Societal Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Societal attitudes toward homosexuality
Societal attitudes toward

homosexuality vary greatly
across different cultures and
historical periods, as do
attitudes toward sexual desire,
activity and relationships in
general. All cultures have their
own values regarding
appropriate and inappropriate
sexuality; some sanction same-
sex love and sexuality, while
others may disapprove of such
activities in part.[1] As with
Pew Global Attitudes Project 2019: Should homosexuality be accepted in
heterosexual behaviour,
society? Percentage of responders that answered that it should be accepted:
different sets of prescriptions
and proscriptions may be 0–10% 41–50% 81–90%
given to individuals according 11–20% 51–60% 91–100%
to their gender, age, social 21–30% 61–70% No data
status or social class. 31–40% 71–80%
Many of the world's cultures

have, in the past, considered procreative sex within a recognized relationship to be a sexual norm—
sometimes exclusively so, and sometimes alongside norms of same-sex love, whether passionate, intimate
or sexual. Some sects within some religions, especially those influenced by the Abrahamic tradition, have
censured homosexual acts and relationships at various times, in some cases implementing severe
punishments.[2] Homophobic attitudes in society can manifest themselves in the form of anti-LGBT
discrimination, opposition to LGBT rights, anti-LGBT hate speech, and violence against LGBT people.
Since the 1970s, much of the world has become more accepting of homosexual acts and relationships.[3]
Cross-national differences in acceptance can be explained by three factors: the strength of democratic
institutions, the level of economic development, and the religious context of the places where people live.[4]
The Pew Research Center's 2013 Global Attitudes Survey "finds broad acceptance of homosexuality in
North America, the European Union, and much of Latin America, but equally widespread rejection in
predominantly Muslim nations and in Africa, as well as in parts of Asia and in Russia". The survey also
finds "acceptance of homosexuality is particularly widespread in countries where religion is less central in
people's lives. These are also among the richest countries in the world. In contrast, in poorer countries with
high levels of religiosity, few believe homosexuality should be accepted by society. Age is also a factor in
several countries, with younger respondents offering far more tolerant views than older ones. And while
gender differences are not prevalent, in those countries where they are, women are consistently more
accepting of homosexuality than men."[5]
Difficulties in interpreting homosexuality

Contemporary scholars caution against applying modern Western assumptions about sex and gender to
other times and places; what looks like same-sex sexuality to a Western observer may not be "same-sex" or
"sexual" at all to the people engaging in such behaviour. For example, in the Bugis cultures of Sulawesi, a
female who dresses and works in a masculine fashion and marries a woman is seen as belonging to a third
gender;[6] to the Bugis, their relationship is not homosexual (see sexual orientation and gender identity). In
the case of 'Sambia' (a pseudonym) boys in New Guinea who ingest the semen of older males to aid in their
maturation,[7] it is disputed whether this is best understood as a sexual act at all.[8] Some scholars have
argued that notions of a homosexual and heterosexual identity, as they are currently known in the Western
world, only began to emerge in Europe in the mid to late 19th century,[9][10] though others challenge
this.[11][12] Behaviors that today would be widely regarded as homosexual, at least in the West, enjoyed a
degree of acceptance in around three-quarters of the cultures surveyed in Patterns of Sexual Behavior
(1951).[13]
Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality

From the 1970s, academics have researched attitudes held by individuals toward lesbians, gay men and
bisexuals, and the social and cultural factors that underlie such attitudes. Numerous studies have
investigated the prevalence of acceptance and disapproval of homosexuality, and have consistently found
correlates with various demographic, psychological, and social variables. For example, studies (mainly
conducted in the United States) have found that heterosexuals with positive attitudes towards
homosexuality are more likely to be female, white, young, non-religious, well-educated, politically liberal
or moderate, and have close personal contact with homosexuals who are out.[14] They are also more likely
to have positive attitudes towards other minority groups[15] and are less likely to support traditional gender
roles.[16] Several studies have also suggested that heterosexual females' attitudes towards gay men are
similar to those towards lesbians, and some (but not all) have found that heterosexual males have a more
positive attitude toward lesbians.[16][17][18] Herek (1984) found that heterosexual females tended to exhibit
equally positive or negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The heterosexual males, however,
tended to respond more negatively, or unfavorably, to gay men than lesbians.[19]
Social psychologists such as Gregory Herek have examined underlying motivations for homophobia
(hostility toward lesbians and gays), and cultural theorists have noted how portrayals of homosexuality
often center around stigmatized phenomena such as AIDS, pedophilia, and gender variance. The extent to
which such portrayals are stereotypes is disputed.
Contemporary researchers have measured attitudes held by heterosexuals toward gay men and lesbians in a
number of different ways.[20]
Certain populations are also found to accept homosexuality more than others. In the United States, African-
Americans are generally less tolerant of homosexuality than European or Hispanic Americans.[21]
However, polls after President Barack Obama's public support of same-sex marriage showed a shift in
attitudes to 59% support among African Americans, 60% among Latinos and 50 percent among White
Americans.[22] Israelis were found to be the most accepting of homosexuality among Middle Eastern
nations and Israeli laws and culture reflect that. According to a 2007 poll, a strong majority of Israeli Jews
say they would accept a gay child and go on with life as usual.[23] A 2013 Haaretz poll found that most of
the Arab and Haredi sector saw homosexuality negatively, while the majority of secular and traditional
Jews say they support equal rights for gay couples.[24]
Much less research has been conducted into societal attitudes toward bisexuality.[25] What studies do exist
suggest that the attitude of heterosexuals toward bisexuals mirrors their attitude toward homosexuals,[26]
and that bisexuals experience a similar degree of hostility, discrimination, and violence relating to their
sexual orientation as do homosexuals.[27]
Research (mainly conducted in the United States) show that people with
more permissive attitudes on sexual orientation issues tend to be younger, Pew Global Attitudes Project
well-educated, and politically liberal. Tolerant attitudes toward 2019: #1 – Homosexuality
homosexuality and bisexuality have been increasing with time. A 2011 should be accepted by
society, #2 – Homosexuality
Public Policy Polling survey found that 48 percent of voters in the state of should not be accepted by
Delaware supported the legalization of same-sex marriage, while 47 were society"[1] (https://www.pewre
opposed and 5 percent were not sure.[28] 6 March 2011 poll by Lake search.org/global/2020/06/25/g
Research Partners, showed that 62% in Delaware favor allowing same- lobal-divide-on-homosexuality-
persists/)
sex couples to form civil unions, while 31% were opposed, and 7% were
not sure.[29] Country #1 #2
North America
Same-sex marriage Canada 85% 10%

United States 72% 21%
Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country
Europe
Same-sex marriage performed nationwide Sweden 94% 5%
Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country Netherlands 92% 8%
Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide Spain 89% 10%
Same-sex sexual activity is illegal
Germany 86% 11%
France 86% 11%
United Kingdom 86% 11%
Italy 75% 20%

Czech Republic 59% 26%
Greece 53% 40%
Hungary 49% 39%

Poland 47% 42%
Slovakia 44% 46%

Bulgaria 32% 48%
Lithuania 28% 45%
Ukraine 14% 69%

Russia 14% 74%
Middle East
Israel 47% 45%

Turkey 25% 57%
Lebanon 13% 85%
Asia/Pacific
Australia 81% 18%
Philippines 73% 24%
Japan 68% 22%

South Korea 44% 53%
India 37% 37%

Indonesia 9% 80%
Latin America
Argentina 76% 19%
Mexico 69% 24%

Brazil 67% 23%
Africa
South Africa 54% 38%

Kenya 14% 83%
Tunisia 9% 72%
Nigeria 7% 91%
Margin
Country Pollster Year For[a] Against[a] Neither[b] of Source
error
Institut d'Estudis 70% 19% [30]

Andorra 2013 11%
Andorrans (79%) (21%)
Antigua and Barbuda AmericasBarometer 2017 12% – – [31]
16% [8%
support
70% 14% not [32]
Ipsos 2023 some ±3.5%
(81%) sure
Argentina rights]
(19%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 67% 25% 8% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research 3% 96% [34][35]

Armenia 2015 1% ±3%
Center (3%) (97%)
Aruba 2021 46% [36]
27%
[16%
63% support 10% not [32]
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(70%) some sure
Australia rights]
(30%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 75% 23% 2% ±3.6%
Center
66% 30% [37]

Austria Eurobarometer 2019 4%
(69%) (31%)
Bahamas AmericasBarometer 2015 11% – – [38]
Pew Research 16% 81% [34][35]

Belarus 2015 3% ±4%
Center (16%) (84%)
17% [9%
support
72% 10% not [32]
Belgium Ipsos 2023 some ±3.5%
(81%) sure
rights]
(19%)
Belize AmericasBarometer 2014 8% – – [38]
Bolivia AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% – ±1.0% [31]
Bosnia and Pew Research 2015– 13% 84% [34][35]

4% ±4%
Herzegovina Center 2016 (14%) (87%)
29%
[15%
51% support 20% not ±3.5% [32]
Ipsos 2023 [c]
(64%) some sure
Brazil rights]
(36%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 52% 40% 8% ±3.6%
Center
16% 74% [37]
Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2019 10%
(18%) (82%)
Pew Resarch [39]

Cambodia 2023 57% 42% 1%
Center
17% [7%
support
69% 15% not [32]
(80%) sure
Canada rights]
(20%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 79% 15% 6% ±3.6%
Center
24%
[18%
65% support [32]
Chile Ipsos 2023 12% ±3.5%
(73%) some
rights]
(27%)
39%
[20%
43% support 18% not ±3.5% [40]
China Ipsos 2021 [c]
(52%) some sure
rights]
(48%)
33%
[21%
49% support [32]
Colombia Ipsos 2023 18%
(60%) some
rights]
(40%)
Costa Rica CIEP 2018 35% 64% 1% [41]
39% 55% [37]

Croatia Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(41%) (59%)
Cuba Apretaste 2019 63% 37% – [42]
36% 60% [37]

Cyprus Eurobarometer 2019 4%
(38%) (62%)
Czech Republic Median agency 2019 67% – – [43]
89% 8% [37]
Denmark Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(92%) (8%)
Dominica AmericasBarometer 2017 10% 90% – ±1.1% [31]
Dominican Republic CDN 37 2018 45% 55% - [44]
23% 51% [45]

Ecuador AmericasBarometer 2019 26%
(31%) (69%)
Universidad [46]
El Salvador 2021 82.5% –
Francisco Gavidia
53% 39% [47]

Estonia HumanrightsEE 2023 8%
(58%) (42%)
76% 21% [37]

Finland Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(78%) (22%)
France 25%
[15%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(73%) some sure
rights]
(27%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 82% 14% 4% ±3.6%
Center
Women's Initiatives 10% 75% [48]
Georgia 2021 15%
Supporting Group (12%) (88%)
25%
[12%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(71%) some sure
Germany rights]
(29%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 80% 19 1% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research [33]
Greece 2023 49% 50% 1% ±3.6%
Center
Grenada AmericasBarometer 2017 12% 88% – ±1.4%c [31]
Guatemala AmericasBarometer 2017 23% 77% – ±1.1% [31]
Guyana AmericasBarometer 2017 21% 79% – ±1.3% [38]
Haiti AmericasBarometer 2017 5% 95% – ±0.3% [31]
17% 75% [49]

Honduras CID Gallup 2018 8%
(18%) (82%)
36%
[20%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(57%) some sure
Hungary rights]
(43%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 31% 64% 5% ±3.6%
Center
Iceland Gallup 2006 89% 11% – [50]
Pew Research [33]

India 2023 53% 43% 4% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research [33]
Indonesia 2023 5% 92% 3% ±3.6%
Center
25%
[13%
64% support [32]
Ireland Ipsos 2023 11%
(72%) some
rights]
(28%)
Pew Research [33]

Israel 2023 36% 56% 8% ±3.6%
Center
30%
[21%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(67%) some sure
Italy rights]
(33%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 74% 26% – ±3.6%
Center
Jamaica AmericasBarometer 2017 16% 84% – ±1.0% [31]

64% 25% [51]
Kyodo News 2023 11%
(72%) (28%)
72% 18% [52]
Asahi Shimbun 2023 10%
(80%) (20%)
40%
[31%
Japan Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(49%) some sure
rights]
(51%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 74% 24% 2% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research [39]
2023 68% 26% 6% ±2.75%
Center
Pew Research 7% 89% [34][35]

Kazakhstan 2016 4%
Center (7%) (93%)
Pew Research [33]

Kenya 2023 9% 90% 1% ±3.6%
Center
24% 70% [37]
Latvia Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(26%) (74%)
Liechtenstein [53]
Liechtenstein 2021 72% 28% 0%
Institut
30% 63% [37]

Lithuania Eurobarometer 2019 7%
(32%) (68%)
85% 9% [37]
Luxembourg Eurobarometer 2019 6%
(90%) (10%)
Pew Resarch [39]

Malaysia Center
2023 17% 82% 1%
67% 25% [37]

Malta Eurobarometer 2019 8%
(73%) (27%)
28%
[17%
58% support 14% not ±4.8% [32]
Ipsos 2023 [c]
(67%) some sure
Mexico rights]
(33%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 63% 32% 5% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research 5% 92% [34][35]

Moldova 2015 3% ±4%
Center (5%) (95%)
28% 60% [54]

Mozambique (3 cities) Lambda 2017 12%
(32%) (68%)
14% [6%
support
80% 7% not [32]
(85%) sure
Netherlands rights]
(15%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 89% 10% 1% ±3.6%
Center
20%
[11%
70% support [32]
New Zealand Ipsos 2023 9% ±3.5%
(78%) some
rights]
(22%)
Nicaragua AmericasBarometer 2017 25% 75% – ±1.0% [31]
Pew Research [33]

Nigeria 2023 2% 97% 1% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research 72% 19% [34][35]
Norway 2017 9%
Center (79%) (21%)
Panama AmericasBarometer 2017 22% 78% – ±1.1% [31]
Paraguay AmericasBarometer 2017 26% 74% – ±0.9% [31]
40%
[24%
41% support ±3.5% [32]
Peru Ipsos 2023 19% [c]
(51%) some
rights]
(49%)
22% 61% [55]

Philippines SWS 2018 16%
(26%) (73%)
57%
[35%
32% support [32]
Ipsos 2023 11% ±3.5%
(36%) some
Poland rights]
(64%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 41% 54% 5% ±3.6%
Center
15%
[11%
80% support [32]
Portugal Ipsos 2023 5%
(84%) some
rights]
(16%)
59%
[26%
25% support [32]
Romania Ipsos 2023 17% ±3.5%
(30%) some
rights]
(70%)
64%
[12%
17% support 20% not ±4.8% [40]
Ipsos 2021 [c]
(21%) some sure
Russia rights]
(79%)
7% 85% [56]
FOM 2019 8% ±3.6%
(8%) (92%)
Saint Kitts and Nevis AmericasBarometer 2017 9% 91% – ±1.0% [31]
Saint Lucia AmericasBarometer 2017 11% 89% – ±0.9% [31]
Saint Vincent and the AmericasBarometer 2017 4% 96% – ±0.6% [31]

Grenadines
Civil Rights [57]

Serbia 2020 26% – – ±3.33%
Defender
50%
[23%
32% support [32]
Ipsos 2023 19% ±3.5%
(39%) some
Singapore rights]
(61%)
Pew Resarch [39]

2023 45% 51% 4%
Center
32% 56% [58]

Slovakia Ipsos 2022 13%
(36%) (64%)
62% 35% [37]
Slovenia Eurobarometer 2019 3%
(64%) (36%)
29%
[10%
57% support ±3.5% [32]
Ipsos 2023 14% [c]
(66%) some
South Africa rights]
(34%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 38% 58% 4% ±3.6%
Center
42%
[18%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(45%) some sure
rights]
South Korea (55%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 40% 53% 7% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Resarch [39]

2023 41% 56% 3%
Center
17%
[12%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(82%) some sure
Spain rights]
(18%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 87% 11% 2% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Resarch [39]

Sri Lanka 2023 23% 69% 8%
Center
Suriname AmericasBarometer 2014 18% – – [38]
16% [7%
support
75% 9% not [32]
(82%) sure
Sweden rights]
(18%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 92% 5% 3% ±3.6%
Center
Switzerland Ipsos 2023 54% 34% 13% not ±3.5% [32]

(61%) [16% sure
support
some
rights]
(39%)
CNA 2023 63% 37% [59]
Taiwan
Pew Resarch [39]
2023 45% 43% 12%
Center
29%
[18%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(65%) some sure
Thailand rights]
(35%)
Pew Resarch [39]

2023 60% 32% 8%
Center
Trinidad and Tobago AmericasBarometer 2014 16% – – [38]
52%
[22%
20% support 28% not ±3.5% [32]
Turkey Ipsos 2023 [c]
(28%) some sure
rights]
(72%)
37% 42% [60]
Ukraine Rating 2023 22% ±1.5%
(47%) (53%)
77% 15% [61]

YouGov 2023 8%
(84%) (16%)
27%
[14%
United Kingdom Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(70%) some sure
rights]
(30%)
Pew Research [33]
2023 73% 23% 4% ±3.6%
Center
31%
[14%
Ipsos 2023 ±3.5%
(64%) some sure
United States rights]
(36%)
Pew Research [33]

2023 63% 34% 3% ±3.6%
Center
Equipos 59% 28% [62]
Uruguay 2019 13%
Consultores (68%) (32%)
55% 32% [63]

Venezuela Equilibrium Cende 2023 13%
(63%) (37%)
Pew Resarch [39]

Vietnam 2023 65% 30% 5%
Center
Adoption
Indicates the country/territory has legalized same-sex adoption nationwide
Indicates that same-sex adoption is legal in certain parts of the country
Indicates that the country has step-child adoption or partner-guardianship
Margin
Country Pollster Year For[a] Against[a] Neither[b] of error
Source
Pew Research [32]

Kenya 2023 9% 90% 1% ±3.6%
Center
Pew Research [33]

Nigeria 2023 2% 97% 1% ±3.6%
Center
29% [10% support
57% ±3.5% [32]
Ipsos 2023 some rights] 14% [c]
South (66%)
(34%)
Africa
Pew Research [33]
2023 38% 58% 4% ±3.6%
Center

Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Asia

Country Pollster Year For Against Don't Know/Neutral/No answer/Other
China Ipsos 2021 66%[64] 30% 4%
India Ipsos 2021 66%[64] 21% 13%
Israel Midgam Institute 2017 60%[65] - -
Japan Ipsos 2021 68%[64] 20% 13%
Malaysia Ipsos 2021 24%[64] 65% 11%
Russia Ipsos 2021 23%[64] 67% 10%
South Korea Ipsos 2021 46%[64] 45% 9%
Turkey Ipsos 2021 39%[64] 44% 18%

Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Americas
Country Pollster Year For Against Don't Know/Neutral/No answer/Other
Argentina Ipsos 2023 71%[66] 24% 6%
Brazil Ipsos 2023 69%[66] 22% 9%
Canada Ipsos 2023 74%[66] 17% 9%
Chile CADEM 2022 70%[67] 28% 2%
Colombia Ipsos 2023 53%[66] 40% 7%
Mexico Ipsos 2023 60%[66] 34% 6%
Peru Ipsos 2023 51%[66] 42% 7%
United States Ipsos 2023 64%[66] 26% 10%
Uruguay Equipos Consultores 2013 52%[68] 39% 9%
Venezuela Equilibrium Cende 2023 48%[69] 39%

13%
(55%) (45%)

Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Europe
Don't Know/Neutral/No
Country Pollster Year For Against
answer/Other
Austria IMAS 2015 46%[70] 48%[70] 6%
Belgium Ipsos 2021 72%[64] 21% 7%
Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2006 12%[71] 68%[71] 20%[71]
Cyprus Eurobarometer 2006 10%[71] 86%[71] 4%[71]

Czech
Republic
CVVM 2019 47%[72] 47% 6%
Denmark Pew Research Center 2017 75%[73] - -
Estonia HumanrightsEE 2023 47%[74] 44%[74] 9%[74]
Finland Taloustutkimus 2013 51%[75] 42%[75] 7%[75]
France Ipsos 2021 62%[64] 29% 10%
Germany Ipsos 2021 69%[64] 24% 6%
Greece KAPA Research 2020 40%[76] 57%[76] 3%[76]
Hungary Ipsos 2021 [64] 36% 5%

59%
Ireland Red C Poll 2011 60%[77] - -
50.4%
Italy Eurispes 2023 [78] 49.6% 0%
Latvia SKDS 2023 27%[79] 23%[79] 46%[79]
Lithuania Eurobarometer 2006 12%[71] 82%[71] 6%[71]
Luxembourg Politmonitor 2013 55%[80] 44%[80] 1%[80]
Malta Misco 2014 20%[81] 80%[81] -
Netherlands Ipsos 2021 83%[64] 12% 5%
Norway YouGov 2012 54%[82] 34%[82] 12%[82]
Poland Ipsos 2021 33%[64] 58% 10%
Portugal Pew Research Center 2017 59%[83] 28%[83] 13%[83]

Romania Eurobarometer 2006 8%[71] 82%[71] 10%[71]
Russia Ipsos 2021 23%[64] 67% 10%
Civil Rights
Serbia
Defenders
2020 22.5%[84] - -
Slovakia Eurobarometer 2006 12%[71] 84%[71] 4%[71]
Slovenia Delo Stik 2015 38%[85] 55%[85] 7%[85]

Spain Ipsos 2021 77%[64] 17% 6%
Sweden Ipsos 2021 79%[64] 17% 4%
Switzerland Pink Cross 2020 67%[86] 30%[86] 3%[86]

12%
Gay Alliance of
Ukraine
Ukraine
2013 7%[87] 68%[87] 13% would allow some
exceptions[87]
United
Kingdom
Ipsos 2021 72%[64] 19% 9%

Opinion polls for same-sex adoption in Oceania

Don't Know/Neutral/No
Country Pollster Year For Against
answer/Other
Australia Ipsos 2021 71%[88] 21% 8%
New Research New

Zealand Zealand
2012 64%[89] 31% 5%
Law
The legal status of homosexuality varies greatly around the world. Homosexual acts between consenting
adults are known to be illegal in about 70 out of the 195 countries of the world.
Homosexual sex acts may be illegal, especially under sodomy laws, and where they are legal, the age of
consent often differs from country to country. In some cases, homosexuals are prosecuted under vaguely
worded "public decency" or morality laws. Some countries have special laws preventing certain public
expressions of homosexuality.[90] Nations or subnational entities may have anti-discrimination legislation in
place to protect against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in the workplace, housing, health
services and education. Some give exemptions, allowing employers to discriminate if they are a religious
organisation, or if the employee works with children.
Legal recognition of same-sex relationships also varies greatly. Legal privileges pertaining to different-sex
relationships that may be extended to same-sex couples include parenting, adoption and access to
reproductive technologies; immigration; spousal benefits for employees such as pensions, health funds and
other services; family leave; medical rights, including hospital visitation, notification and power of attorney;
inheritance when a partner dies without leaving a will; and social security and tax benefits. Same-sex
couples without legal recognition may also lack access to domestic violence services, as well as mediation
and arbitration over custody and property when relationships end. Some regions have laws specifically
excluding same-sex couples from particular rights such as adoption.
In 2001, the Netherlands became the first country to recognize same-sex marriage. Since then same-sex
marriages were subsequently recognized in Belgium (2003), Spain (2005), Canada (2005), South Africa
(2006), Norway (2009), Sweden (2009), Portugal (2010), Iceland (2010), Argentina (2010), Denmark
(2012), Brazil (2013), France (2013), Uruguay (2013), New Zealand (2013), Luxembourg (2015), Ireland
(2015), the United States (2015), Colombia (2016), Finland (2017), Germany (2017), Australia (2017),
Austria (2019), Taiwan (2019), Ecuador (2019), United
Kingdom (2020), Costa Rica (2020), Chile (2022),
Switzerland (2022), Slovenia (2022), Cuba (2022),
Mexico (2022) and Andorra (2023). Israel, legally
recognizes same-sex marriages, but does not allow such
marriages to be performed within the country.
Worldwide laws regarding same-sex Islamic law

intercourse, unions and expression
Same-sex intercourse illegal. Penalties:
On the other end of the spectrum, several countries impose
the death penalty for homosexual acts, per the application
Prison; death not
Death of some interpretations of Shari'a law. As of 2022, these
enforced include Afghanistan, Mauritania, Iran, Saudi Arabia,
Death under Prison, with arrests or Yemen and northern Nigeria.[91][92]
militias detention
Prison, not In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for
enforced1 homosexuality is public execution. However, the
government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail
Same-sex intercourse legal. Recognition of
time, and whipping – as alternatives, unless it feels that
unions:
homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging
Extraterritorial in LGBT social movements.[93]
Marriage
marriage2
Civil unions Limited domestic Most international human rights organizations, such as
Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International,
Limited foreign Optional certification
condemn laws that make homosexual relations between
Restrictions of consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations
None
expression Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws
Rings indicate local or case-by-case violate the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal
application. Declaration of Human Rights and the International
1 Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
No imprisonment in the past three years or moratorium
on law.
2 Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants,
Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may
perform other types of partnerships. many, even those with secular constitutions, continue to
outlaw homosexuality, though only in a minority
(Yemen[94] and Afghanistan[95]) is it punishable by death.
Of the countries where homosexuality is illegal, only Lebanon has an internal effort to legalize it.[96]
Muslim-majority countries where homosexuality is not criminalized include Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Kosovo and others.
Religion
As with social attitudes in general, religious attitudes towards homosexuality vary between and among
religions and their adherents. Traditionalists among the world's major religions generally disapprove of
homosexuality, and prominent opponents of social acceptance of homosexuality often cite religious
arguments to support their views. Liberal currents also exist within most religions, and modern lesbian and
gay scholars of religion sometimes point to a place for homosexuality among historical traditions and
scriptures, and emphasise religious teachings of compassion and love.
Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Islam, and various denominations of Christianity traditionally forbid
sexual relations between people of the same sex and teach that such behaviour is sinful. Religious
authorities point to passages in the Qur'an,[97] the Old Testament[98] and the New Testament[99] for
scriptural justification of these beliefs.
Among Indic religions (also known as Dharmic religions), including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and
Sikhism, teachings regarding homosexuality are less clear. Unlike in western religions, homosexuality is
rarely discussed. However, most contemporary religious authorities in the various Dharmic traditions view
homosexuality negatively, and when it is discussed, it is discouraged or actively forbidden.[100] Ancient
religious texts such as the Vedas often refer to people of a third gender, who are neither female nor male.
Some see this third gender as an ancient parallel to modern western lesbian, gay, transgender and intersex
identities. However, this third sex is usually negatively valued as a pariah class in ancient texts.[101] Ancient
Hindu law books, from the first century onward, categorize non-vaginal sex (ayoni) as impure.[102] Same-
sex sexuality and gender transformations are common among the Hindu pantheon of deities.
Among the Sinic religions of East Asia, including Confucianism, Chinese folk religion and Taoism,
passionate homosexual expression is usually discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human
fulfillment.[103]
Corporate attitudes
In some capitalist countries, large private sector firms often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men
and lesbians. For instance, more than half of the Fortune 500 offer domestic partnership benefits and 49 of
the Fortune 50 companies include sexual orientation in their non-discrimination policies (only ExxonMobil
does not).[104][105] At the same time, studies show that many private firms engage in significant
employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. In one study, for example, two fictitious but
realistic resumes were sent to roughly 1,700 entry-level job openings. The two resumes were very similar in
terms of the applicant's qualifications, but one resume for each opening mentioned that the applicant had
been part of a gay organization in college. The results showed that applicants without the gay signal had an
11.5 percent chance of being called for an interview; openly gay applicants had only a 7.2 percent chance.
The callback gap varied widely according to the location of the job. Most of the overall gap detected in the
study was driven by the Southern and Midwestern states in the sample—Texas, Florida, and Ohio. The
Western and Northeastern states in the sample (California, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and New York) had only
small and statistically insignificant callback gaps.[106]
In the Western world, in particular the United States and the United Kingdom, the corporatisation of LGBT
pride parades has been criticised by some.[107][108]
Anti-homosexual attitudes
Conservatism
Conservatism is a term broadly used for people who are inclined to

traditional values.
While conservatism includes people of many views, a significant

proportion of its adherents consider homosexuals, and especially
the efforts of homosexuals to achieve certain rights and recognition,
to be a threat to valued traditions, institutions and freedoms. Such Protesters at a 2006 gay pride event.
attitudes are generally tied in with opposition to what some San Francisco, United States.
conservatives call the "homosexual agenda".[109]
The finding that attitudes to alternative sexualities correlate strongly with nature of contact and with
personal beliefs is stated in a variety of research over a substantial time period, and conservative men and
women stand out in their views specifically.
Thus Herek, who established the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale in psychology, states:[110]
The ATLG and its subscales are consistently correlated with other theoretically relevant
constructs. Higher scores (more negative attitudes) correlate significantly with high religiosity,
lack of contact with gay men and lesbians, adherence to traditional sex-role attitudes, belief in
a traditional family ideology, and high levels of dogmatism
and that:[111]
The strongest predictor of positive attitudes toward homosexuals was that the interviewee
knew a gay man or lesbian. The correlation held across each demographic subset represented
in the survey—sex, education level, age—bar one: political persuasion.
An example of conservative views can also be found in the discussion of what conservatives call
"homosexual recruitment", within a document released by the conservative Christian organization Alliance
Defense Fund states:[112]
The homosexual activist movement are driving an agenda that will severely limit the ability to
live and practice the Gospel, whether it is in the boardroom, the classroom, halls of
government, private organizations, and even in places of worship. In their relentless attempts to
obtain special rights, that no other special interest group has, they are in the process of
redefining the family, demanding not only 'tolerance' ... but 'acceptance', and ultimately
seeking to marginalize, censor, and punish those individuals who stand in the way of their
multiple goals.
As this statement illustrates, those who believe that a disapproving attitude toward homosexuality is a tenet
of their religion can see efforts to abolish such attitudes as an attack on their religious freedom. Those who
regard homosexuality as a sin or perversion can believe that acceptance of homosexual parents and same-
sex marriage will redefine and diminish the institutions of family and marriage.
More generally, conservatives—by definition—prefer that institutions, traditions and values remain
unchanged, and this has put many of them in opposition to efforts designed to increase the cultural
acceptance and legal rights of homosexuals.
Psychology and sexual orientation
In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association's board of trustees voted to declassify homosexuality as a
mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).[113] Though some
criticized this as a political decision, the social and political impetus for change was supported by scientific
evidence.[114] In fact, the research of Evelyn Hooker and other psychologists and psychiatrists helped to
end the notion that homosexuality was in and of itself a mental illness. Homosexuality in and of itself was
removed from the DSM in 1974, but a diagnosis of distress related to one's sexual orientation remained in
the manual until 2013 (DSM-5). In parallel fashion, the World Health Organization removed homosexuality
from the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) in the tenth edition of that manual in 1992 (ICD-
10), but retained a diagnosis of distress related to one's sexual orientation until 2019 (ICD-11). Diagnosing
a person with a medical or mental health condition on the basis of sexual orientation is no longer allowable
under either of these leading diagnostic manuals.
Many religious groups and other advocates, like National Association for Research and Therapy of
Homosexuality (NARTH), believe that they can "heal" or "cure" homosexuality through conversion
therapy or other methods to change sexual orientation. In a survey of 882 people who were undergoing
conversion therapy, attending "ex-gay" groups or "ex-gay" conferences, 22.9% reported they had not
undergone any changes, 42.7% reported some changes, and 34.3% reported much change in sexual
orientation.[115] Many Western health and mental health professional organizations believe sexual
orientation develops across a person's lifetime,[116] but that this therapy is unnecessary, potentially harmful,
and the effectiveness has not been rigorously and scientifically proven. Much attention was given to the
dissent from this opinion by Robert Spitzer, but he later realized that his research was flawed and
apologized for the damage it may have done.[117] Another study refuting the claims of conversion therapy
proponents was done in 2001 by Ariel Shidlo and Michael Schroeder, which showed only 3% of the
participants claiming to have completely changed their orientation from gay to straight.[118]
In many non-Western post-colonial countries, homosexual orientation is still considered to be a mental

disorder and illness. In Muslim areas, this position is ascribed to the earlier adoption of European Victorian
attitudes by the westernized elite, in areas where previously native traditions embraced same-sex
relations.[119]
Blame for plagues and disasters
The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah as takes place in the Bible is sometimes attributed to attempted
homosexual rape, but this is disputed[120] and differs from earlier beliefs. Early Jewish belief (and some
Jews today)[121] variously attributed the destruction to turning a blind eye to social injustice or lack of
hospitality.[121]
Since the Middle Ages, sodomites were blamed for "bringing down the wrath of God" upon the land, and
their pleasures blamed for the periodic epidemics of disease which decimated the population. This
"pollution" was thought to be cleansed by fire, as a result of which countless individuals were burned at the
stake or run through with white-hot iron rods.
Since the end of the 1980s similar accusations have been made, inspired by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, with
preachers such as Jerry Falwell blaming both the victim and a supposedly tolerant societal view of
homosexuality.[122] Recent researches indicate that in the years since, the epidemic has spread and now has
many more heterosexual victims than homosexual.[123]
Association with child sexual abuse and pedophilia
Some people fear exposing their children to homosexuals in unsupervised settings because they believe the
children might be molested, raped, or "recruited" to be homosexuals themselves.[124][125][126] The
publicity surrounding the Roman Catholic sex abuse cases has heightened these concerns.[127] Many
organizations focus on these concerns, drawing connections between homosexuality and pedophilia.
According to the John Jay Report, a study commissioned by the United States Conference of Catholic
Bishops[128] under the auspices of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice and an all-lay review board
headed by Illinois Appellate Court Justice Anne M. Burke, "81% of the reported victims of child sexual
abuse by Catholic clergy were boys." The review board went on to conclude that, "the crisis was
characterized by homosexual behavior", and in light of this, "the current crisis cannot be addressed without
consideration of issues related to homosexuality." According to Margaret Smith, one of John Jay's
researchers, however, it is "an unwarranted conclusion" to assert that the majority of priests who abused
male victims are gay. Though "the majority of the abusive acts were homosexual in nature ... participation
in homosexual acts is not the same as sexual identity as a gay man."[129] Psychology professor Gregory
Herek also analyzed a number of studies and found no relationship between sexual orientation and
molestation.[130] One of her fellow researchers, Louis Schlesinger, argued that the main problem was
pedophilia or ephebophilia, not sexual orientation and said that some men who are married to adult women
are attracted to adolescent males.[131]
Small-scale studies by Carole Jenny, A.W. Richard Sipe, and others have not found evidence that
homosexuals are more likely to molest children than heterosexuals.[132][133][134] Based on the responses of
a sample of thousands of admitted child molesters, one study found that 70% of the sex offenders who
targeted boys rated themselves as predominantly or exclusively heterosexual in adult orientation on the
Kinsey scale, and only 8% as exclusively homosexual.[135] Phallometric testing on community males
shows that men with a preference for adult males (often called "androphiles" in these studies) are no more
attracted to adolescent or younger boys than are men with a preference for adult females (or
"gynephiles").[136][137][138] Conversely, sex offenders targeting boys—especially prepubescent boys—
may be heterosexual, while others lack attraction to adults of either sex.[139] Kurt Freund, analyzing sex
offender samples, concluded that only rarely does a sex offender against male children have a preference
for adult males;[137] Frenzel and Lang (1989) also noticed a lack of androphiles in their phallometric
analysis of 144 child sex offenders, which included 25 men who offended against underage boys.[140] A
study involving 21 adult sex offenders against boys found that two thirds of them had a sexual preference
for women over men, as measured by the penile plethysmograph, with the larger, "heterosexual" subgroup
targeting younger boys than the "homosexual" group.[141] A more recent survey, which asked self-
identified pedophiles in online communities to rate their sexual attraction to males and females from age 1
to age 18, found that those men disclosed very low levels of attraction towards more mature males, with the
authors concluding that, "[i]ntense sexual attraction to male children is distinct from, and not generally
compatible with, intense sexual attraction to men."[142]
Johns Hopkins University psychiatrist Frederick Berlin, who runs a treatment program for offenders, says it
is flawed to assume that men who molest young boys are attracted to adult men; Berlin defines attraction to
children as a separate orientation of its own.[143] Psychotherapist A. W. Richard Sipe also argues that the
sexual deprivation that occurs in the priesthood could lead one to turn to children and that boys are more
accessible to priests and other male authority figures than girls.[133] A study by A. Nicholas Groth found
that nearly half of the child sex offenders in his small sample were exclusively attracted to children. The
other half regressed to children after finding trouble in adult relationships. No one in his sample was
primarily attracted to same-sex adults.[144]
The empirical research shows that sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse
children.[145][146][147] Many child molesters cannot be characterized as having an adult sexual orientation
at all; they are fixated on children.[145]
Lawmakers and social commentators have sometimes expressed a concern that normalizing homosexuality
would also lead to normalizing pedophilia, if it were determined that pedophilia too were a sexual
orientation.[148]
International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association
Opposition to "promotion of homosexuality"

"Promotion of homosexuality" [149] is a group of behaviors believed by some gay-rights opponents to be
carried out in the mass media,[150] public places,[151] etc. The term gay propaganda may be used by others
to allege similar behaviors, especially in relation to false accusations of homosexual recruitment and an
alleged "gay agenda".
In the United Kingdom, Section 28 of the 1988 Local Government Act banned "promotion of
homosexuality as a pretended family relationship" by local government employees in the course of their
duties. The act was aimed to prevent the "promotion of homosexuality" in schools. Prosecutions increased
following the act.[152] Section 28 was later repealed in Scotland on 21 June 2000 as one of the first pieces
of legislation enacted by the new Scottish Parliament, and on 18 November 2003 in England and Wales by
section 122 of the Local Government Act 2003, with the Labour government also issuing an apology to
LGBT people for the act.[153] ()
Lithuania put in place a similar such ban 16 June 2009 amid protests by gay rights groups. LGBT rights
groups stated that it would be taken to the European Court of Human Rights for violation of European
Human rights laws.[156] Several Russian territories had implemented similar laws restricting the distribution
of "propaganda" promoting homosexuality to minors, including Ryazan, Arkhangelsk, and Saint
Petersburg.[157] In June 2013, a federal bill was passed in Russia that made the distribution of materials
promoting "non-traditional sexual relationships" among minors a criminal offence; the bill's author Yelena
Mizulina argued that the law was intended to help protect "traditional family values".[158][159]
Violence
Gay people have been the target of violence for their sexuality in various cultures throughout history.
During the Holocaust, 100,000 gay men were arrested, and between 5,000 and 15,000 gay men perished in
Nazi concentration camps.[160] Violence against LGBT people continues to occur today, fueled by anti-gay
rhetoric,[161] usually by teenage boys and young men who are very hostile to LGBT people and men who
do not conform to traditional gender roles.
Homophobic rhetoric
Regions and historical periods

Societal attitudes toward homosexuality vary greatly in different cultures and different historical periods, as
do attitudes toward sexual desire, activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own values
regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality; some sanction same-sex love and sexuality, while others
disapprove of such activities.[162] As with heterosexual behaviour, different sets of prescriptions and
proscriptions may be given to individuals according to their gender, age, social status or class. For example,
among the samurai class of pre-modern Japan, it was recommended for a teenage novice to enter into an
erotic relationship with an older warrior (see Shudo), but sexual relations between the two became
inappropriate once the boy came of age.[163]
Ancient India
Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece homoerotic practices were widely present, and
integrated into the religion, education, philosophy and military
culture.[164] The sexualized form of these relationships was the
topic of vigorous debate. In particular, anal intercourse was
condemned by many, including Plato, as a form of hubris and
faulted for dishonoring and feminizing the boys. Relations between
adult males were generally ridiculed. Plato also believed that the
chaste form of the relationship was the mark of an enlightened
society, while only barbarians condemned it.[165]
The extent to which the Greeks engaged in and tolerated

homosexual relations is open to some debate. In Sparta and Thebes,
there appeared to be a particularly strong emphasis on these Male couple (erastes and eromenos)
relationships, and it was considered an important part of a youth's kissing (Attic red-figured cup, ca.
education.[166] 480 BC)
Ancient Rome
"Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were not categories of Roman sexuality, and Latin lacks words that
would translate these concepts exactly.[167] The primary dichotomy of Roman sexuality was
active/dominant/masculine and passive/submissive/"feminized". The masculinity of an adult male citizen
was defined sexually by his taking the penetrative role, whether his partner was female or a male of lower
status.[168] A Roman citizen's political liberty (libertas) was defined in part by the right to preserve his body
from physical compulsion or use by others;[169] for the male citizen to use his body to give pleasure was
considered servile and subversive of the social hierarchy.[170]
It was acceptable for a man to be attracted to a beautiful young male,[171] but the bodies of citizen youths
were strictly off-limits.[172] Acceptable male partners were slaves, male prostitutes, or others who lacked
social standing (the infames). Same-sex relations among male citizens of equal status, including soldiers,
were disparaged, and in some circumstances penalized harshly.[173] In political rhetoric, a man might be
attacked for effeminacy or playing the passive role in sex acts, but not for performing penetrative sex on a
socially acceptable male partner.[174] Threats of anal or oral rape against another man were forms of
masculine braggadocio.[175]
Homosexual behaviors were regulated in so far as they threatened or impinged on an ideal of liberty for the
dominant male, who retained his masculinity by not being penetrated.[176] The Lex Scantinia imposed
penalties on those who committed a sex crime (stuprum) against a freeborn male minor; it may also have
been used to prosecute adult male citizens who willingly took the "passive" role.[177] Children who were
born into slavery or became enslaved had no legal protections against sexual abuse; a good-looking and
graceful slave-boy might be chosen and groomed as his owner's sexual favorite.[178] Pederasty in ancient
Rome thus differed from pederastic practice in ancient Greece, where by custom the couple were both
freeborn males of equal social status.
Although Roman law did not recognize marriage between men, and in general Romans regarded marriage
as a heterosexual union with the primary purpose of producing children, in the early Imperial period some
male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites. Juvenal remarks that his friends often attended
such ceremonies.[179] The emperor Nero had two marriages to men, once as the bride (with a freedman
Pythagoras) and once as the groom. He had his pederastic lover Sporus castrated, and during their
marriage, Sporus appeared in public as Nero's wife wearing the regalia that was customary for Roman
empresses.[180]
Same-sex relations among women are infrequently documented during the Republic and Principate, but
better attested during the Empire.[181] An early reference to homosexual women as "lesbians" is found in
the Roman-era Greek writer Lucian (2nd century AD): "They say there are women like that in Lesbos,
masculine-looking, but they don't want to give it up for men. Instead, they consort with women, just like
men."[182] Since male writers thought a sex act required an active or dominant partner who was "phallic",
they imagined that in lesbian sex one of the women would use a dildo or have an exceptionally large
clitoris for penetration, and that she would be the one experiencing pleasure.[183] The poet Martial
describes lesbians as having outsized sexual appetites and performing penetrative sex on both women and
boys.[184] Satiric portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and engage in vigorous
physical regimens, may reflect cultural anxieties about the growing independence of Roman women.[185]
Ancient China
Some early Chinese emperors are speculated to have had homosexual relationships, accompanied by
heterosexual ones.[186] Same-sex practices have been documented there since the "Spring and Autumn
Annals" period (parallel with Classical Greece) and its roots are found in the legend of China's origin, the
reign of the Yellow Emperor, who, among his many inventions, is credited with being the first to take male
bedmates.
Opposition to homosexuality in China originates in the medieval Tang dynasty, attributed to the rising
influence of Christian and Islamic values,[187] but did not become fully established until the late Qing
dynasty and the Republic of China.[188] The Chinese Psychiatrists' Association removed homosexuality
from the list of mental illnesses in April 2001.[189][190] However, as openly gay scriptwriter and teacher
Cui Zi'en points out, "In the West, it's frowned on to criticize homosexuals and even more to make them
feel different", says Cui Zi'en, contrasting it with Chinese society which, "is changing, but there'll always
be people who'll feel disgust".[191]
Ancient Israel
In the book of Leviticus, intercourse between males was condemned as an 'abomination' (Leviticus 18:22,
22:13), and required the death penalty for those men who "lie with a man as with a woman".[192]
Early Christianity
Many contend that from its earliest days, Christianity followed the Hebrew tradition of condemnation of
male sexual intercourse and certain forms of sexual relations between men and women, labeling both as
sodomy. Some contemporary Christian scholars dispute this however. The teachings of Jesus Christ
encouraged a turning away from and forgiveness of sin, including those sins of sexual impurity, although
Jesus never referred to homosexuality specifically. Jesus was known as a defender of those whose sexual
sins were condemned by the Pharisees. At the same time, Jesus strongly upheld the Ten Commandments
and urged those whose sexual sins were forgiven to, "go, and sin no more".[193]
Saint Paul was even more explicit in his condemnation of sinful behavior, including sodomy, saying,
"Know you not that the unjust shall not possess the kingdom of God? Do not err: neither fornicators, nor
idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor liers with mankind, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor
drunkards, nor railers, nor extortioners, shall possess the kingdom of God."[194] However, the exact
meanings of two of the ancient Greek words that Paul used that supposedly refer to homosexuality are
disputed among scholars. In the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, however, the relevant words
employed in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy are the same words employed in Leviticus 18 to denote gay men.
Christian Roman Empire / Byzantine Empire
After the emperor Constantine ended the persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire and
Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion in the 4th century, Christian attitudes toward sexual
behavior were soon incorporated into Roman Law. In the year 528, the emperor Justinian I, responding to
an outbreak of pederasty among the Christian clergy, issued a law which made castration the punishment
for sodomy.[195]
Medieval Europe
In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was punishable by death. Persecutions
reached their height during the Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were
accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of Satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and
homosexuality were major charges leveled during the Trial of the Knights Templar.[196] The theologian
Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnations of homosexuality with the idea of natural law,
arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of
male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices".[197]
New Guinea
The Bedamini people of New Guinea believe that semen is the main source of masculinity and strength. In
consequence, the sharing of semen between men, particularly when there is an age gap, is seen as
promoting growth throughout nature, while excessive heterosexual activities are seen as leading to decay
and death.[198]
Russia
A survey run by the Levada Centre in Russia in July 2010 concluded that "homophobia is widespread in
Russian society". It draws this conclusion from the following findings. 74% of respondents believed that
gays and lesbians are immoral or psychologically disturbed people. Only 15% responded that
homosexuality is as legitimate as traditionally conceived sexual orientation. 39% consider that they should
be compulsorily treated or alternatively isolated from society. 4% considered that it is necessary to liquidate
people of a non-traditional sexual orientation.
On the other hand, many Russians (45%) were in favour of the equality of homosexuals with other citizens
(41% against, 15% undecided). Most supported the introduction in Russia of laws forbidding discrimination
on the grounds of sexual orientation and incitement of hatred for gays and lesbians (31% against, 28%
undecided).
The Levada Centre reached the following conclusions on the distribution of these view in different groups
of society. "In Russian society, homophobia is most often encountered among men, older respondents (over
55), and people with an average level of education and low income... Women, young Russians (18–39),
and well educated and comfortably off respondents showed more tolerance for people of a non-traditional
sexual orientation, and more understanding of related issues. Respondents over 40, people of average or
lower education or low incomes, and rural people—the sectors retaining the inertia of Soviet thinking—are
more likely to believe that homosexuality is a disease requiring treatment, and that homosexuals must be
isolated from society".[199]
Arab world
Men who have sex with other men in Arab societies do not commonly refer to each other as homosexuals.
Laurens Buijs, Gert Hekma, and Jan Willem Duyvendak, authors of the 2011 article "'As long as they keep
away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country", said "This might explain why
they are more likely to condemn men who explicitly claim a homosexual identity."[200] In the 2011 article
they said that among men in Arab countries who do not identify as homosexual, anal sexual intercourse is
"often said to be common" and that the men's "masculine gender role is not at stake as long as they take up
the active role".[200]
Netherlands
Laurens Buijs, Gert Hekma, and Jan Willem Duyvendak, authors of the 2011 article "'As long as they keep
away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country", said that the Netherlands has a
"tolerant and gay-friendly image",[201] and that Dutch people, according to cross-national survey research,
exhibit more acceptance of homosexuality than "most other European peoples".[202] They also stated that
Dutch people exhibit support for equal rights for and non-discrimination of homosexuals.[202] They
explained "Amsterdam, in particular is often associated with gay emancipation, as it provided the setting for
the world's first legally recognized 'gay marriage' in 2001, and hosts the famous gay parade with festively
decorated boats floating through the city's picturesque canals each year."[202] According to the article,
despite this reputation, the aspects of attempts of men to seduce other men, anal sex, behavior perceived as
"feminine" from males, and public displays of affection among homosexuals are likely to trigger
homophobia in the Netherlands.[203]
They argued that "antigay violence is a remarkably grave problem" in that country.[201] They explained
that members of five ethnic groups, Dutch-Antilleans, Dutch-Greeks, Dutch-Moroccans, Dutch-Serbs,
Dutch-Turks, "are less accepting towards homosexuality, also when controlled for gender, age, level of
education and religiosity".[204] They also stated that the culture in the Armed Forces of the Netherlands "is
notoriously masculine and intolerant towards homosexuality".[204] Until the year 2000, right wing
politicians in the Netherlands generally opposed homosexuality, but as of 2011 show support of
homosexuality and oppose anti-gay attitudes in immigrant groups, stating that the country has a "Dutch
tradition of tolerance" for homosexuality.[201]
United States
McCarthy era
In the 1950s in the United States, open homosexuality was taboo. Legislatures in every state had passed
laws against homosexual behavior well before this, most notably anti-sodomy laws. Many politicians
treated the homosexual as a symbol of antinationalism, construing masculinity as patriotism and marking
the "unmasculine" homosexual as a threat to national security. This perceived connection between
homosexuality and antinationalism was present in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia[205] as well, and
appears in contemporary politics to this day.[206][207]
Senator Joseph McCarthy used accusations of homosexuality as a
smear tactic in his anti-Communist crusade, often combining the
Second Red Scare with the Lavender Scare. On one occasion, he
went so far as to announce to reporters, "If you want to be against
McCarthy, boys, you've got to be either a Communist or a
cocksucker."[208]
Senator Kenneth Wherry likewise attempted to invoke some

connection between homosexuality and antinationalism as, for
example, when he said in an interview with Max Lerner that "You
can't hardly separate homosexuals from subversives." Later in that Senator Joseph McCarthy
same interview he draws the line between patriotic Americans and
gay men: "But look Lerner, we're both Americans, aren't we? I say,
let's get these fellows [closeted gay men in government positions] out of the government."[209]
There were other perceived connections between homosexuality

and Communism. Wherry publicized fears that Joseph Stalin had
obtained a list of closeted homosexuals in positions of power from
Adolf Hitler, which he believed Stalin intended to use to blackmail
these men into working against the U.S. for the Soviet regime.[210]
The 1950 Senate subcommittee Hoey Report "Employment of
The film Boys Beware (1961)
Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government" said that
"the pervert is easy prey to the blackmailer.... It is an accepted fact
among intelligence agencies that espionage organizations the world
over consider sex perverts who are in possession of or have access to confidential material to be prime
targets where pressure can be exerted." Along with that security-based concern, the report found
homosexuals unsuitable for government employment because "those who engage in overt acts of
perversion lack the emotional stability of normal persons. In addition there is an abundance of evidence to
sustain the conclusion that indulgence in acts of sex perversion weakens the moral fiber of an individual to
a degree that he is not suitable for a position of responsibility."[211] McCarthy and Roy Cohn used the
secrets of closeted gay American politicians as tools for blackmail more often than did foreign powers.[212]
LGBT civil rights movement
Beginning in the 20th century, LGBT rights movements have led to changes in social acceptance and in the
media portrayal of same-gender relationships. The legalization of same-sex marriage, a major goal of gay
rights supporters, was achieved across all fifty states during the period from 2004 to 2015. (See also LGBT
rights organization.)
Attitudes toward homosexuality have changed in developed societies in the latter part of the 20th century,
accompanied by a greater acceptance of gay people into both secular and religious institutions.
Some opponents of the movement say the term LGBT civil rights is a misnomer and an attempt to
piggyback on the civil rights movement. Rev. Jesse Lee Peterson, for example, called the comparison of the
civil rights movement to the "gay rights movement" a "disgrace to a black American". He said that
"homosexuality is not a civil right. What we have is a bunch of radical homosexuals trying to attach their
agenda to the struggles of the 1960s,"[213] while Jesse Jackson has said "Gays were never called three-
fifths human in the Constitution." Gene Rivers, a Boston minister, has accused gays of "pimping" the civil
rights movement.[214]
In contrast, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), a leading
organization during the civil rights movement, has made clear their support for LGBT rights and equate it
with other human rights and civil rights movements.[215]
Statistics
73% of the general public in the United States in 2001 stated that they knew someone who is gay, lesbian,
or bisexual.[216] This is the result of a steady increase from 1983 when there were 24%, 43% in 1993, 55%
in 1998, or 62% in 2000. The percentage of the general public who say there is more acceptance of LGB
people in 2001 than before was 64%. Acceptance was measured on many different levels—87% of the
general public would shop at a store owned by someone who is gay or lesbian but only 46% of the general
public would attend a church or synagogue where a minister or rabbi is openly gay or lesbian. A 2011
survey by the Pew Research Center showed that 60% of U.S. adults think homosexuality should be
accepted.[217] Males and people over 65 years old are more likely to think it is wrong. Among people who
do not know someone who is LGB, 61% think the behavior is wrong. Broken down by religion, 60% of
evangelical Christians think that it is wrong, whereas 11% with no religious affiliation are against it. 57% of
the general public think that gays and lesbians experience a lot of prejudice and discrimination, making it
the group most believed to experience prejudice and discrimination. African Americans come in second at
42%.[218]
In terms of support of public policies, according to the same 2001 study, 76% of the general public thought
that there should be laws to protect gay and lesbian people from job discrimination, 74% from housing
discrimination, 73% for inheritance rights, 70% support health and other employee benefits for domestic
partners, 68% supported social security benefits, and 56% supported GL people openly serving in the
military. 73% favored sexual orientation being included in the hate crimes statutes. 39% supported same-sex
marriage, while 47% supported civil unions, and 46% supported adoption rights. A poll conducted in 2013
showed a record high of 58% of the American people supporting legal recognition for same-sex
marriage.[219][220] A separate study shows that, in the United States, the younger generation is more
supportive of gay rights than average, and that there is growing support for LBGT rights. In 2011, for the
first time, a majority of Americans supported the legalization of same-sex marriage.[221] In 2012, President
Barack Obama voiced support for gay marriage, and in the November elections, three states voted to
legalize gay marriage at the ballot box for the first time in history[222] while an attempt to restrict same-sex
marriage was rejected. In 2016, 55% of U.S. citizens supported same sex marriage and 37% opposed.[223]
See also
LGBT portal
Biphobia
Gay bashing
Heterosexism
Homosexuality in society
LGBT stereotypes
Liberal homophobia
Media portrayal of bisexuality
Structural abuse
Sociology of gender
Status of same-sex marriage
Further reading
David Ekstam. 2021. "The Liberalization of American Attitudes to Homosexuality and the
Impact of Age, Period, and Cohort Effects." Social Forces.
Notes
a. Because some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with simple yes/no
percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be compared.
b. Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.
c. [+ more urban/educated than representative]
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Societal attitudes toward homosexuality

Societal attitudes toward

Many of the world's cultures

Difficulties in interpreting homosexuality

Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality

Same-sex marriage Canada 85% 10%

United Kingdom 86% 11%

Italy 75% 20%

Greece 53% 40%

Hungary 49% 39%

Slovakia 44% 46%

Lithuania 28% 45%

Ukraine 14% 69%

Israel 47% 45%

Lebanon 13% 85%

Philippines 73% 24%

Japan 68% 22%

India 37% 37%

Argentina 76% 19%

Mexico 69% 24%

South Africa 54% 38%

Institut d'Estudis 70% 19% [30]

Antigua and Barbuda AmericasBarometer 2017 12% – – [31]

Pew Research 3% 96% [34][35]

Aruba 2021 46% [36]

66% 30% [37]

Bahamas AmericasBarometer 2015 11% – – [38]

Pew Research 16% 81% [34][35]

Belize AmericasBarometer 2014 8% – – [38]

Bolivia AmericasBarometer 2017 35% 65% – ±1.0% [31]

Bosnia and Pew Research 2015– 13% 84% [34][35]

Pew Research [33]

Pew Resarch [39]

Costa Rica CIEP 2018 35% 64% 1% [41]

39% 55% [37]

Cuba Apretaste 2019 63% 37% – [42]

36% 60% [37]

Czech Republic Median agency 2019 67% – – [43]

Dominica AmericasBarometer 2017 10% 90% – ±1.1% [31]

Dominican Republic CDN 37 2018 45% 55% - [44]

23% 51% [45]

53% 39% [47]

76% 21% [37]

Pew Research [33]

Grenada AmericasBarometer 2017 12% 88% – ±1.4%c [31]

Guatemala AmericasBarometer 2017 23% 77% – ±1.1% [31]

Guyana AmericasBarometer 2017 21% 79% – ±1.3% [38]

Haiti AmericasBarometer 2017 5% 95% – ±0.3% [31]

17% 75% [49]

Pew Research [33]

Iceland Gallup 2006 89% 11% – [50]

Pew Research [33]

Pew Research [33]

Pew Research [33]

Jamaica AmericasBarometer 2017 16% 84% – ±1.0% [31]

Pew Research [33]

Pew Research 7% 89% [34][35]