomes which
contain instructions to make proteins and a nucleolus which makes
ribosomes.

Describe the structure and function of Oval shaped organelle surrounded by a double membrane, the inner
mitochondria in Eukaryotic cells. of which is highly folded to form cristae. The matrix within contains
enzymes involved in respiration.

Describe the structure and function of Oval shaped organelle surrounded by a double membrane and also
chloroplasts in Eukaryotic cells. has membranes within called thylakoids which stack to form grana
where some of the reactions of photosynthesis occur. Other reactions
occur in the stroma within the chloroplast.

Describe the structure and function of Fluid filled membrane-bound flattened sacs, from which vesicles can
Golgi apparatus in Eukaryotic cells. bud off. It processes and packages new lipids and proteins and also
makes lysosomes.

Describe the structure and function of A lysosome is a type of Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes
lysosomes in Eukaryotic cells. used to digest invading cells or to break down worn out cell
components.

Describe the structure and function of Made up of protein and rRNA, it can either be free in the cytoplasm or
ribosomes in Eukaryotic cells. attached to membranes of the RER. Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis.

Describe the structure and function of the System of fluid filled membranes with many ribosomes attached,
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). which folds and processes proteins made at the ribosome.

Describe the structure and function of the System of fluid filled membranes. Synthesises and processes lipids.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

Describe the structure and function of the A rigid structure that surrounds cells in plants (cellulose), fungi (chitin)
cell wall. and algae (cellulose) which supports the cell and prevents them from
changing shape.

Describe the structure and function of the A membrane-bound organelle containing cell sap surrounded by the
cell vacuole in plant cells. tonoplast (membrane).

How do Prokaryotic cells differ from
Eukaryotic cells?
Which additional features are found in
SOME prokaryotic cells?
Describe how prokaryotic cells divide.
Why don’t viruses undergo cell division?
How do viruses replicate?
Describe the structure of a typical virus.
What is the formula for calculating
magnification?
What is the difference between
magnification and resolution?
What are the limitations of an optical
microscope?
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of a Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM)?
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of a Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)?
List 4 steps that would enable you to
prepare a temporary mount microscope
slide.
What is a microscope artefact?
How might you be able to distinguish
between an artefact and an organelle?
Important for maintaining pressure within the cell, preventing the cell
from wilting.
Prokaryotic cells:
● do not have membrane bound organelles
● Have free floating circular DNA as opposed to linear DNA in
the nucleus
● Murein cell was instead of cellulose
● Smaller ribosomes
Capsule, flagella, plasmids
Circular DNA and plasmids replicate, then the cell divides to produce
two daughter cells, each with a single copy of the circular DNA and a
variable number of copies of plasmids.
Viruses are non-living and acellular.
Viruses invade host cells and use the host cell ‘machinery’ to replicate
themselves.
Viruses consist of genetic material (either DNA or RNA), surrounded
by a protein coat (capsid) with attachment proteins sticking out.
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Magnification is how much bigger the image is than the specimen,
whereas Resolution is how well a microscope distinguishes between
two points that are close together.
Optical microscopes have a maximum resolution of 0.2µm and the
maximum useful magnification is about x1500
A = Can show very small objects due to the high resolution.
D = Can only be used on thin, non-living specimens.
A = Can be used on thick specimens to show 3D structure.
D = Gives lower resolution images than TEM and can only be used on
non-living specimens.
1. Pipette a drop of water onto slide
2. Use forceps to place a thin section of specimen on top
3. Add a drop of stain
4. Place a cover slip on top. Lowering slowly form one side to ensure
that air bubbles do not form beneath it.
Something that you can see down a microscope that isn’t part of the
specimen.
Artefacts usually occur during preparation of the slide, so by repeating
specimen preparation in different ways would enable you to identify

How would you homogenise a sample of
cells during cell fractionation?
Why do you need to carry out filtration
during cell fractionation?
How does ultracentrifugation allow the
separation of organelles?
Starting at the end of mitosis, describe
what happens to a stem cell during the cell
cycle.
Describe what happens to chromosomes
during interphase. What happens to the
cell and chromosomes during each of the
stages of mitosis?
What is cytokinesis?
What causes tumours to form?
What is a cancerous tumour?
Why are normal cells often affected by
cancer treatments as well as tumour cells?
How would you prepare a root tip cell
squash?
artefacts.
Use a blender to break open cells, so that organelles are released. The
solution must be ice-cold to prevent enzyme activity and isotonic to
prevent damage to organelles through osmosis and a buffer should be
added to maintain the pH.
Filtration separates out large cell and tissue debris from the cell
organelles.
Spinning at low speed causes the heaviest organelles such as nuclei to
sediment into a pellet.
The supernatant can be removed and re-spun at increasingly higher
speeds, removing the sediment each time containing lighter
organelles each time.
● The new cell grows and new organelles are made (G1)
● DNA replicates (S)
● The cell continues to grow and proteins needed for cell division are
made (G2)
Interphase – DNA is unravelled to allow transcription and replication
Prophase – chromosomes condense, centrioles move to opposite
ends of the cell forming spindle fibres and the nuclear envelope
breaks down.
Metaphase – chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell and
attach to spindle fibres by their centromere.
Anaphase – Spindles shorten causing centromeres to split and pulling
chromatids towards the poles.
Telophase – At the poles, chromatids (now chromosomes) uncoil and
a new nuclear envelope forms around each set.
Cytokinesis occurs at the end of mitosis. The cytoplasm splits forming
two genetically identical daughter cells. In plant cells, a cell plate is
laid down to form a new cell wall between the two cells.
If there is a mutation in a gene which normally controls cell division,
cells can divide to frequently forming a tumour.
A tumour which invades surrounding tissue.
Treatment disrupts the cell cycle, killing dividing cells including normal
dividing cells.
●Heat the root to approx. 60°C in 1 M HCl
●Rinse the root tip in water and cut 2mm from the very tip
●Place on a microscope slide and use a mounted needle to break the
tip open and spread thinly
●Add a few drops of stain e.g. ethano-orcein
●Place a cover slip over and push down firmly with tissue paper to

List the steps you would take in order to
view a sample using an optical microscope.
What is meant by the ‘mitotic index’ and
why is it useful?
What information would you need in order
to estimate the time taken for each stage
of mitosis?
How would you use a stage micrometer
and an eyepiece graticule to estimate the
size of cells?
squash the cells
●Clip the slide onto the stage
●Select lowest power objective lens
●Use coarse adjustment to lower lens as close to specimen as
possible
●Look down the eyepiece and use fine adjustment until the image is
focussed
●Increase to a higher objective lens as required
The proportion of cells in a sample which are undergoing mitosis.
Mitotic index allows you to work out how quicklya tissue is growing.
Mitotic index = Number of cells with visible chromosomes
Total number of cells observed
Number of cells in stage x total time for cell cycle
Total number of cells
Line up the two scales and work out what each division on the
eyepiece graticule represents e.g. each division on the stage
micrometer = 0.1mm, count how many divisions on the eyepiece
graticule fit into one of these divisions e.g 4.5 then divide to give the
size = 0.1 ÷ 4.5 = 0.022mm
Replace the stage micrometer with your specimen slide and count
how many eye piece divisions each cell occupies. Multiply by 0.022 or
whatever your previous calculated value was to give the actual length.
Key Recall – Topic 2b Cell Membranes
Other than at the cell surface, where else
would you find cell membranes?
What does the fluid mosaic model suggest
about the structure of cell membranes?
What are the roles of proteins and
glycoproteins in cell membranes?
Why are only certain types of substance
able to diffuse directly through the
phospholipid bilayer?
What is the role of cholesterol in cell
membranes?
Describe and explain the relationship
between membrane permeability and
temperature.
To investigate the effect of temperature on
membrane permeability you can place
cubes of beetroot in water at different
temperatures. What variables would need
to be controlled?
In the beetroot temperature practical,
what would be the dependent variable and
how would you measure it?
What is diffusion?
What is simple diffusion?
Which substances are able to move into or
out of cells by simple diffusion?
What 3 factors affect the rate of diffusion?
How are epithelial cells of the small
intestine adapted for rapid diffusion?
What is facilitated diffusion?
Membrane bound organelles in eukaryotic cells.
Phospholipid molecules form a continuous, double layer called a
bilayer which is ‘fluid’ because the phospholipids are constantly
moving. Scattered throughout are proteins (some of which can also
move within the layer), glycoproteins, glycolipids and cholesterol are
scattered throughout.
Act as channel proteins, carrier proteins or receptors.
The hydrophilic phosphate heads face outwards towards to watery
environment leaving the hydrophobic fatty acid tails within the
bilayer. As the centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, only non-polar
substances and water are able to diffuse through. (Although water is
not hydrophobic, it is a very small molecule and so is the exception
in terms of polar substances)
Cholesterol fits between phospholipid molecules and gives the
membrane stability.
Membrane permeability increases with increasing temperature
because phospholipids move around more making the membrane
more fluid. At high temperatures proteins will denature meaning
that they no longer control what enters and leaves the cell.
● Size / surface area of cube
● Volume of water
● Time left in water bath
Concentration of pigment (betalin) surrounding cube.
Measure absorbance or transmission using a colorimeter.
The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration. This is a passive process.
The diffusion of molecules through a cell membrane.
Small, nonpolar molecules.
● Concentration gradient
● Thickness of exchange surface
● Surface area
Their cell surface membrane is highly folded into microvilli,
increasing the surface area.
The passive movement of substances across a cell membrane down

Which type of substances can be moved by
facilitated diffusion?
How do carrier proteins allow facilitated
diffusion?
How do channel proteins allow facilitated
diffusion?
How can cells be adapted to allow for rapid
facilitated diffusion across their
membranes?
What is osmosis?
What is meant by an isotonic solution?
What would happen if a cell was placed
into a hypotonic solution? Explain your
answer.
What would happen if a cell was placed
into a hypertonic solution? Explain your
answer.
You can investigate the water potential of
plant tissue by placing potato cylinders in
different concentrations of sugar solutions.
Which variables would need to be
controlled?
What is meant by a serial dilution?
Why would you need to calculate the %
change in mass of the potato cylinders?
How could you use the % change in mass
of the potato chips to estimate the
concentration of the cytoplasm of potato
cells?
What is active transport?
How is energy supplied for the process of
a concentration gradient using channel or carrier proteins.
Large molecules, polar molecules and ions.
●A specific molecule attaches to the protein on one side of the
membrane
●The carrier protein changes shape
●Then releases the molecule on the opposite side of the membrane
Channel proteins form pores in the membrane, allowing a specific
charged particle to pass through.
Some cells have many transport proteins in their cell membranes.
The movement of water molecules across a partially permeable
membrane from an area of high water potential to an area of low
water potential.
An isotonic solution has the same water potential as surrounding
solutions.
Water would move into the cell by osmosis because the hypotonic
solution has a higher water potential than the cytoplasm of the cell.
Water would move out of the cell by osmosis because the
hypertonic solution has a lower water potential than the cytoplasm
of the cell.
● Size / surface area of potato cylinders
● Temperature of solutions
● Time potato is left in solution
● Blotting of potato when removed from solution
A serial dilution is when you create a set of solutions that decrease
in concentration by the dame factor each time.
Staring masses may have been different.
To allow for comparison.
Plot a calibration curve of % change in mass against concentration.
Read off the concentration where the curve crosses the x axis
indicating that the potato didn’t gain or lose mass and must
therefore be isotonic.
Active transport uses energy to move molecules and ions across a
membrane against a concentration gradient, using a carrier protein.
ATP is hydrolysed into ADP and Pi releasing energy.
active transport?

What factors would affect the rate of

●The number of carrier proteins present in the membrane
active transport of a particular substance
into or out of a cell? ●The rate of respiration in the cell and therefore the availability of
ATP

What is a co-transport protein? A co-transporter allows the facilitated diffusion of one substance
down it’s concentration gradient across a cell membrane, whilst
moving another molecule against it’s concentration gradient at the
same time

Describe the process of absorption of

●Na+ actively transported out of epithelial cells into the blood,
glucose and amino acids into the blood
from the small intestine. lowering the concentration of Na+ in the cytoplasm
●Na+ moves into the cell from the ileum by facilitated diffusion via a
co-transporter, carrying either glucose of amino acids with it
●Glucose diffuses out of the cell into the blood by facilitated
diffusion
Key Recall – Topic 2c Cells and the Immune System

What is an antigen? Molecules that can generate an immune response (usually proteins)

How does the immune system recognise Foreign cells are recognised because the antigens they have in their
foreign cells? cell surface membranes are different to those of the body cells.

What are the four main stages of the

● Phagocytosis
immune response?
● T-cell activation

● B-cell activation

● Plasma cell and antibody production

How do phagocytes become antigen

● Phagocytes recognise the foreign antigen on a pathogen
presenting cells?
● Cytoplasm changes shape to engulf the pathogen to form a
phagocytic vesicle
● Lysosomes fuse with the vacuole and release lysozymes to digest
the pathogen
● Antigens from the digested pathogen then get inserted into the
phagocyte’s cell surface membrane

How are T-cell activated? Receptors on specific T-cells bind to complementary antigens
presented by antigen presenting cells

What happens to a T-cell when it is Activated T-cells divide rapidly by mitosis and differentiate into T
activated? helper cells, T killer cells (cytotoxic T cells), and T memory cells

What is the role of a T helper cell? T Helper cells release cytokines which help to stimulate phagocytes to
engulf pathogens by phagocytosis and specific B cells to divide and
secrete their antibodies.

What is the role of cytotoxic T cells / T killer T killer cells release a protein called perforin that makes holes in the
cells? cell surface membrane of infected host cells, thereby killing them.

How are antibodies produced?

●Specific B-cells bind to the antigen by their complementary cell
surface antibody
●Helper T-cells attach the B-cell via the bound antigen

●This activates the B cell to divide by mitosis

●The clones differentiate into either plasma cells which release

monoclonal antibodies specific to the antigen or B memory cells.

Describe the structure of an antibody.

● 4 polypeptide chains, 2 heavy and 2 light

● Each antibody has two unique variable regions which form antigen
binding sites
● Each antibody has a constant region which can bind to receptors on
some immune cells

Describe the roles of antibodies

● Bind to antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex
 ● Agglutination – clumping together of pathogens

● Serve as markers to stimulate phagocytes to engulf pathogens to

which they are bound

What is meant by the term ‘cellular immune The T-cells and other immune system cells that they interact with e.g.
response’? phagocytes

What is meant by the term ‘humoral B-cells, clonal selection and the production of monoclonal antibodies.
immune response’?

What is the secondary immune response? If a pathogen enter the body a second or subsequent time Memory B
cells are activated and divide rapidly into plasma cells to produce the
specific antibody.

Memory T cells are activated and divide into the specific type of T
cells.

What is the difference between active and Active immunity is when the immune system is stimulated to produce
passive immunity? antibodies specific to an antigen.

Passive immunity is when antibodies are introduced from an outside

source.

What does vaccination / immunisation The introduction of an antigen into the body to induce an immune
involve? response and produce memory cells, which can remain in the blood
long term and allow an immediate response to a future infection.

What is herd immunity? Herd immunity arises when a sufficiently large proportion of the
population has been vaccinated to make it difficult for a pathogen to
spread within the population.

List the ethical factors surrounding

●Animal testing
vaccination need to be considered.
●Human testing e.g. who should be tested?

●Side effects

●Should vaccination be compulsory to achieve herd immunity?

●Money spent on vaccine could be used for other medical issues

What is antigenic variation? When pathogens change their surface antigens.

Why is antigenic variation a problem for Memory cells made following a previous infection or vaccination will
immunity and vaccine development? not be specific to the new antigens.

What are monoclonal antibodies? Identical antibodies produced form a single group of plasma cells.

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to Monoclonal antibodies with anti-cancer drugs attached can be made
target specific cell types (e.g. cancer cells)? that will bind to tumour markers, meaning that the drug will only
accumulate in the boy where there are cancer cells.

What is ELISA testing? ELISA testing uses antibodies with an enzyme attached, which can
react with a substrate to produce a coloured product, demonstrating
the presence of a specific protein /antigen.

How are monoclonal antibodies used in

●Antibodies specific to hCG which have a dye attached, bind to hCG in
pregnancy tests?
urine if present.
 ●Antibody-hCG complexes bind to immobilised enzymes creating a
visible line.

List the ethical issues surrounding the use of

● Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice
monoclonal antibodies.
● There have been some deaths associated with their use

● Testing for safety have uncovered some severe risks

How does human immunodeficiency virus By reducing the number of helper T-cells in the body.
(HIV) cause the symptoms of AIDS?

Describe the structure of HIV HIV has a spherical protein capsid and an extra outer envelope layer
made from the cell membrane of the previous host cell, containing
RNA as its genetic material and the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
Attachment proteins stick out from the envelope.

List the sequence of events which enable

● Attachment to host cell receptors
HIV to replicate.
● Capsid released into cell, releasing RNA into cytoplasm

● Reverse transcriptase makes a DNA copy of the viral RNA

● DNA inserted into host DNA

● Host cell enzymes transcribe and translate viral DNA

● Viral proteins are assembles into new viruses which bud from
the cell

Why are antibiotics ineffective against Antibiotics inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis.
viruses?
Viruses do not have cell walls and use host cell enzymes to replicate.
Key Recall – Topic 3a Exchange and Transport Systems
How is the size of an organism related to its
surface area: volume ratio?
Which equations should you use to calculate
the surface area and volume of a cube?
Which equations should you use to calculate
the surface area and volume of a sphere?
Which equations should you use to calculate
the surface area and volume of a cylinder?
Name 4 features of a good exchange
surface.
Name 3 adaptations of the specialised
exchange surfaces of multicellular organisms
to speed up diffusion.
What is mass transport?
Explain why smaller organisms have a
relatively high metabolic rate.
Many organisms have folds, wrinkles or
projections on their surface. Why is this
advantageous to them?
Explain how the size of an organism
influences heat exchange with the
environment.
Give two physiological adaptations an
animal may have to survive in extreme
temperatures.
Other than body size or shape, give two
behavioural adaptations an animal may
display to survive in extreme temperatures.
Explain why single celled organisms do not
require adaptions for gas exchange?
The smaller the organism, the larger the surface area: volume ratio.
Surface Area: length x width x no. of sides
Volume: length x width x depth
Surface Area: 4πr2 r- radius
Volume: 4/3 πr3
Surface Area: 2 πr2 + 2 πh r – radius, h – height
Volume: πr2h
1. Large surface area
2. Short diffusion distance
3. Selectively permeable membrane
4. Means to maintain a concentration gradient
1. Flattening
2. Projections
3. Folding
A mechanism within an organism to transport substances from the
exchange surfaces to the organs that require them
Their large surface area: volume ratio means that they lose heat
quickly
To increase surface area and speed up the loss of heat from their
body.
The smaller the organisms, the larger the surface area: volume ratio,
therefore the more heat is lost to the environment.
The larger an organisms is, the smaller the surface area: volume ratio,
and so they are better at retaining heat.
Cold: Smaller extremities (like ears), rounder, shorter or wider
body/features.
Hot: Larger extremities, taller, slimmer, longer body/features.
Cold: Higher metabolic rate, hibernate, thick layer of fur/fat.
Hot: Stay in water, flap ears, seek shade by burying itself.
They already have a large surface area: volume ration so can exchange
directly through their membrane. They also have a very short diffusion
distance (substances diffuse directly into the cell that will use it).
What is Fick’s Law? Rate of diffusion α Surface area x Concentration gradient

Diffusion distance

Describe the structure of fish gills. A central gill arch runs from the top to the bottom of the space. The
arch has two rows of filaments sticking out from one side, all of which
are covered with tiny lamellae that stick out perpendicular to the
filaments.

What is the counter-current system? Blood flows through the lamellae in one direction and water flows
over them in the opposite direction

Explain how the counter- current system The counter-current system maintains the concentration gradient
maximises the efficiency of gas exchange. over the whole length of the gill.

How is the leaf of a dicotyledonous plant Dicotyledonous plants have stomata on the lower surface of their
adapted for efficient gas exchange? leaves through which gases can enter and leave. The spongy
mesophyll layer of cells have a large surface area with many air spaces
between them.

How does the structure of the gas exchange

● They have spiracles on their surface to allow air into trachea
system in insects maximise gas exchange?
● Trachea branch off into smaller tracheoles which have permeable
walls
● Oxygen can diffuse directly from tracheoles into surrounding cells

How are insects adapted to reduce water

● They close their spiracles.
loss?
● They have a waterproof, waxy cuticle over their body

How are leaves adapted to reduce water

● They have a waxy cuticle on the upper surface of leaves
loss?
● If plants start to become dehydrated guard cells lose water
and become flaccid causing stomata to close.

What adaptations do xerophytic plants have

● Sunken stomata – trap water vapour reducing the water
to prevent water loss?
potential gradient between the leaf and the air
● Hairs – trap water vapour around stomata

● Curled leaves protecting the lower side of the leaf from

environmental factors such as wind
● Reduced number of stomata

● Thicker waxy, waterproof cuticles.

Describe the structure of the gas exchange The main windpipe is called the trachea, which splits into two bronchi,
system in humans. one leading to each lung. Each bronchus branched into many
bronchioles which each end in an alveolus.

Describe the roles of the diaphragm and Inspiration – external intercostal and diaphragm muscles contract,
intercostal muscles in breathing. causing the ribcage to move upwards and outwards and the
diaphragm flattens.

Expiration - external intercostal and diaphragm muscles relax, causing

the ribcage to move downwards and inwards the diaphragm curves
 upwards.

Contraction of Internal intercostal muscles causes further movement

of the ribcage downwards and inwards during forced expiration.

How does inspiration and expiration lead to Inspiration- volume of thorax increases causing air pressure to
ventilation? decrease below atmospheric pressure, causing air to move in.

Expiration- volume of thorax reduces causing air pressure to increase

above atmospheric pressure, causing air to move out.

Describe the process of gas exchange when Oxygen from the air diffuses across the alveolar epithelium and the
air enters the lungs and reaches the alveoli. capillary endothelium into the blood where it then diffuses into red
blood cells and binds to haemoglobin.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood across the capillary

endothelium and alveolar epithelium into the air.

How are the alveoli adapted for efficient gas

● Thin exchange surface – the alveolar epithelium is only one
exchange?
cell thick.
● Large surface area – there are millions of alveoli and their
walls are folded.

How does blood flow and ventilation in the They maintain steep diffusion gradients for oxygen and carbon
lungs aid efficient gas exchange? dioxide.

How would you calculate pulmonary PVR = tidal volume x breathing rate
ventilation rate (PVR)
Key Recall – Topic 3b More Exchange and Transport Systems

What happens to large molecules such as They are broken down into smaller molecules by hydrolysis
starch, protein and lipids during digestion? reactions which can then be absorbed into the blood stream.

What is the role of the enzyme amylase? Amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into maltose.

Which enzyme catalyses the breakdown of Membrane bound disaccharidases, found in the membranes of
maltose and where are these enzymes found? the cells lining the ileum.

What is the role of lipase enzymes? Lipase hydrolyses ester bonds in triglycerides to release
monoglycerides and fatty acids.

What is the role of bile salts? Bile salts emulsify lipids, increasing the surface area for digestion,
leading to the formation of micelles.

What is the role of endopeptidases? Endopeptidases hydrolyse peptide bonds within a protein.

What is the role of exopeptidases? Exopeptidases hydrolyse bonds at the ends of proteins.

How are dipeptides hydrolysed? Membrane bound dipeptidases found in the cell srug=face
membranes of the cells lining the ileum.

What type of transport protein is required for Co-transport proteins. (See topic 2b Cell membranes for details).
the absorption of glucose and amino acids
from the lumen of the ileum?

What is a micelle? Tiny structures formed from monoglycerides, fatty acids and bile
salts.

What is the role of a micelle? Micelles help to move monoglycerides and fatty acids towards
the epithelium so that when they are released they can diffuse
directly through the cell surface membrane.

Describe the structure of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin has a quaternary structure of 4 polypeptide chains,
each of which has a haem group containing an iron ion.

What is the relationship between The affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases as the partial
haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen and partial pressure of oxygen increases to produce an S shape dissociation
pressure of oxygen? curve.

What causes the S shape of the oxygen Once the first oxygen has bound, the shape of the molecule
dissociation curve for haemoglobin? changes making it easier for the 2nd and 3rd to bind. This causes
the shape to change again making it more difficult for the 4th O2
to bind.

What is the significance /importance of the It only requires a small decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen
steep section of the curve in respiring tissues? to cause a relatively large amount oxygen to dissociate from the
haemoglobin, making it available to respiring tissues.

How does Carbon dioxide concentration affect At high CO2 concentrations, oxygen will dissociate more readily
the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin? from haemoglobin, shifting the dissociation curve to the right.

Why do different types of haemoglobin found Haemoglobins found in different species have slightly different
in different organisms vary in their ability to amino acid sequences and therefore different tertiary and
transport oxygen? quaternary structures, affecting their shape and binding ability.

List the parts of the heart and blood vessels Vena cava – right atrium – right atrioventricular valve – right
that the blood passes through starting at the ventricle – pulmonary valve – pulmonary artery – (lungs) –
vena cava. pulmonary vein – left atrium – left atrioventricular valve – left

What’s the role of the coronary arteries?
What is a myocardial infarction?
How does the structure of an artery differ
from that of a vein?
What is the role of the muscular tissue and
elastic tissue in arterioles?
How is the structure and organisation of
capillaries related to their function?
What is tissue fluid formed from?
What causes the formation of tissue fluid?
What causes the return of tissue fluid to the
circulatory system?
Not all of the tissue fluid is returned to the
capillaries. What happens to the rest?
How does the blood flowing through the left
side of the heart differ from that in the right
side?
What happens during diastole?
What happens during atrial systole?
What happens during ventricular systole?
What is the formula for cardiac output?
(include units)
What is meant by the term ‘risk factor’?
ventricle – aortic valve – aorta – (body tissues)
To deliver oxygenated blood to the myocardium / heart muscle.
Heart attack – when an area of the heart muscle is deprived of
oxygen and therefore die. This is usually due to a blockage in a
coronary artery.
Arteries have very thick muscular walls containing both muscle
and elastic tissue, while in veins the walls are much thinner. Veins
contain valves whereas arteries do not.
Muscular tissue allows the arteriole to constrict or dilate, whilst
elastic tissue allows recoil back to it’s original shape.
Walls are only on cell thick to allow efficient diffusion of
substances into and out of the blood. Capillary beds are formed
from networks of many capillaries, providing a large surface area
for exchange.
Soluble substances from the blood plasma. Water, glucose, ions,
amino acids, dissolved oxygen.
Hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end of the capillary.
Hydrostatic pressure is lower than the surrounding pressure at
the venule end of the capillary due to the loss of fluid during the
formation of tissue fluid. The presence of plasma proteins in the
blood lowers the water potential so that fluid moves in from
surrounding tissues.
Excess tissue fluid is drained into the lymphatic system, and
eventually drained into the circulatory system.
Left- oxygenated
Right - deoxygenated
The heart muscles are relaxed. Blood flows into the atria
increasing the pressure which causes the atrioventricular valves
to open so that blood flows into the ventricles. Aortic and
pulmonary valves are shut because the pressure in the ventricles
falls below that in the arteries.
Atrial walls contract, increasing the pressure in the atria and
forcing blood into the ventricles.
Ventricular walls contract from the apex upwards, increasing the
pressure in the ventricles and causing the atrioventricular valves
to close. Blood is forced upwards and the pressure causes the
aortic and pulmonary valves to open allowing blood to flow into
the arteries.
Caridac Output = stroke volume x heart rate
(cm3 min-1) (cm3) (bpm)
Risk factors increase the probability of getting a particular disease
What are the risk factors for cardiovascular
● High blood pressure
disease?
● High blood cholesterol

● Smoking

● Obesity

● Lack of exercise

What is meant by the term ‘correlation’? A correlation occurs when a change in one of two variables is
reflected by a change in the other variable.

What is required in order to determine a Evidence that a correlation is not simply due to a coincidence.
causal factor?

What is the role of xylem vessels? To transport water and dissolved ions from the roots to the
leaves.

Describe the structure of xylem. Xylem vessels are very long, tube-like structures formed from
dead cells joined end to end with no end walls. The walls are
strengthened by a substance called lignin.

What is transpiration? The loss of water vapour from the leaves/aerial parts of the plant
by evaporation.

How does is water moved across the cells of a

● Water evaporates from the cell walls of mesophyll cells into
leaf?
the air spaces lowering the water potential inside these cells
● Water moves into these cells by osmosis from neighbouring
cells, which in turn lowers their water potential.
● This sets up a water potential gradient across the leaf which
pulls water from the xylem within the leaf.

How does the cohesion-tension theory explain The loss of water from the top of the xylem in the leaf causes
the movement of water through the xylem? tension (negative pressure), drawing water upwards. Water
molecules form hydrogen bonds between (cohesion) them
causing them to move through the vessels as a column.

Why might the diameter of a tree trunk be The rate of transpiration is higher during the day which generates
smaller in the day than at night? more tension (negative pressure) in the xylem, pulling the walls
of the xylem vessels inwards.

If a xylem vessel is broken and air enters, The continuous column of water is broken.
water will no longer be drawn upwards. Why?

What’s the role of the phloem tissue? To transport dissolved organic substances such as sucrose around
the plant.

What does the mass flow hypothesis suggest

● Loading of the phloem at the source increases
about how solutes are moved from the source
to the sink during translocation? hydrostatic pressure
● Unloading at the sink decreases hydrostatic pressure

● Solutes more down the pressure gradient from source to

 sink

What causes a bulge to form above a ring of A build-up of sugars causes a decrease in water potential which
removed bark in a woody stem? subsequently causes water to move into the cells to cause a
bulge.

How could radioactive tracers be used to Radioactive CO2 (containing 14C) supplied to the plant will be used
support the mass flow hypothesis in phloem? during photosynthesis to make organic molecules which can then
be tracked as it moves through the plant.

What evidence is there against the mass flow The sieve plates would create a barrier to mass flow. A lot of
hypothesis in phloem? pressure would be required for the solutes to get through at a
reasonable rate.
Key Recall – Topic 4a DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis

How does the organisation of DNA differ in

Eukaryotic cells from that in Prokaryotic cells? Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells

Long. Short

Linear. Form circular strands.

DNA is wound round Not associated with histone

histones to form therefore does not form
chromosomes. chromosomes.

Stored in the nucleus. No nucleus.

DNA found in mitochondria and chloroplast is Prokaryotic.

similar to which type of DNA?

Define the word ‘gene’. A sequence of DNA bases that codes for a particular sequence of
amino acids, resulting in the production of a polypeptide chain.

What’s an allele? Is one of a number of alternative forms (versions) of a gene.

What is meant by the cells genome? An organism’s complete DNA sequence mapped out - clearly
showing where all the genes are found on individual
chromosomes.

What’s the difference between the cellular Cellular proteome - all the proteins produced in a particular cell.
proteome and the complete proteome?
Complete proteome – all the proteins produced in an organism.

What’s the name and function of a group of 3
DNA bases?
Complete the statement:
The DNA code is universal because…..
Complete the statement:
The DNA code is non-overlapping because…..
Triplet code – it codes for a particular amino acid.
The same triplet of bases codes for the same amino acid in all living
organisms.
The bases in one triplet are not shared by the previous or
consecutive triplet of bases.

Complete the statement: There is more than one combination of triple bases that can code
for a particular amino acid.
The DNA code is degenerate because…..

Can you name the 2 types of non-coding DNA 1. Introns – which are found within genes.
and state where they are found?
2. Multiple repeats - also known as variable number tandem
repeats VNTR’s) – which are found between genes.

Compare the structure of DNA and mRNA.

DNA RNA

● Double stranded ● Single stranded

● Deoxyribose sugar present
in backbone.
● Contains bases; C,G,T,A
● Mainly found in the
nucleus.
● Ribose sugar present in backbone.
● Contains bases; C,G,U,A
● Exists in 3 forms; mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA.
● Made in the nucleus but found in
the throughout the cell.
How does the structure of tRNA differ from that
of mRNA?
Summarise what happens during transcription?
What happens during ‘splicing’ in eukaryotic
and prokaryotic cells?
Summarise what happens during translation?
Why is ATP required during the process of
translation?
mRNA tRNA
● Single stranded – linear ● Single stranded – folded into a clover
structure. shape via hydrogen bonds.
● Transcribed from DNA ● Carries a triplet of bases called the
(each triplet of bases is ‘anticodon’
called a ‘codon’). ● Carries an ‘amino acid’ specific to
● Less stable than tRNA. the anticodon.
● More stable than mRNA
1. DNA strands separate at a specific region - one acts as a
template.
2. RNA polymerase joins free RNA nucleotides together in a
complementary manner to that of the template.*
3. A single strand of pre-mRNA is formed (a copy of the gene). The
DNA strands re-join.
4. The pre-mRNA is then spliced to form the mRNA which
leaves via the nuclear pores. Every triplet of bases is referred to
as a codon.
5.In the cell the mRNA binds with a ribosome ready for the next
stage.
*no Thymine (T) in RNA – this is replaced with Uracil (U).
Eukaryotic cells: Pre-mRNA contains non-coding sections called
introns - these are cut out to leave only exons (the coding sections)
to form mRNA.
Prokaryotic cells: the mRNA contains no intron so there is no need
for splicing.
During translation, the series of codons in the mRNA are converted
to a sequence of amino acids – known as a polypeptide.
This process takes place in ribosomes and involves; mRNA, tRNA
and amino acids.
It provides the energy for the peptide bonds to form between the
amino acids as they assembly at the ribosome.
Key Recall – Topic 4b Diversity and Selection

Complete the statement: …a full set of chromosomes, in humans this is 46 chromosomes.

Each parent provides half of the chromosomes.
A diploid cell contains...

Complete the statement: …only half the number of chromosomes, for example the
gametes in humans contain 23 chromosomes.
A haploid cell contains…

How is a diploid cell produced at fertilisation? The fusion of two haploid gametes produces a diploid cell called a
zygote.

Define the term ‘meiosis’. A cell division that involves a diploid cell forming four haploid
cells known as gametes which are all genetically different.

What are the 2 main ways in which meiosis

contributes to genetic variation? Name of process What happens
Crossing over Homologous chromosomes exchange
equivalent sections of chromatid
(meiosis 1)
between one another. This produces
1 recombinant chromosomes.

Independent Arrangement of homologous pairs of

segregation chromosomes is random, and each
arrangement will result in a different
(meiosis 1)
2 combination of chromosomes in the
gamete cells.

How does fertilisation contribute to increasing Every gamete is already genetically different from one another –
genetic diversity? and during fertilisation which of these gametes fuse together is a
random process, further increasing genetic variation.

Summarise the main differences between mitosis

and meiosis. Mitosis Meiosis
Involves one division Involves two divisions

Produces x2 diploid cells Produces x4 haploid cells

The cells produced are All the cells produced are

genetically identical. (No genetically different. (Genetic
genetic variation). variation).

Basis of asexual reproduction Basis of sexual reproduction

What’s a gene mutation? A type of mutation that involves a change in the DNA base
sequence within a gene.

During which process are gene mutations more DNA replication

likely to be produced?

State the main types of mutation that occur at Substitution of bases

the gene level.
Deletion of bases

Addition of bases

Duplication of bases

Explain why some substitution mutations within a
gene cause no change to the polypeptide
consequently coded for.
Give two examples of mutagenic agents.
Mutations related to the incorrect number of
chromosomes in a cell - result from which
process?
Complete the statement;
The benefit of a random mutation is…
Define the term ‘genetic diversity’
Outline the process of ‘natural selection’.
What’s an adaptation?
What are the main types of adaptation and an
example of each?
Define the term ‘selection’
Explain what ‘directional selection’ is with an
example.
Inversion of bases
Since the DNA code is degenerate a change in one base within a
triplet can still code for the same amino acid therefore cases no
change to the amino acid sequence.
High energy radiation - such as x-rays.
Chemicals - such as Nitrogen Dioxide
Non-disjunction during meiosis.
It can result in a new allele that has a positive/beneficial impact
on the organism.
This is the total number of different alleles of genes in a
population.
1. Variation occurs in organisms of the same species - due to
mutations causing formation of new alleles.
2. Those organisms with an advantageous allele will be better
adapted to their habitat so will survive to breed and pass on
the characteristics to its offspring.
3. Over time this will increase the allele frequency of organisms
with the advantageous allele.
A feature/characteristic that allows an organism to survive in the
environment it lives in.
Type of adaptation Example
Organisms that live in colder habitats
Anatomical - a
have thicker fur than those living in
physical feature
warmer habitats.
Physiological - a Fat can be oxidised to produce
biochemical water in kangaroo’s to help them
reaction or process. survive in very dry habitat.
Behavioural - Migration of birds form one country
inherited or learnt to another to avoid food shortages.
The process by which organisms that are better adapted to their
environment survive and breed. Those less well adapted fail to
do so.
A change in the environment occurs which favours an extreme
phenotype – which is batter adapted to that particular
environment. This causes a shift from the mean.
This can be seen in antibiotic-resistance bacteria.
Explain what ‘stabilising selection’ is with an There is no change in the environment which favour the
example. preserved phenotypes, which are the individuals found closest to
the mean. This can be seen with the birth weight of babies -
those with an average weight are favoured.
Key Recall – Topic 4c Diversity and Classification

Complete the statement: …the study of the evolutionary relationship between

organisms.
Phylogeny is…

What is meant by ‘hierarchy’ in the context of Organism are classified into smaller groups then placed into
classification? larger groups without overlapping. Each group is called a
taxon.

Name the highest taxonomic group. A domain.

What are the eight levels of groups used to 1. Domain

classify organisms? 2. Kingdom
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order
6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species

Define the term ‘species’ Individuals of the same species can breed to produce fertile
offspring.

What is the binomial naming system and why is This is an international system that identifies all organisms
it important? with two names – the genus (generic) name and species
(specific) name.
Give an example.
For example the binomial name for humans is; Homo sapiens

What is the main purpose of courtship To recognise and attract a mate from the same species to
behaviour? ensure successful breeding.

How does courtship behaviour help in classifying The behaviour of individuals of the same species is far more
organisms? similar compared to that of individuals of a different species.
This is because behaviour is genetically determined and
therefore can be used to aid classification.

Give 2 examples of the types of behaviours 1. Visual displays – dance sequence/coloured feathers
displayed in animals during courtship to attract a 2. Auditory displays – particular patterns of sounds
mate?

Advances in which two areas has helped to clarify 1. Genome sequencing

evolutionary relationships between organisms? 2. Immunology

Which techniques are used to investigate genetic - Observable characteristics

diversity? - DNA bases sequence
- Base sequence on mRNA
- Amino acid sequences in proteins

Define ‘Biodiversity’. This is the number and variety of all living organisms within a
particular area.

Define ‘species richness’ This is the number of different species found within a
particular area/habitat at a given time. (Community).
Complete the statement: …the relationship between the number of species in a
community and the number of individuals in each species.
Index of diversity describes…

Write out the equation that is used to calculate

index of diversity. d= Index diversity

N= Total number of organisms of all species

n= Total number of organisms of each species

∑= The sum of

What do we mean by the term standard Standard deviation is the measure of how close/different
deviation and what does it tell us? values (data) are to the mean.

Give some examples of how farming can cause a - Selecting only particular species – monoculture.
reduction in biodiversity. - Use of pesticides/herbicides to exclude certain species.
- Woodland and hedgerow clearance.

Give some examples of measures being taken to - Maintaining existing hedgerows.

ensure there is a balance between farming and - Leave wet areas of fields - don’t dry them out.
conservation to maintain biodiversity. - Reduce the use of pesticides - use biological controls or
GM crops.
- Use organic fertilisers

State an advantage and a disadvantage of

random sampling. Advantages Disadvantages

Avoids bias Sample may not be

representative