Lesson2 Outline

Glass is made from its raw materials in a carefully controlled two-step process, and is then molded to
form either sheet glass or bottles. A schematic diagram of this process is given in (Wansbrough, n.d.).

Glass Plant manufacturing processes

Batch mixing

Glass coloring

Batch melting

Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath

Shaping plate glass

Molding glass containers

Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr

Laboratory inspection

Quality check

Batch Mixing

refers to the process of mixing and grinding raw materials such as soda ash, limestone, and sand
together to create a powdered solution known as a batch. This batch is then mixed for between two and
three minutes in a rotary mixer, before being transported to a batch hopper, from which it is slowly fed
into a furnace.

The mix of raw materials is dependent on the type of glass:

Window Glass - 72% SiO2, 13% Na2CO3 and 12% CaCO3

Crystal - 45% SiO2 and 44% PbO with 9% K2CO3

Pyrex - 80% SiO2 and 12% B2O3

Glass coloring process

The choice of minors at this point determines the color of the final product. Color results
from two factors: the oxidation state of the glass, and the specific colorant additives used.

Glass Oxidation

- promoted by the addition of carbon, and the degree of oxidation is measured

on an arbitrary scale known as the carbon number.

Type of Glass Carbon Number

Clear Glass 0
Dark Green Glass 28
Yellowish-brown 51

Other variations of colour are achieved through the action of colored materials that act
as dyes.

For example, the amber and green colours of glass bottles are caused not only by
the degree of oxidation, but also by the addition of iron chromites and an iron sand /
salt cake mix respectively.

Batch Melting

The ingredients mixture is fed continuously into a furnace fired by natural gas, boosted
by electricity when necessary. The glass is initially heated to 1400℃, then raised to 1540℃, at
which temperature the mixture melts. The glass is then held above 1400℃ while it is refined
and CO2 and SO3 are evolved.

Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath

This process involves pouring the molten glass onto a bath of molten tin at a
temperature of about 1000°C. The glass spreads onto the surface of the tin, forming a
continuous ribbon with a controlled thickness normally between 5 and 6 mm.

Shaping plate glass

 The cooled, molten glass from the furnace flowed into an extension of the tank known as the
drawing canal, where it cooled to 1000℃ before being drawn up into a tower, the drawing tower, by
dipping an iron grille into the glass, onto which the glass stuck.

Plate Glass
- can be made as thin as 2 mm, with this thickness determined by the speed of its progress
up the drawing tower 2 mm thick glass moves up at approximately 170 meters an hour, while the
average is about 40 meters per hour.

Molding glass containers

Molten glass is removed from the furnace through fore hearths (heated channels) where the glass
is cooled to between 1100 and 1150℃ the exact temperature varying depending on the product to be
formed. It is then fed into a forming machine where shears cut off weighed "gobs" of red-hot glass, one
two or three at a time as required.

The materials used to make glass containers include approximately 70% sand along with a
specific mixture of soda ash, limestone, and other natural substances, depending on what properties are
desired in the batch.

Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr (a furnace used for
the annealing of glass)
After leaving the bath of molten tin, the glass, which is at a temperature of about 600°C, enters
the annealing lehr. This process renders the glass into a stronger material with fewer internal stresses and
a lower probability of breaking.

Lehr - a long kiln with an end-to-end temperature gradient, used to anneal newly made glass
objects by gradually cooling them.

*Note only: The annealing process in the lehr allows the glass to cool gradually, relieving internal stresses
and ensuring the production of high-quality, durable glass products

Laboratory Inspection

The laboratory is primarily involved in the determination of the mix of ingredients for
each batch of glass. A small sample is taken from each batch and dissolved in hydrofluoric acid
and then analysed in an atomic absorption spectrophotometer to determine which elements it
contains and their proportions.
Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage

After cooling, the glass undergoes rigorous quality checks. It is then cut into sheets of
sizes varying up to a maximum of 6000mm x 3660 mm which are, in turn, automatically stacked,
stored and ready for transport.

Schematic Diagram of Glass Manufacturing