biology chapter one

CELL

STRUC

TURE
G11 Virly VC.

1.2 Cells as the basic units of living organism

studying cell structure by electron microscop
organelle structure and functio
comparison of typical plant and animal cell
ATP, production and rol
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Viruses as non-cellular structure
Relative sizes of molecules, macromolecules, viruses,
and organisms
CELLS
Cells are the building Remember that
blocks of structure in no ‘typical’ cell
living thig
Cells are the smallest exists - there
unit of lif great variety
Cells are made from
other cells (pre-existing
among cells!
cells) by divisio

Cells contain a blueprint

for their growth,
development, and
behavio
Cells are the site of all
the chemical reactions
of life (metabolism)

Beside me is how
the skin looks under
the microscope. You
can actually see
thousands of cells!
BASICS
definitions and
Animals and plants
introduction
cells have these three
structures in common.

NUCLEUS
the structure that controls and
directs the activities of the cell

Cytoplasm
the site of the chemical reactions of
life, which we call ‘metabolism’

CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE

/plasma membrane, the barrier
controlling entry to and exit from the
cytoplasm
 ANIMAL +
+ CELL
a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true,
membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles.

Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondrion Endoplasmic
reticulum

Centrioles
Nucleus &
nucleolus

Ribosomes

*Animal Cells under the

microscope
 PLANT

PLANT +
+ CELL
Plant cells are the tiny units that make up all the green parts
of plants, from leaves to stems to roots.

Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondrion Endoplasmic
reticulum

Vacuole
Nucleus &
nucleolus

Ribosomes

*Plant Cells under the

microscope
 CELL SURFACE
MEMBRANE

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is

found in all cells and separates the interior of the cell from

the outside environment.

Extremely thin structure - less than 10nm thick

contains lipid bilayer - proteins are embedded here

three layers



retains the fluid cytosol

forms the barrier across which all substances entering and

leaving the cell must pass

where the cell is identified by surrounding cells

 NUCLEUS
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE AND
NUCLEOLUS

A nucleus, is the membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell

that contains the chromosomes.

largest organelle in the eukaryotic cell (10-30um diameter)

nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus and contains

many pores to make possible speedy movement of

molecules between nucleus and cytoplasm vice-versa

nucleus contains chromosomes (made of DNA and

protein)

nucleolus - site where ribosomes are synthesised

nucleus - manages cell

 ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

ER, a continuous membrane system that forms a series of

flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and
serves multiple functions, being important particularly in
the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of
proteins .

Rough ER - ribosomes attached to outer surface, vesicles

are formed from swellings, site of synthesis of proteins
that are ‘packaged’ in the vesicles

Smooth ER - no ribosomes, site of synthesis of substances

needed by cells (manufacture of lipids and steroids,
reproductive hormones)
 GOLGI
APPARATUS

Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi body, membrane-bound

organelle of eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei)

that is made up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called

cisternae.

occurs in all cells, but is especially prominent in

metabolically active cells

more than one may be present in a cell

site of synthesis of specific biochemicals (hormones,

enzymes or others)

here specific proteins may be activated by addition of

sugars (forming glycoprotein) or by the removal of the

amino acid, methionine

These are then packaged into vescicles (may for

lysosomes in animals and polysaccharides in plants)

 MITOCHON-
DRIA

A mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such

as animals, plants and fungi. Mitochondria have a double membrane
structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is used throughout the cell as a source of chemical energy.

typically 0.5-1.5 um wide and 3.0-10.0um long

Double membrane

Outer membrane is a smooth boundary, the inner infolded

to form cristae

interior of the mitrochondrion is called the matrix

(aqueous solution of metabolites and enzymes, also small
lengths of DNA)

site of the aerobic stages of respiration and the site of the

synthesis of much ATP
 RIBOSOMES

a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins

found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They
bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize
polypeptides and proteins.

approximately 25nm in diameter

consist of protein and a nucleic acid known as RNA

site where proteins are made in cells

Many different types of cell contain vast numbers of

ribosomes. Some cell proteins produced in the ribosomes
have structural roles. (Ex, Collagen)

Many other cell proteins are enzymes (biological catalysts)

 LYSOSOMES

A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that

contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with
various cell processes. They break down excess or worn-out
cell parts.

spherical vesicles bound by a single membrane

contain a concentrated mixture of ‘digestive’ enzymes

(hydrolytic enzymes)

involved in the breakdown of contents of ‘food’ vacuoles

any foreign matter or food particles taken up into these

vacuoles are then broken down (occurs when lysosome
fuse with the vacuole)

autolysis - the destruction of a cell through the action of

its own enzymes (lysosomes)
 CENTRIOLES
& MICROTUBULES

A centriole is the main unit that creates and anchors

microtubules in the cell. Typically, a eukaryotic cell has one

centriole that is at a right angle to a second centriole in the

centrosome.

A centriole consist of nine paired microtubules arranged

in a short, hollow cylinder.

Microtubules extend from the each centriole, and use the

centriole as an anchor for the base of each microtubule.

Microtubules are made out of a globular protein called

tubulin

The cells of all eukaryotes, have a well-organised systems

of these microtubules, which shape and support the

cytoplasm
 CILIA

The cilium, plural cilia (from Latin 'eyelash'), is a

membrane-bound organelle found on most types of

eukaryotic cell, and certain microorganisms known

as ciliates. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea.

organelles that project from the surface of certain cells

can move and can be up to 10um long

occur in large numbers on certain cells such as the ciliated

lining (epithelium) of the bronchi, where they cause the

movement of mucus across the cell surface

 MICROVILLI

Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are microscopic cellular

membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for

diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are

involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption,

secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.

minute projections, around 1um long, from the surface of

some cells formed by the infoldings of the plasma

membrane, making a ‘brush border’

increase surface area enormously for functions such as

absorption (Ex. in small intestine and in proximal

convoluted tubule of the kidney)

 CHLOROPLASTS

A chloroplast is a type of membrane-bound organelle known

as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant

and algal cells.

large organelles; biconvex in shape; about 4-10um long

and 2-3um wide

mesophyll cell maybe packed with 50 or more

chloroplasts.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts by which light is

used as the energy source in carbohydrate and ATP

synthesis
 CELL WALL
PLASMODESMATA

A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of

cells, just outside the cell membrane. It can be tough,
flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both
structural support and protection, and also acts as a
filtering mechanism.

not an organelle

Plant cells are always surrounded by a cell wall made of

cellulose, which is neverfound around animal cells.

The cell walls often have holes in them called

plasmodesmata. These structures connect the cytoplasm
of neighboring cells so that substances can move freely

between them.

 VACUOLE
& TONOPLAST

In plants, a large vacuole occupies the majority of the cell.

This vacuole is surrounded by the tonoplast, a type of
cytoplasmic membrane that can stretch and fills itself with
a solution known as cell sap.

Many plant cells contain a large permanent vacuole in

which they store water,

salts, pigments and other substances.

When the vacuole is filled with water it exerts pressure on

the cell wall to make

the cell turgid.

The outer membrane of the vacuole is called the

tonoplast.
 01

ATP
Adenosine
Triphosphate
Cells constantly use energy to maintain the processes that
keep them alive. These processes include
active transport of substances across membranes,
movement
and the building up of large molecules (such as the
synthesis of proteins).

The immediate source of energy for a cell is adenosine

triphosphate, or ATP.

02

ATP can be broken down to adenosine diphosphate, ADP,

and a phosphate ion, releasing a small packet of useable
energy.
Mitochondria make ATP by aerobic respiration, while
chloroplasts make ATP in the light-dependent stage of
photosynthesis.
 01

P R O KA R YO T I C

cells

Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria and Archaea,

whereas eukaryotic cells are found in animals, plants,
Protoctista and fungi.

02

Prokaryotic cells are generally much smaller than

eukaryotic cells.
The fundamental difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells is that they do not have a nucleus or any
other organelles bound by a double membran
Most prokaryotic organisms are unicellular. Eukaryotic
organisms (including plants, animals and fungi) are
usually multicellular.
Comparison of

prokaryotic, animal and plant cells

EUKARYOTIC CELL
FEATURE PROKARYOTIC CELL
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

Cell surface membrane Always present Always present Always present

Cell wall Always present; made of

Never present Always present; made of

peptidoglycans cellulose

Nucleus and nuclear

Never present Always present Always present

envelope

Chromosomes Contain so-called ‘bacterial

Contain several
Contain several

chromosomes’ – a circular molecule

chromosomes, each
chromosomes, each

of DNA not associated with histones

made up of a linear DNA
made up of a linear DNA

(sometimes said to be ‘naked’ DNA);

molecule associated with
molecule associated with

bacteria may also contain smaller

histones histones

circles of DNA called plasmids

Mitochondria Never present Usually present Usually present

Chloroplasts Never present, although some

Never present Sometimes present

do contain chlorophyll or other

photosynthetic pigments

Rough and smooth

Never present Usually present Usually present

endoplasmic reticulum

and Golgi apparatus

Ribosomes 70S ribosomes present 80S ribosomes present in

80S ribosomes

cytoplasm; 70S ribosomes

present in cytoplasm;

in mitochondria 70S ribosomes in

mitochondria and

chloroplasts
Centrioles Never present Usually present Never present
viruses
STRUCTURE

Viruses are extremely small particles made of an RNA or

DNA core surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.
Some have an outer envelope made of phospholipids. They
are non-cellular.

Viruses are not able to carry out any of the processes

characteristic of living things unless they are inside a living
cell, where they ‘hijack’ the cell’s machinery to make copies
of themselves. All viruses are, therefore, parasitic. Some
viruses cause disease in humans.