American Academy of Religion

Training Religious Specialists for a Transnational Hinduism: A Swaminarayan Sadhu Training

Center
Author(s): Raymond Brady Williams
Source: Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Winter, 1998), pp. 841-
862
Published by: Oxford University Press
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 Journal of the AmericanAcademyof Religion66/4

RAR

Training Religious Specialists

for a Transnational Hinduism:
A Swaminarayan Sadhu
Training Center
RaymondBradyWilliams

THE NEWMARBLE AND sandstoneBochasanwasi AksharPurushot-

tam Swaminarayan HinduTempleandthe attachedCulturalCenterdis-
playingtraditionalformsof architectureand sculpturethat openedin
August1995in northLondon,U.K.,withseatingfor4,000peoplearetes-
timoniesto therecentlargeincreasein numbers,wealth,andinfluenceof
thisbranchof Swaminarayan Hinduism.Officialvisitsby royaltyandby
politiciansfromboth Britainand Indiademonstratethe importanceof
Indiansresidingoutsideof Indiaand of this branchof Hinduism.The
assignmentof a highly-skilled teamof sadhusto staffthenewtempleand
its programsdemonstrates a remarkable successin attracting andtraining
a largenumberof youngmento followa longperiodof trainingandthe
strictdisciplinerequiredof these religiousspecialists.In a time when
manyreligiousgroupsencounterincreasingdifficultyin attracting mento
careersas religiousspecialistsandto strictdisciplinesof celibacy,Swami-
narayanHinduismis experiencinga resurgence.This articletracesthe
growthin the numberof youngmen "renouncing the world"to takeup

RaymondBradyWilliamsis LaFolletteDistinguishedProfessorin the Humanitiesand Directorof the

Wabash Center for Teaching and Learning in Theology and Religion at Wabash College, Craw-
fordsville,IN 47933-0352.

841

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842 Journal of the AmericanAcademyof Religion

lives as sadhu religiousspecialistsduring the second half of the twentieth

century and describesthe programof a formal SwaminanarayanSadhu
TrainingSchool-the SadhakAshram at Sarangpurin Gujarat,India-
that was establishedin 1981.

GROWTH OF SWAMINARAYANHINDUISM
SwaminarayanHinduism is one of the fastest-growing,regional-lin-
guistic based Hindu sects both in India and abroad in Englandand the
United States.It claims over one million followersin 3000 centersworld-
wide and more than 40,000 followersin the United Statesin 72 centersand
nine temples. The new prosperity of the group in both personnel and
money was demonstratedby largeculturaland religiousfestivalsin India
in 1981and 1992,in London in 1985,and in Edison, New Jersey,in 1991,
which togetherattractedmillions of visitors.Oldersadhusfrequentlycon-
trast the privation and physical difficulties they faced as recently as the
1960s, when the number of followerswas small and the resourcesof the
AksharPurushottamsect were meager,to currentnumericalstrengthand
financialwell-being of the institution. The dedication in 1992 of an im-
posing religiousand culturalcenter,combiningancientand modernarchi-
tecture,in Gandhinagar,the capitalof Gujarat,that attractsseveralthou-
sand visitors each month, was a statement of the strength of the sect in
Gujarat.
Sadhusof the BochasanwasiAksharPurushottamSanstharepresent
a type of ascetic affiliatedwith modern bhakti (devotional) movements,
whose activities contribute both to the growth and development of the
religious institution and to the salvationof its members.Evenwhile they
traveland workin the cities andvillagesof Gujarator in foreigncountries,
they are surroundedby members,supportedby the ethos of the sect, and
protected by their special vows. They are intimately associatedwith the
dailyaffairsof the institution and their followers,but they are set apartby
their distinctive dress and by their lives disciplined under strict vows.
A sadhu ended a conversationabout his discipline with this comment:
"Wefighta spiritualbattlebehindwallscreatedby the vows we havetaken,
but the householder must fight the same battle from a more exposed
position."'
Expansionof the sadhucorps and institutionalgrowth are symbiotic.
The practiceof initiatinglargecohort groups of sadhusfor this sect began

1 Personalconversationwith AtmaswarupdasSwamiin Amdavad,March20, 1980.

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 Williams:
Training fora Transnational
Specialists
Religious Hinduism 843

in 1961when 51 men wereselectedfor initiation(diksha).In 1981at a

huge festivalin Amdavadmarkingthe bicentenaryof the birth of the
founder,Sahajanand Swami(1781-1830)-whowas also giventhe title,
Swaminarayan, fromwhichthis branchof Hinduismtakesits name-
207 youngmen fromIndia,EastAfrica,England,andthe UnitedStates
wereinitiatedin a singleceremony. Annualinitiationson thebirthdayof
theleaderof thesecthavebeenestablished asthecustom.Initiatesinclude
youthsstraightfromvillageschoolsin Gujarat andthosefromuniversities
in Indiaandabroad.Althougha sadhudoesnot speakabouthis "previous
life,"householdersproudlytalkaboutthe educationaland professional
accomplishments of the initiates-a doctor,a civilengineer,a computer
specialist,a Ph.D.physicist,andOxfordstudent.In 1995renunciatesin
this sect numbered538 (including40 in the probationarystage),and
amongthese,148reachedcollegelevel,114completedsomecollege,and
16werein graduatestudypriorto initiation.(SeeTableI.) On the night
beforeinitiationeachyoungman takesleaveof his parents,his posses-
sions,his prospects,andhis ego in preparation for a life of renunciation
andservice.He entersa periodof trainingthatincorporateshim into a
corpsof sadhus,andin the processhe andhis cohortstransformthe role
andexpectations of thattraditionaloffice.
Leadersindicatethat 1976marksa watershedfor the sect, because
priorto thattime theyhad only enoughcompetentsadhusto servethe
existingtemplesandto maintainminimalprograms.Afterthattimethe
largernumberof sadhuspermittedmorefrequentvisitsto the villages,
extensivetoursto visitfollowersabroad,buildingandstaffingof newtem-
ples,anddevelopment of extensiveyouthprograms. Theseinitiativesgen-
eratedan increasein the numberof young men seekingtrainingand
initiation.Moreover, theperceivedsuccessof theinstitutionandthevisi-
bilityof sadhusled previously skepticalfamiliesto bewillingto permitand
evenencouragetheirsonsto seekinitiation.By1993thenumberof sadhus
and those in trainingincludedseventy-nineyoungmen from Gujarati
familiesin countriesotherthanIndia(twenty-sixfromEastAfrica,forty-
two fromBritain,nine fromthe UnitedStates,one from Canada,and
one fromSouthAfrica).Theseprovidedthe foundationfor an extensive
andintentionaloutreachprogramamongHindusin theWest,especially
amongGujarati Hindus.Onecantheorizethattheremarkable subsequent
growth was precipitated by the initiationof the group of the fifty-one
educatedyoungmenin 1961,manyof whomarenowleadingsadhus,and
by the union in 1971of spiritualand administrative leadershipin Na-
rayanswarupdas Swami (1921- ), by whom all the initiates claimto be
inspired.

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844 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

THE CAREER OF NARAYANSWARUPDASSWAMI

AND TRADITIONAL TRAINING FOR SADHUS
Narayanswarupdas Swamiis the spiritualand administrativeleaderof
the BochasanwasiShriAksharPurushottamSanstha,and his careerhigh-
lights dynamicsof rapid change in SwaminarayanHinduism and among
its sadhus during this century.When he left the fourth standardof pri-
mary education in the village school of Chansadnear Barodato join the
sadhus,no formalprogramof trainingexisted.His trainingwas in the tra-
ditional style. He traveledwith the sadhusfor a few daysof probationand
aftera few months of apprenticeshipwas initiatedas a sadhuby Yagnapu-
rushdas Swami, called "ShastriMaharaj,"who was the organizerof this
subsect of SwaminarayanHinduism. ShastriMaharajestablishedthe new
Swaminarayangroup-the BochasanwasiAksharPurushottamSanstha-
and its reformethos by leavingthe Swaminarayantemple at Vadtalin Gu-
jaratin 1906 in the companyof six close sadhu disciplesto protestfailure
of local sadhus to follow strict vows.2Shastri Maharajbegan to attract
followersand sadhus,among whom NarayanswarupSwamiturned out to
be the most important.By the time of ShastriMarahaj'sdeathin 1951,the
number of his disciple sadhus had grown to about fifty. His method for
trainingof sadhusmerelyinvolvedthe traditionalmeansof livingwith the
guru and touringvillageswith other sadhus.
Even without formal training, NarayanswarupdasSwami quickly
assumed many responsibilities,becoming kothari (manager) of the Sa-
rangpur temple, Shastri Maharaj'ssecretary,and then president of the
sect-hence his nickname,"PramukhSwami,"meaning"PresidentSwami."
Nevertheless,another sadhu, Jnanjivandas,called "YogijiMaharaj,"be-
came guru and spiritual leader following the death of ShastriMaharaj,
and duringhis tenurePramukhSwamicontinuedas president.One sadhu
characterizedthe amicableworking relationship:"PramukhSwami was
the head; YogijiMaharajwas the heart."With engaging personality and
manner,the memory of which still elicits smiles from older sadhus,Yogiji
Maharajenjoyedgreatsuccessin attractingyoung men to become sadhus.
He encouragedschool boys and college studentsto travelwith him in the
villages during their holidays,during which he encouragedthem to "live
like sadhus"-to avoid contact with women, eat from a bowl, take cold
baths, sleep on the floor, and engagein acts of service.Currentlay leaders
also rememberthese tours with pleasure,and their close relation to the
sadhus results from those experiences.YogijiMaharajtook the initiative

2 Fora detailedstudy of the historyand

theology of SwaminarayanHinduism,see Williams1988.

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 Williams:
Training
Religious fora Transnational
Specialists Hinduism 845

in encouragingboth parentsand young men to replenishthe corps of sa-

dhus. "Won'tyou become a sadhu?"he often asked the boys. He also
expandedcontactswith Gujaratisin EastAfrica,visited the smallgroup in
London in 1970 during the migration of refugees from east Africa, and
sent four sadhus to the United States to organize the new immigrants.
These initiativesprovided the first fruits of a new transnationalform of
Hinduism.
Still, no formal trainingprogramfor sadhuswas in place. One of the
initiates describedthe difficult living conditions of that period. All lived
for a time in threerooms in the Dadarsection of Bombaywhen therewere
few disciples, little material support, much opposition and harassment
from neighbors, and considerableprivation and hard work. The sadhus
say that YogijiMaharajwas the training program;their travelswith him
were a "mobile training school." He took them on tours and wrote to
them eachweekwhen they wereseparated.In spite of greatdifficulties,the
group of sadhusexpandedto approximately150duringhis leadership.
FollowingYogijiMaharaj'sdeathin 1971the spiritualand administra-
tive leadershipwere combinedin PramukhSwami,who has presidedover
a remarkableresurgenceof the sect and expansionof the corps of sadhus.
Through the 1970s the traditionalpattern had continued; new initiates
regularlytraveled with Pramukh Swami and listened to his discourses
and conversationsin a kind of "holy apprenticeship."But administrative
demands and hectic travel made it increasingly difficult for Pramukh
Swamito train the initiates personally.Alreadyby 1980 the numbershad
grown so large as to strainthis method of training, and PramukhSwami
anticipated more than 200 new initiates in 1981 on the bicentenary of
the birth of Swaminarayan.PramukhSwami explained:"I cannot take a
coach-load of sadhuswith me as I travelthrough the villages. The villag-
ers could not cope with largenumbers.""Moreover," he said, "becausethe
movementhas grown so rapidlyand there is a greatdemandfor sadhusto
go into the villagesto teach the people, it is necessarythat sadhusbe given
complete training quickly."3' The growth in numbers caused a structural
change from the traditional guru-sishya (teacher-disciple)relation to a
modern form of training.
Other social and cultural developments in the same period fostered
a different type of training. Economic and educational development in
Gujaratproduceda comfortable,educatedurban middle class that exists
alongsidevillageagriculturalistsand laborerswho sufferthroughperiodic

3 Personalconversationwith PramukhSwami on August 14, 1990, in the SwaminarayanHindu

Templein London,U.K.

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846 Journal of the AmericanAcademyof Religion

droughts and from financial hardships. The government program of

universalprimaryeducation and the increasingavailabilityof university
education createboth a generationalgap and a culturalgap between the
villagesand the urbanareas.Prospectivesadhuscome from both, includ-
ing urban areasoutside of India, so that, in spite of the fact that all the
prospectivesadhus are ethnically Gujarati,they do not share a common
background.A formalprogramof trainingis necessarybefore the sadhus
can be "universal,"that is, able to relateto the uneducatedfarmerin the
villageand to a cosmopolitanurbanite.
A media revolution is in progressin Gujaratthat opens windows on
the world to those in urbanareasand increasinglyalso to those in villages.
Television,satellite television transmission outside of government con-
trol, computer technology, and rapid personal communication by tele-
phone and facsimile all change the modes of transmission of religious
tradition and at the same time transformthe context for that transmis-
sion. Changesin technologyand means of communicationdictatemodi-
ficationsin the modes of religiousleadershipand in the trainingnecessary
for new sadhus.
Migration by Gujaratis to the West and the internationalization
of modern Hinduism develop apace. SwaminarayanHindus migrated
early in this century to east Africa and organized meetings in Mombasa
in 1932. The Bochasanwasigroup became a separategroup in 1952,and
YogijiMaharajconsecratedthe first temple during his first tour of east
Africa in 1955. East Africa was the birthplaceof severalleading sadhus,
including some of those initiated in 1961.When YogijiMaharajvisited
London for the first time in 1970,the Swaminarayangroup was nascent,
with one small convertedchurchin Islingtonand only three carsbelong-
ing to followerswith which to transportthe visiting sadhus.While visit-
ing London in 1970,YogijiMaharajsent four sadhus to tour the United
States,giving them the names of twenty-eight Swaminarayanfollowers,
mostly students. Now, there are several new temples in Britain and the
United States,and young men rearedand educatedin the Westareamong
the new candidatesfor initiation as sadhus.They travelto India,some for
the firsttime, to face a cultureshock of not being able to readGujaratior
speakit fluentlyand of not being "athome."One confessed that when he
arrivedin Indiahe did not understandmuch about Indianwaysor rituals.
Another said that he could not understanda word of the discourses by
an old respectedsadhu given in a Kathiawardialect. A formal period of
training is needed to bridge the cultural gap and to prepare sadhus to
servea culturallyand geographicallydiversegroup of Gujaratis.
Gujaratiethnicity is essential to personal and group identity in this
group, which adopts an ethnic strategyof adaptationin the face of inter-

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 Williams:TrainingReligiousSpecialistsfor a TransnationalHinduism 847

nationalization and modernization.4The sect is formed on a regional-

linguisticbasis,and virtuallyall followersare Gujaratis.Leadersstressthat
the movement representsthe best of Indian culture and Hindu religion
and that its messageis not limited to Gujaratis.To say that it is an ethnic
group in Gujaratis both obvious and potentially misleading;at least it
is not an ethnic group defined over against other groups, because the
language,rituals,cuisine, and ethos areself-evident.Nevertheless,Swami-
narayan Hinduism does function even in Gujarat to affirm Gujarati
identity and to endow it with a sacredpower.Moreover,the group is one
agent in defining how Gujaratiethnic identity is shaped in the processof
modernization and transnationalmigration. In these contexts Gujarati
is a family and sacredlanguage,and the temple is the majorpublic venue
for Gujaratidress, music, dance, cuisine, symbols, and language.Sadhus
are the spiritualand physicallinks between residenceand home, between
past and present, and between the generations. Young men raised in
the Westare aliens in Gujarat,and those raisedin the villagesof India are
far removedfrom the experiencesof those living in Englandor the United
States. Maintaining unity in the midst of such diversity created in the
process of urbanization and internationalization requires creation of
unity within the corps of sadhusand attentionin theirtrainingto the new
transnationalrealityof the sect. A trainingprogramfor sadhusmust pre-
parethe sadhusto be religiousspecialistsin many contexts.

SADHAK ASHRAM: THE SADHU TRAINING PROGRAM

The SadhuTrainingProgramis located in Sarangpur,a small village
of 2000 inhabitants in Saurashtrathat houses two large Swaminarayan
complexes and a shrine to ShastriMaharaj.Upwardsof 100,000people
visit the temple and shrine for majorfestivals,but generallySarangpuris
an isolated quiet village, a site conducive to study and training. In 1997
SadhakAshramhoused 232 men: 108had alreadyreceivedthe second ini-
tiation as sadhusand wore the distinctivesaffronclothing,52 had received
the first initiation as parshadsand wore white clothing, and 72 are in the
firstprobationarystageas sadhaks.Fourteenof the sadhusareresponsible
for trainingthe others.
PramukhSwamiregularlyinvitesyoung men into trainingto become
sadhus. Such advice is part of his regularcounseling activitybecause he
serves as a careeradvisor to many of the young men, either in personal

4 For a discussion of strategiesof adaptationsee Williams 1992. In addition to the ethnic strategy,
this sect of SwaminarayanHinduism also emphasizesa hierarchialstrategybased on loyaltyto a hier-
archyof gurus.

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848 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

interviewsor throughcorrespondence,advisingsome to go into business,

others to become doctors, othersto enter college, and some to be sadhus.5
No requirement is made that all those entering training be learned,
though householdersbrag about those who renounce universityor pro-
fessions.Recentregulationsrequirethat they be at least eighteenyearsold,
so they most havecompletedtheirbasic education.Lengthof the training
at Sarangpurdependsupon the individual'sability,the needs of the insti-
tution, and Pramukh Swami'sjudgment, but the expectation is that it
takes from four to five years.A probationarysadhakstage of six months
to a yearis necessaryto test the commitment of enteringstudents,during
which time the student moves into the ashram residence, has his head
shaved,wearswhite dhoti and shirt as a uniform, and eats out of a bowl.
Some had alreadylived restrainedlives in their homes or at their local
temples,but now they come to live with the sadhus.At this stagethey still
have freedom to meet with relatives,even females, and to go home to
attendmarriagesand festivals.
SadhakStage.Sadhaksare instructed to concentrate on the regular
discoursesand on service (seva) in the temple. The regulartemple sched-
ule calls for five formal acts of worship during the day when the priests
wave lamps before the images of the deities (arti), each session followed
by a discourse. (See TableII for the daily schedule.) They join together
in the first arti at 5:30 a.m. At Sarangpurthe discourses constitute
one part of the training program, especially the morning discourse on
the Vachanamritam,a central Swaminarayantext. (Until his death in
1993,the respectedsadhuin chargeof the Sarangpurtemple, called"Sant
Swami,"gavethe firstlectureeverymorning. His presencewas one of the
reasons for selecting Sarangpuras the site for the SadhakAshram.) Sa-
dhaksundertakea series of bi-weeklyexaminationson materialfrom the
lectureson the Vachanamritam. They begin to learnthe bhajans(hymns)
of the sect and practicesinging.A second importantlectureis on the basic
content of major Hindu texts-Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavata
Purana, Upanishads--andin an evening tutorialthe students discuss the
day'slectures.Also in the eveningin small group meetings,called "Bhakti
Vihar,"they discuss with a teaching sadhu both the lifestyle of sadhus
describedin the Sikshapatri,which contains a set of rules and guidelines
for sadhusgivenby Swaminarayan,and the difficultiesthey face in attain-
ing a truly spirituallife. They also prepareto take a series of four exami-
nations on aspects of SwaminarayanHinduism that are given annually
to householdersthroughout the sect. These are given each month at Sa-
rangpur,and each student must pass all four sometime during training

5 Fora discussionof PramukhSwami'srole as a pastoralcounselor,see Williams 1986.

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 Williams:TrainingReligiousSpecialistsfor a TransnationalHinduism 849

at Sarangpur.Those from abroadstudy Gujarati,as do the few from India

who do not readGujarati.
Service (seva) is a major part of a sadhu'slife, so sadhaks begin a
fifteen-day rotation of jobs-making garlands,cleaning the kitchen and
dishes, cleaning toilets and baths, and other tasks in the temple. One
month is devoted to learning how to cook, and at the end of the month
the student is able to cook all three meals,offerfood to the deity,and pro-
vide sacredfood (prasad)to devotees.Both the scheduleof study and the
physicalwork are demanding. One older sadhu commented that earlier
the institution was poor and the lives of sadhus very difficult, but now
there is considerablewealth and prestige, so some young men think the
life of a sadhuis easy,"just preachingand eating.""Therefore," he said, "it
is important during the probationary stage that they understand the
nature of a sadhu'slife." A young man in training quoted a common
proverb,"Anidle mind and hands are the devil'sworkshop."
The basis of this disciplinein serviceis devotion to the deity (bhakti),
and the goal is service to PramukhSwami through the work of the sect.
When asked,"Whatis the most importantwork of a sadhu?"both sadhus
and householders regularlyanswer,"to propagatethe teachings of Lord
Swaminarayan,""to contributeto the work of the sampradaya,""to lead
people to follow the religiouspath,"or "tolead people to salvation."Lead-
ers stressthat they are not a "goout and convertgroup,"but that a sadhu
must first internalizethe teachings of Swaminarayanin his own life and
then spreadthe teaching.It is assumed that personalsalvationis integral
to the pursuitof corporategoals.
Parshadand Sadhu Stages.It has been customary since 1992 to con-
duct initiationsin Decemberon PramukhSwami'sbirthday,but Pramukh
Swamidecideswho will receivediksha.Those approachingparshadstatus
are permittedto visit their parentsfor a few days prior to initiation, and
parents must give written permission for the young man to be initiated.
At the initiationitself the fathersare allowedon the stageto give a garland
to the son, and the mothers are given a front seat in the women'ssection.
In this Swaminarayansect no distinction exists regarding observance
of vows by parshadsand sadhus, so initiation as parshadbrings with it
all the obligations of the lifestyle of the sadhu, except the tasks of priests
(pujaris)in templesand of cooking for the sadhus.Fivevows takenat ini-
tiation are essentialto the disciplinedlife of the sadhusand set them apart
as religiousspecialists.
1) The vow of celibacyinvolvesthe prohibition of looking at women,
talking with them, correspondingwith them, or coming within fifteen
feet of any woman (except in crowdedgatherings).This social distanceis
difficultto observebecauseSwaminarayanparshadsand sadhusare active

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850 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

in the affairsof the satsang,travelregularlyin villages, walk in crowded

streets,and lectureand sing in gatheringswherewomen arepresent.They
are prohibitedfrom speakingdirectlyto women who sit to the side or in
the back, but the women "overhear"lectures and performancesby the
sadhus.Those in trainingstruggleto control internaldispositions and to
observe mental celibacy as well. Mental lapses or physical contact with
women resultin purificationritualsand fasts.
2) Youngmen sever all ties to family and previous social location at
initiation. On the evening before initiation, each meets parents and sib-
lings for the last time as a son and brother.Thereafter,he does not look at
or speak to his mother or sisters.He does not speakabout his past social
status or accomplishments,althoughothers often remarkon a promising
careeror educationalopportunity that has been renounced.As a sign of
this change of status, he receivesfrom PramukhSwami a new name as a
servantof god.
3) The third vow is to subdue the sense of taste and attachmentto
objects of the senses. The intake of food is as carefullyregulatedas their
contact with women, and the two prohibitionsare thought to be related.
Theyare strictvegetarians,as areall satsangis,and they eat only food fit to
be offered to god. Two types of food are bound by rules: a) that made
from milk, curd, coconut milk, or banana-tree sap is pure food and is
accepted from others and eaten from metal plates or bowls with other
people; b) that cooked in water,including rice, kicheri, dahl, and chap-
patis, is not taken from or eaten with others but must be eaten from a
wooden bowl after being mixed with water.They undertakemany fasts;
five each month are requiredfor parshadsand sadhus,and some students
regularlyfast seven times a month.
4) The fourth vow is holy poverty.They refrainfrom handlingmoney
or from possessing anything other than basic clothing, food bowls, and
necessitiesfor study and worship.They must get these necessitiesfrom the
kothari (manager) of the temple and not directly from householders.
Currentlythe institution is wealthy,and sadhus lack no necessities for
their life and study.When current students become heads of temples or
institutions of the sect, they will control considerablefinancialresources,
but they do not directly handle money. That responsibility rests with
householderswho donate their labor as serviceto the institution.
5) The most difficultvow, they say,is to overcomeego. They struggle
to deny the self in orderto be a servantof god and to obtain moksha.The
ascetic subordinates individuality in service to the institution, to Pra-
mukh Swami, and ultimatelyto God. Loss of ego is relatedto service to
the group, and thus part of each sadhu'snew name is "das,"which means
"servant."Tasksof seva in the trainingand afterwardare evidencethat the

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 Williams:
Training
Religious fora Transnational
Specialists Hinduism 851

asceticsubmitshis will and body to the directionof the guru. The renun-
ciation of ego is intimatelyconnectedwith obedienceto PramukhSwami.
Students say that they seek "stability;'by which they mean that their
thoughts and actions areundersuch control that they can respondimme-
diately to Pramukh Swami'sdirection. They say that the "simple life"
makes it possible for them to be free, but it takes four or five years for
them to attain an essential stability of life. Stability of life rather than
stagesin an academiccurriculummarkprogressin the trainingprogram.
They often make a distinction between exterior renunciation and the
much more difficult interior renunciation,and renouncing ego is essen-
tial to the latter.YogijiMaharajtold one sadhuthat if he would be diligent
about the outer renunciation, the guru would take care of the inner re-
nunciation; moreover, the inner renunciation would be accomplished
throughthe graceof God if the outwardrenunciationwas maintainedby
the sadhu.He also said, "Richpeople give largemonetarycontributionsto
the satsang,but you [a sadhu] give a far more valuablegift, yourself."
After parshadi diksha the young man faces three or four years of
training at Sarangpur.He dons the white clothing of a parshad for the
first period of some eighteen months, and then, when PramukhSwami
decides in consultation with the staff of the training center, he receives
full initiation as sadhu. At that time he changes into saffron dress. In
other Swaminarayansects some caste distinctions remain after diksha-
Brahmin sadhus dress differently and reside apart, and lower caste
parshadsnever "graduate"to become sadhus-but those distinctions are
removedin this subsect. The caste backgroundsof these sadhusand par-
shads include Brahmin(32), Patel (265), and ScheduledCastes(109), but
no distinction is made in training,outwardappearance,or assignment.
Parshadsand sadhus reside together in the ashram.The rest of their
lives are public; they live together and their personal affairs are open
books. They explain that Swaminarayanpublished in the Sikshapatri
details of the vows and daily duties of sadhus, with no esoteric teaching
about their renunciation,so all the satsangisknow exactlyhow sadhusare
supposed to act. The relation between the self-perceptionof the sadhus
and perceptionsof householdersregardingthem is complex.Theirrooms
are alwaysopen, so male householders can walk in to visit at any time.
Moreover,ShastriMaharajforbadehis sadhusfrom havingprivaterooms
or apartments,so they all sleep and study together. Discipline requires
that sadhus travelin pairs, so they are never to venture from the temple
alone. Preparationfor this style of life is the design of the training pro-
gram at Sarangpur.
AcademicStudy.Trainingfor parshadsand sadhus continues in three
areas: academic study, practical experience in various forms of seva

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852 Journal of the AmericanAcademyof Religion

(service), and spiritual development. Daily lectures on the Vachanamri-

tam continue; the bi-weekly examinations are given at three levels of
increasingdifficulty for sadhaks,parshads,and sadhus. Each month the
studenthas an oralexaminationwith a teachingsadhu.Studentscomplete
the set of four satsang examinations. English-speakingstudents from
abroadare kept togetherin a group for speciallecturesand examinations
in English.Until January1986the English-speakingstudentsweretrained
in the temple at Amdavad,but then the programswere mergedin Sarang-
pur. Still, the English-speakingstudents are kept as a group because they
must enterGujaraticlasses,becausethey havemore difficultylearningthe
bhajans(hymns) and Sanskrit,becausetheir learningstyles are shapedby
westerneducation,and becausethey arepreparingto leadyouth activities
abroadafter they complete their training. (See TableIII for a chart of the
curriculum.)
The goal for all is to gain a detailedknowledgeof their religion. They
undertakeadvanced study of basic Hindu philosophy in the Bhagavad
Gita and the Upanisads,and compare that with aspects of western phi-
losophy.They also study basic texts of SwaminarayanHinduism in addi-
tion to the Vachanamritam,including Satsangijivanam,Sikshapatri,and
Swaminivato.In 1990 a group of English-speakingsadhusparticipatedin
a special Vedic study program at Somaiya BharatiyaSanskritPeeth in
Bombaythat was compressedinto three months and was providedexclu-
sively for the Swaminarayansadhus so they could study without women
present.
Instruction in Sanskritbegins after eighteen months in a curricu-
lum of sevenbooks speciallypreparedfor the studentsby the teachingsa-
dhus at Sarangpur.English-speakingstudents complete five books, while
the rest do all seven.All learnbasic Sanskritso they can recite and under-
standbasic slokas (verses)from the Vedasand performthe mahapuja(the
acts of worship in the temples). A few continue in an advancedSanskrit
coursethroughouttheirperiod at Sarangpurandbeyond,but the English-
speakers enter an advanced philosophy course instead. Some under-
take additionallanguagetrainingin English, Gujarati,and Hindi. Those
students with skills in other languages, such as French or German, are
encouragedto enhance those skills. A brief survey of world religions in
1992-93 involved each student in four months of researchabout a major
tradition and then presentation of that religion to other students for a
week. One resultwas a short studybook on world religionscurrentlyused
to teachnew groupsof students.
Publicspeakingis a majoractivityof sadhus,and it is a significantpart
of the trainingin both Gujaratiand English.Studentsresearcha topic and
everytwo weeks preparea formal speech that is written, presented,criti-

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 Williams:
Training fora Transnational
Specialists
Religious Hinduism 853

cized, and then preservedin the library.The ashramlibrary,called "the

GnanjivanGranthalaya," contains 8000 books (5000 in Gujarati;1700 in
English; others in Sanskritand Hindi), encyclopedias,and severaljournals,
including Readers Digestand Science.Theseprovidereferencematerialsfor
theirpreparationof speeches.Aftertwo yearseach studenthas a portfolio
of at least sixty speeches.
Parshadsand sadhus continue to learn the 120 bhajansused in ritu-
als and worship. Students recall walking around the temple compound
with slips of papertrying to memorizebhajans.Those who have aptitude
in music get advanced instruction, and some specialize in vocal or in-
strumentalmusic. Theyalso learnthe basic rituals.Afterreceivingthe sec-
ond initiation as sadhus they don the sacredthread and undertakework
usually reservedto Brahmins. They study for a month the work of the
templepriest(pujari)andlearnhow to cook food for the god and for other
sadhus.
Service.Studentssay that trainingis fifty percentacademic,fifty per-
cent service,and all is directedtowardspiritualdevelopment.One student
commented, "Discoursesdon't make a life, but offeringseva reallymolds
your life." Service includes both the regular assignments of service in
the temple-cleaning, library work, physical labor in the temple-and
specialtrainingin tasks common to the sadhus.EverySundayis a special
day of sevato cleanthe shrinesor work on the farm.On the one hand, sa-
dhus haveto learneveryactivity,as one said, "tobecome an all-arounder,"
becausethey maybe assignedto a temple or to travelto villageswhereonly
two sadhusmust do everything.Sadhuscook for themselvesand for large
festivals;they preparethe garlandsand perform all the rituals;and they
must present discourses.On the other hand, the temples and the institu-
tion need specialists,so specializedtrainingis given-in cooking,ritualsof
the pujari,music, public speaking,and physicalservice.The emphasison
cooking may seem eccentric,but the sect conducts huge festivalsduring
which sadhusoften cook for scores of thousandsof people. The diversity
of institutionalneeds and differencesin interestsand abilitiesof students
lead to some trackingduring the training period. Those who don't have
academicabilityor interestsare assignedto apprenticeshipsin some area
of service.Those who excel in organizingseva move to specialleadership
training. Some are assigned to temples after a couple of years and begin
service.Eachpersonis calledupon to undertakethe assignedtaskwithout
ego intruding,so both pride and jealousyare supposedto be absent.
Students leave Sarangpur occasionally for special temporary as-
signments. Sarangpuris called "a warehouse of saints,"so they go to
assist other temples during busy times such as Diwali, Annakuta, and
PramukhSwami'sbirthday.Shravanais a month of specialreligiousvows

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854 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

and activity,so they spend that month travelingin the villages.In 1977 all
the sadhusinstitutedthe practiceof going out to beg on one day in Janu-
ary, as a reminderthat their predecessorshad to beg for their food each
day. Students from Sarangpurparticipatein this practice,but not all go
begging in the area of Sarangpur.After initiation sadhus are assigned in
pairs to visit regularlytwelve villages. They also leave Sarangpurto pro-
vide relief during emergencies,such as during floods or recent droughts
when they join other sadhusin establishingcattle camps to help preserve
the livelihood of farmers.Such service is seen as part of the training for
the life of a sadhu.
SpiritualDevelopment.PramukhSwamiand the studentsindicatethat
externaltrainingpreparesthem for institutional leadership,whereasin-
ternal training leads them toward moksha. One student said, "The pri-
mary goal is salvationfor others and oneself;becoming a sadhu is only a
means to that end."Hence, specialattentionis given to the personalspiri-
tual developmentof each student. BhaktiVihareach eveningis a meeting
of ten studentswith one of the leadersto discuss progressin faith,follow-
ing the vows, and obedience to PramukhSwami.The teachersare in con-
stant contactwith the studentsand saythat "spiritualproblemsarealways
reflectedin the other work."The eight leadersmeet each week to evalu-
ate progress. They respond to perceived problems in the small group
meetings or in individualconversations.If intractableproblemsdevelop,
the student is sent to Pramukh Swami or one of the other senior sa-
dhus for counsel. Two of the senior sadhustravelto Sarangpurregularly
to meet with the students,give discourses,answerquestions,and dealwith
problems.
All refer to Pramukh Swami as inspiration for their training, and
he articulatesthe goals of spiritualgrowth: "thatthe sadhu develop faith
in god, that he develop love for the guru and the saints, and that he be-
come stable,observingthe rulesand regulationsto the full.""Studentssay,
"we are doing this to please Swamiji"and refer often to "when Swamiji
comes. .. ."PramukhSwamivisits Sarangpurtwo times eachyearwhen he
gives direct instruction and individualguidanceto the students. He has a
personal interview with each student who requests it; one sadhu men-
tioned two such interviews for "personalproblems"during his years at
Sarangpur.Sadhussaythat it is only with PramukhSwamithat they can be
perfectlyopen about their problems. PramukhSwamilisted some of the
difficultiesthat the studentsdiscusswith him: 1) they have difficultywith
the rules and regulations and with maintaining the proper discipline;

6 Personalconversationwith PramukhSwami on August 14, 1990, in the SwaminarayanHindu

Templein London,U.K.

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 Williams:TrainingReligiousSpecialistsfor a TransnationalHinduism 855

2) they speak about difficultiesthey face in their own spiritual develop-

ment and ask how they can overcomethose difficulties;3) they havediffi-
culties with some of the tasks they are assigned;4) there are problems of
communicationwith other sadhus.None in traininghas been disciplined
by expulsion.' A few, surprisinglyfew, have left the training program.
YogijiMaharajis regularlyquoted as saying, "If you plant 100 mango
trees,perhapsonly ten or fifteen will survive,but to plant mango treesis a
good thing."The retentionrecordis much betterthan that.
Almost everyyear PramukhSwamigathersall the sadhuswho can be
sparedfrom the temples to a "SaintShibir,"a conventionwhere only par-
shadsand sadhusarepresent.He discusseswith them activitiesof the sect
and the work and spiritualdevelopmentof the sadhus.It is seen as a spiri-
tual retreatand is importantfor the cohesion of the corps of sadhus.Each
initiation group and training group develops close bonds, so it is im-
portantthat they join with the entirebody of sadhusto get a sense of the
largerunity.Suchmeetings help createclose attachmentto their guru.
PramukhSwami'slife is seen to be exemplary,and students attempt
to emulate him. A secretarytravelingwith PramukhSwami records his
meetings, activities, conversations,and discourses and then prepares a
summarythat is sent to Sarangpur.An importantpart of the dailysched-
ule is an eveningmeeting at which a detailedreporton PramukhSwami's
activity and teaching is read and discussed. This daily contact with his
activities is a modern adaptationof the guru/sishyarelationship.These
dailyreportsare similarto the weeklyreportsof PramukhSwami'sactivi-
ties that are read in every temple and center in Gujaratand abroadeach
Sunday.Attention to PramukhSwami'sexample is thought to be signifi-
cant for spiritualdevelopmentfor both sadhusand householders.
One goal of the trainingprogramis to incorporatethe young man into
the corporatelife of the sadhusand to "stabilizehis life"so he will be able
to live in any circumstanceand servethe sect in any task assignedby Pra-
mukh Swami.Studentsdo not expectto "graduate,'becausethe processof
life-formation for sadhusand the goal of moksha is constant throughout
life. A significantstage is reached,however,when PramukhSwami gives
dikshaas a sadhu,even though as sadhuhe may remainfor awhileas a stu-
dent at Sarangpur.The student leaves Sarangpurwhen PramukhSwami
decides. He comments on the process:"I am in constant communication
with the leadersof the training in Sarangpur,and they give advice about
the progressof each candidate.When they think a person is ready,I fol-
low their advice."A few continue advancedstudy of Sanskritin Bombay,

7 Personalconversationwith PramukhSwami on August 14, 1990, in the SwaminarayanHindu

Templein London,U.K.

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856 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

Bangalore,or some other center.The temples and institutions need spe-

cialists, so appointment from Sarangpurto various temples is also as-
signment to a specific task:to cook in a temple, to be resident sadhu in a
college hostel at Vidyanagar,to be pujari in Bochasan, to guide youth
activitiesin Amdavad(which is divided into two zones with twenty-eight
centers),or to work on Englishpublicationsin Amdavad.A largepercent-
age of the sadhus are on the move through the villages to give discourses
and musical programsand to perform rituals in homes and businesses.
The programof visits to villages has "takenwings" so that groups of sa-
dhus travelregularlyeach summer in Africa,England,and North Amer-
ica. The English-speakingsadhus are given special assignmentson these
tours, especiallyto work with young people, many of whom experience
some alienationfrom their Gujaratiroots.

REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Renunciationand servicein the modern world requireBochasanwasi
Swaminarayansadhus to straddle severalcultures because they are in-
stitutionalized agents for maintaining unity across the cultures. Bocha-
sanwasi Swaminarayansadhus only recently have taken up residence in
temples abroad, this because the large temple dedicated in London in
1995 requiressadhus to serve it; nevertheless,each sadhu is assignedto a
temple in India no matter how much he may be "on the road."'In India
sadhusare mediatorsbetween the urban setting, where many of the tem-
ples are located, and the ruraltowns and villages.9When villagers"come
to town" they visit sadhusin the templeswho travelregularlyto their vil-
lages. When sadhus travelabroadto Africa,England,or North America,
they negotiatethe divide between those living where Swaminarayancon-
cepts, rituals, and discipline are embedded in the host Gujaraticulture
and those living abroadwhere Swaminarayanand Gujaratiidentities cre-
ate a bulwarkagainstan overpoweringsecularethos. In each context sa-
dhus mediatebetweenthe generationsand are counselorsto young people
growingup in settingsvastlydifferentfrom those of their parents,almost

8 Sadhusof other branchesof SwaminarayanHinduism have since 1990 begun to reside for long
periods in temples abroad.None has yet become a permanentresident in the United Kingdom or in
the United States.
9 Use of the word "village"is fraughtwith connotationscoming from referencesto "villageIndia"in
waysthat makeit difficultto use, especiallyin periodsof rapidmodernization.Whatarecalledvillages
are often towns of considerablesize and sophistication;others are ruralhamlets of a few families.
When sadhusgo to villages,all of which arebeing transformedby education,media, communication,
and migration,they do not visit the same "villages"that their predecessorsdid at mid-century.Even
though I referto distinctionsbetweenruraland urban,it is importantto rememberthat "villageIndia"
is changing.

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 Williams:
Training
Religious fora Transnational
Specialists Hinduism 857

unrecognizablyso from that of their grandparents.A major impetus to

establishmentof temples and centersabroadis the need to socializechil-
dren as both Hindus and Gujaratis.The recurringrequeststhat Pramukh
Swamivisit often and that he permit sadhus to reside abroador at least
send them to visit regularly (which is already happening annually on
tours lasting for three months or more) are parental cries for help in
instructing and inspiring their children. Hence, there is a great need
for sadhus who are intimately familiarwith the experienceof the young
people living outside of India and who are fluent in British or American
English. It is increasinglythe case that such intimate knowledge of the
culturalsetting and of Englishis also helpful for sadhusassignedto major
cities in India (Bombay,Delhi, and Calcutta).Trainingof sadhusinvolves
a twofold dimension: 1) to introduce sadhus from westernized edu-
cational institutions in India to traditionallife, language, and modes in
village Gujarat;and 2) to introduce students from ruralareasof Gujarat
to modern urban and internationalsettings. The ethos of renunciation
permits them to straddlethe cultures more effectivelybecause they are
intimate strangersin each.
It is not the increasednumbersalone that requirea more structured
training program;an urgent need exists to incorporateyoung men from
severalcultures and to make many of them transculturalas well. Hence,
the change from traditional guru-sishya training to a routinized pro-
gramis dramatic.The SadhuTrainingProgram(SadhakAshram),with its
static residence,assigned staff, stated curriculum, and set period, differs
significantlyfrom a learning relationshipwith a single charismaticguru
in a "mobiletrainingprogram"moving through the village, with no for-
mal curriculum or schedule. The new programis efficient and timely in
producingsadhusneeded to maintaingrowth of the sanstha,but changes
in types of training will undoubtedly have effects on the type of sadhu
produced.The importanceof relationshipwith the charismaticfigureas
guru paradoxicallybecomes more important, not less important, in the
new program,even if in a reified manner.In the physicalabsence of the
guru his spiritual presence must be emphasized all the more. Students
are instructed to focus on him by visualizing him in their minds and by
listening to reportsof his dailyactivityeven though they cannot see him.
Pramukh Swami'svisits to Sarangpuror their visits to him are "sacred
times" in a way different from those who constantly travel with him.
Seniorsadhusbecome surrogatesfor PramukhSwamiwhen they visit stu-
dents at Sarangpur,just as the elderlymahantof the templewas beforehis
death. Suchreificationof the guru'srole cohereswith and strengthensthe
basic theologicalaffirmationsof this sect, both that PramukhSwamiand
his predecessorsare the abode (akshar)of God (purushottam)and that

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858 Journal of the AmericanAcademy of Religion

loyaltyto the persondesignatedas aksharis essentialto the devotion,

theology,andinstitutionalunityof thesect.
The uniformtrainingprogramfor sadhusandcentralizedauthority
areimportantto the unityof the corpsof sadhusandto the unityof the
sect. Typesof bondingthat takeplacebetweenthe sadhusin training,
betweenthemandPramukhSwami,andbetweennew sadhusandolder
sadhusareessentialforunity.Eachsadhuformsa closeemotionalbond
withthe guruwho initiateshim;hence,sadhusarerankedin ageaccord-
ing to who inspiredandinitiatedthem.Fouror five,includingPramukh
Swami,stillalivein 1997,wereinitiatedby ShastriMaharaj. Manyleading
sadhusrememberYogijiMaharaj withgreataffection.Householders also
maintainclose ties with the guru who originallyinspiredthem. The
processof selectinga newguruis fraughtwithpossibilitiesof division,so
the timeof transitionis critical.Thetraditionis thatthe guruselectshis
successorandgraduallymakesthe selectionobviousto his followers,but
onlyat theendof hislifedoeshe fullyrevealto thefollowershissuccessor.
Accordingto the philosophyof the group,the chosenpersonis identical
to Akshar,so botharealwaysfullyawareof thesuccession.Theformation
of a closegroupof sadhusthrougha unifiedtrainingprogramand the
mergingof thatgroupwithothersin the templesandin the SaintShibirs
areessentialto the continuityof themovementandthewell-beingof the
sanstha.Theseprogramsmaintaincontinuityin the sansthathroughthe
contingencies of time.
The SadhuTrainingProgramis both evidenceand causeof trans-
formationsthat are occurringin Swaminarayan Hinduism.Increased
mobilityand moderntechnologicaladvancesinfluencethe trainingof
sadhus;computers,modernprintingandelectronictransmission, audio-
visualmedia,and the knowledgeexplosionall are part of the sadhus'
training.Someof thesadhusshortlyafterleavingSarangpur areplacedin
chargeof modernprogramsof transmitting thetradition.Trainingtrans-
formssadhus,who becomeboth traditionalpreserversof the religious
traditionand modernmanagersandtechnocrats,all the whilelivingin
theworldhavingrenouncedtheworld.It maybe thatthetransformation
fromthe traditionalguru/sishyateachingrelationshipto the routinized
trainingprogramresultsfromtechnological changesin thewayinforma-
tion is currentlyproduced,stored,transmitted, andreceived.It portends
dramaticchangesin the functionof sadhusand, if the mediumis the
message,in the verycontentof the religioustraditionitself.Changesin
the trainingof sadhusportendchangesnot yet visualizedin the ethos,
theology,anddisciplineof the sect.
Sadhusnowbeingtrainedwill influencethe shapingof transnational
ethnicitiesandsectarianidentitiesinto the next century,just as to some

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 Williams:
Training
Religious fora Transnational
Specialists Hinduism 859

extentSwamiVivekananda did at the turn of the last century.Gujarati

ethnicidentityfunctionsdifferentlyin Gujarat,eastAfrica,the United
Kingdom,and North America.EvenbetweenCanadaand the United
Statessignificantdifferencesof ethnicidentityexistbecauseof the char-
acterof earliermigration,restrictionsin immigrationlaws,and length
of residence.Althoughmanyof the externalmarkersof ethnicidentity
aresimilar-Gujaratilanguage,gestures,dress,manner-especiallythose
validatedby religiouscommitment,the contextsareso differentin the
severallocationsthatthe meaningandextendedfunctionof the markers
is different.NotethedifficultiesthesmallGujarati communityin England
facedwiththeinfluxof thelargerrefugeecommunityfromeastAfricain
the late 1960sand 1970s.Differencesin the formsof Gujaratispokenin
the variouslocationsmakecommunicationat morethan a superficial
leveldifficult.Creationof a transnational sectwitha cosmopolitancorps
of sadhusmakesnew typesof transnationalethnicitypossible.Sadhus
carrya Gujaratireligioustraditionand much else besidesaroundthe
world,therebyimpressinga uniformityon ethnicidentityreinforcedby
religiouscommitmentdifferentfromwhatwaspreviously possible.It may
alsoresultthattransnational ethnicidentityshapedwithinreligiouscom-
munitieswill developin waysdifferentfromthe ethnicidentityof other
Gujaratis.Sadhustrainedat Sarangpurwill influencesignificantlythe
shapingof Gujarati identityin manycountries.
Householders relyon sadhusandsaythata guruis essentialforgain-
ing salvation. It is saidthatthe gurucan approachthe deitydirectlybut
the householdersmustapproachthe deitythrougha guru.Anycontact
withrighteoussadhusis thoughtto be auspicious;thewatertheyuse,the
sandtheytouch,andthe food theydistributearereceivedas holy.When
sadhussit or walkamongsatsangis,men stoop to touchtheirfeet and
thenblessthemselves bytouchingtheirchestsorforeheads. Animmigrant
used a uniqueanalogy,"Theguru [i.e., PramukhSwamior a visiting
Swaminarayan sadhu]is theconsulgeneralwhoprovidesvalidvisasforus
to attainakshardam; if we don'tgettheirvisas,we can'tgo."Thedevotion,
discipline,teaching,example,and serviceof the sadhusarethoughtto
benefitallfollowersof Swaminarayan.
Swaminarayan sadhusareexamplesof a typeof sadhuaffiliatedwith
a bhaktisectwhosedevotionanddisciplinearefocusedon the propaga-
tion of the teachingof the founder,thegrowthof the sect,andthe salva-
tion of others.Sadhusas religiousspecialistsperformmanifestfunctions
in administering the workof largeand complexreligiousorganizations
andin carryingout personalservicesof teaching,counsel,andritualfor
householders.Theyperformlatentfunctionsof transformingthe reli-
gious community,shapingethnicidentities,and internationalizing the

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860 Journal of the AmericanAcademyof Religion

sect. Sadhusare not hidden behind temple walls, because they go every-
where to work and preach.The walls that protect them are invisible, and
the vows enablethem to live in the world in a specialstatus.Theyare inti-
mate strangers.They are alwaysin very close relationwith the household-
ers, and the dynamic of this relationship is essential to the characterof
sectarianHinduism in generalwhile being unique to each group.Training
receivedat SadhakAshramin Sarangpur,isolated as it seems, is defining
the shape of this form of SwaminarayanHinduism.

TableI Initiationof Groupsof Sadhusin theBochasanwasi

Swaminarayan Sanstha'o

Year NumberInitiated TotalSadhus

1906 6
1951 50
1961 51
1971 150
1973 56
1975 18
1976
1981 207(Bicentenaryof birthof Swaminarayan)"
1985 58 (Bicentenary
of birthof Gunitatanand
Swami)
1986 20
1987 70 (60 to parshads;10 to sadhu)
1989 30 (in two ceremonies)
1992 138(Centenary of YogijiMaharaj;
PramukhSwami's
birthday)12
1995 Total 498+40 sadhaks

10Thesefiguresareestimates givenbyleadingsadhus.Initiationsreferto thoseenteringboththe

parshadandthesadhurank,so someduplication occurs.In 1987Acharya Tejendraprasad Pandees-
timatedthatthe two olderSwaminarayan dioceseshad moresadhus:Amdavadwith 475 sadhus
and140parshads; Vadtal with875sadhusand245parshads. Withtheexceptionof theBhujtemple,the
corpsof sadhusis agingandthenumberis static(personalinterviewwithAcharyaTejendraprasad
PandeatAmdavad in 1987).Theolderinstitutionsalsohavewomenascetics,called"samkya yoginis,"
andMrs.V.Pancholi thenumberas200in Amdavad
of Leedsestimates diocese(primarilyin Bhuj)and
75in Vadtal(personalinterviewwithV.Pancholi).TheBochasanwasi AksharPurushottam Sanstha
doesnot initiatewomenas ascetics.A registryof sadhusexistsforthepastdecade,butthenumbers
hence,allestimates
fluctuate; aretentative.
11In whatwasseenas a revolutionary act PramukhSwamiinitiatedlowercastemenfromthe
permanent stateof parshadto thatof sadhu.Of the207youngmen,35wereGujaratis fromabroad
and40 wereAdivasisor fromthe economically andsociallybackward classesidentifiedby the Baxi
Commission.
12Notethatsomehadpreviously beeninitiatedintoparshadstatusandso arecountedin earlier
groups.In 1992therewere89initiatedintoparshad statusand49assadhus.

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TableII Scheduleof Sadhusin Trainingat the SadhuTrainingCenter

4:30 Arise
Personalpuja
5:30 FirstArti
Studyor Seva
7:30 SecondArti
Breakfast
Lecture:Vachanamritam
9:00 Classes
11:30 ThirdArti
12:00 Lunch
12:30 Lecture: SacredScripturesand Interpretation
Resttime or Librarywork
4:00 Classes: BasicHindu Religion
5:00 Classesor Seva
6:00 FreeTime
6:30 FourthArti
7:00 Dinner
8:00 BhaktiVihar
8:30 Fifth Arti
9:00 Sabha:Groupsinging of "Chesta"and PramukhSwami'sDaily Report
9:30 Personalreadingand study until 11:00

TableIII Programof Training:SadhuTrainingCenter

1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year
SADHAK PARSHAD SADHU
SatsangExaminations
Lectures
Vachanamritam
Hindu Scriptures Swaminarayanscriptures:Satsangijivanam,Sikshapatri,Swaminivato
120Kirtans Advancedmusic:Instrumental&Vocal (for some)
Seva
Advancedcooking Trainingas pujari
(for some) (for Sadhus)
Sanskrit AdvancedSanskrit(for some)
Hindu philosophy:BhagavadGita;Upanishads
Worldreligions
Public speaking(Gujarati& English)
classes(forsome)
Gujarati
Hindi classes(for some)

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862 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

REFERENCES

Williams, A New Faceof Hinduism:TheSwaminarayanReligion.

RaymondBrady Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
1988
1986 "The Guru as PastoralCounselor."Journalof Pastoral
Care50: xxx (also published in SwaminarayanMaga-
zine 10:6-7[1988]).
1992 "Sacred Threads of Several Textures: Strategies of
Adaptationin the United States."In A SacredThread:
ModernTransmissionof Hindu Traditionsin India and
Abroad,228-257. Ed. by RaymondB. Williams.Cham-
bersburg,PA:Anima Publicationsand New York:Co-
lumbiaUniversityPress.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions