CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the project

Energy is a necessity like food and water. Everything around us requires energy. Over the years

there has been an increase in the earth’s population which is directly proportional to the energy

used as well. All the possible gadgets and equipment need some or the other kind of energy to

function. With depleting fossil fuel reserves it becomes necessary to identify viable renewable

energy resources that can decrease the dependency on fossil fuels. Solar energy is the most

abundant form of energy available to us. It is approximated that 10000 TW worth of solar

energy is incident on earth’s surface in a day (Bosshard, 2006). According to a report, the world

energy consumption in 2015 was 17.4 TW altogether (Seger, 2016). There has been a minimal

increase in the energy consumption every year, approximately 1-1.5% annual growth. The

world’s total energy consumption is expected to grow by 56% by the year 2040 (U.S Energy

Information Administration, 2013). Comparing current consumption, projected growth in two

decades, and the amount of solar radiation received in an hour we can just imagine the potential

solar energy holds. The total energy consumed is not small fraction of what we receive in an

hour. Despite this energy potential available to us the current utilization of solar energy is less

than 5% globally. There are countries that are taking initiatives to switch from using fossil fuels

to solar applications. These countries form a pool called the G-20 countries which have taken

the global leadership to adopt renewable resources of energy. Germany is one of the G20

countries that has switched its energy needs to approximately 38% to solar, and aims to go

completely stop its dependency on nuclear and replace it with solar by the year

2050(Richardson, 2017). Similarly, most of the countries have abundant solar potential and can take

a lesson from Germany. Apart from harvesting the resource and decreasing the dependency on fossil

fuel because they are limited, one must understand the consequences of using fossil fuels. Burning of

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fossil fuels for energy has an adverse effect on the environment. It releases CO₂ into the atmosphere

which is responsible for the greenhouse effect. Further, it also causes the ozone layer to be depleted.

These mentioned phenomena can cause several events to occur such as; acid rain, air pollution, land

pollution because of excavating operations, etc. A 4 KW solar panel used in homes for 25 years can

offset 199,697 lbs of CO₂, is equivalent to planting, and is equal to 208,166 (RGS- Rethink your roof,

n.d.). It is fascinating that how much just one home can make an impact in the environment by using

Solar panels. One could imagine, what would be the benefit of using this technology on larger scale.

This project delves into the intricate realm of solar energy by specifically addressing the design

and installation nuances of a 7.5KVA Photovoltaic Solar System, leveraging the advanced

capabilities of a Hybrid Inverter. As conventional energy resources approach their limits and

environmental concerns heighten, the imperative to transition towards cleaner, more

sustainable alternatives becomes evident. Solar energy, abundant and environmentally benign,

stands as a pivotal player in this transition. However, the realization of solar's potential hinges

not only on advancements in photovoltaic technology but also on the efficiency and

adaptability of the systems managing the captured solar energy. The integration of a Hybrid

Inverter in this project augments the system's capabilities, ensuring a seamless blend of solar

and grid power, thus enhancing overall reliability and performance. Finding readily available,

sustainable, and alternative energy sources is therefore important. Renewable energy sources

are one of the most environmentally responsible alternatives to burning fossil fuels because of

their abundance, adaptability, low environmental toxicity, ease of manufacture, and low cost.

(Saravanan, Kato, Balamurugan, Kaushik, & Soga, 2017). Utilizing solar photovoltaic systems

as a sustainable energy source is one of the most effective ways to solve the world's energy

crisis. Uranium, coal, and petroleum will be swiftly replaced by this renewable energy as the

main energy sources of the present. (Natarajan Divagar, 2009). Solar photovoltaic systems

employ PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The generated electricity can either be

stored or used right away. Photovoltaic systems can be installed in a variety of locations,

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depending on the desires of the users or owners. Some use state-of-the-art semiconductor

materials to convert solar energy generated into electrical energy, and are put on the ground or

rooftops, particularly at a sun radiating center. Other PV materials are referred to as grid-

connected systems. The extra energy produced by a grid-connected PV system that a customer

is not utilizing is exported to the utility, which causes the customer's electric meter to run

backwards. These systems function as an addition to the current electric service provided by a

utility provider. The client can use the utility to obtain the extra power they need if the PV

system's output is insufficient to support the building's demands. In this instance, the monthly

electric utility bill for the consumer simply reflects the net amount of energy they obtained

from the utility.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The demand for electrical power to drive global growth and progress is escalating exponentially;

however, frequent power blackouts and the perilously depleting resources pose a threat. The lamentable

aspect is that numerous businesses, factories, and industries have closed down due to power failures,

and the fuel intended for an alternative power source has harmed the generator system. Furthermore,

the expense of fuel is exorbitant, necessitating the exploration of alternative energy sources. Solar

energy, in particular, has demonstrated itself as an uncomplicated and cost-effective substitute due to

its affordability and ease of utilization. Solar panels generate direct currents (DC) connected to the

power grid for industrial applications. The conversion from DC to AC is executed using a DC-AC

converter, with its primary component being the intensity of sunlight at any given moment.

1.3 Aim and the Objectives of the project

The primary objective of this project is the installation of a 7.5KVA solar inverter system,

focusing specifically on the Prof’s offices of the Physics department and the HOD offices. This

is to provide efficiency, steadiness in the use of power appliances, by ensuring continuous

availability of power supply even in the absence of mains. Uninterruptability of the system

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made it possible to eliminate all suspense from mains outage during the execution of an

important and urgent assignment as may be required. For better production of the system, the

system was operated at a fully charged condition of the battery and by implementing this solar

inverter system, the project strives to reduce dependency on conventional energy sources and

promote a greener approach within the academic realm. The targeted installation site, the

Administrative offices of the Physics department, emphasizes the strategic utilization of

renewable energy in educational institutions. Ultimately, the project envisions not only a

functional solar power system but also a model for integrating clean energy solutions in

administrative settings.

The objective of this project are:

1. To design a solar energy system capable of generating 7.5kVA of electricity.

2. To provide continuous availability of power supply even when there are no mains to

promote efficiency and consistency in the operation of electrical appliances.

3. To integrate a hybrid inverter that seamlessly combines solar and grid power.

4. To provide a reliable and sustainable source of electricity for educational institutions.

5. To reduce the dependency on non-renewable energy sources, thereby contributing to

environmental conservation.

1.4 Significance or Benefit of the Project

As an illustration, a solar inverter can serve numerous functions across different dimensions.
A DC/AC inverter stands out as one of the most beneficial power sources. In scientific
laboratories, the inverter plays a pivotal role as the primary power supply and serves as a
backup source in the following manner:

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• To decrease expenses related to electricity.

• Moreover, it diminishes the economic costs associated with the transportation system.

• It is more environmentally friendly and safer.

• It is devoid of pollution and ecologically sustainable.

1.5 Scope of the Project

At present, solar panels are primarily utilized for supplying hot water (solar thermal) and

heating to individual homes and small communities. Efforts to establish solar power plants,

employing turbines to convert stored heat into electricity, have faced significant setbacks due

to low yields, high operational costs, and intermittent electricity supply issues—although recent

advances in concentration panels show promise. In contrast, photovoltaic panels are

predominantly employed in off-grid scenarios, such as powering space probes and

mountainous phone repeaters, as well as in situations with limited energy requirements where

a grid connection would be economically impractical (e.g., for light road signs, parking

meters). To ensure continuous power availability, these devices must be equipped with

batteries capable of storing excess electricity generated during the day for use during nighttime

and cloudy periods. Despite their sensitivity to infrared radiation, allowing operation in

overcast weather and rain, current photovoltaic panel’s exhibit variable and unpredictable

energy output. This discontinuity poses challenges in meeting fluctuating energy demands

consistently, especially without a production surplus above peak annual demand.

1.8 Limitations to the Projects

• Its capacity is limited and cannot sustain loads exceeding 7.5KVA.

• Inadequate charging to the expected voltage may lead to a decrease in output voltage.

• Initial expenses for startup are high.

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• It occupies a considerable amount of space.

• The installation costs for security systems are notably high.

• Their performance is susceptible to weather conditions.

• Not universally applicable to all roof types.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background

In the 18th century, Swiss physicists assembled a warm trap, which was a small-scale

greenhouse. He developed a hot box, by a glass box in another larger glass box, a total of

up to five boxes. When they are proposed to coordinate the sun illumination, the

temperature in the deepest box can be raised to 108 degrees Celsius; warm enough to soak

water and cook food. These crates can be considered the world's first solar collection. In

the late 1950, some organizations and research facilities began to create a silicon based

solar cell that considers the goal of controlling Earth-orbiting satellites. These include

RCA, Hoffman Electronics, and in addition, the U.S. Army Alert Corps (Desideri,

Zapparelli, & Garroni, 2013).

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of photons

that are incident on it to electrical energy, which is a natural and synthetic marvel. A

separate cell unit can be connected to a frame module, also known as a solar panel.

Different solar cells in a unified set, all arranged in the plane represents a solar photovoltaic

board or module. PV modules usually have a glass in front of the panel, allowing light to

pass through, while ensuring that the semiconductor plate is protected inside the case. Solar

cells are usually associated, and arranged in series or parallel module, depending upon the

requirement of the customer. The parallel interface unit gets higher current; however, the

problem, for example, that shadow effects can turn off weaker (less bright) parallel strings

(different permutations of cells) can cause great unpleasant effects and may cause damage

because of their enlightened complicity and the reversal of dark cell tendencies. A series

of stacked units are usually autonomous and not parallel, but starting from 2014, each

module provides a singular power box on a regular basis and connects in parallel.

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2.2 Working Principle of Solar Panel

In the previous discussion it has been established that there is abundance of solar energy

available to be harvested. A brief discussion of what PV cells is also being covered. It is

necessary that we understand how these cells generate electricity so that we can design systems

that can be in tandem with these basic concepts. The following discussion will explain how the

cells generate electricity.

Principle: Sun is a powerhouse of energy and this energy moves around in the form of

electromagnetic radiations. These radiations are of several types such as light, radio waves, etc.

depending upon the wavelength of the radiations emitted. A very less percentage of sun’s

radiations reach the earth’s atmosphere in the form of visible light. Solar cells use this visible

light to make electrons. Different wavelength of light is used by different solar cells.

Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which is used to produce

electricity. The electricity is conducted as a stream of tiny particles called electrons and the

stream is called electric current. Two main types of electric currents are; DC (direct current)

which the flow of current is in the same direction while in AC (Alternating current) it may

reverse the direction of current. A typical solar cell has two layers of silicon, which is n-type

at the top and p-type at the bottom. When sunlight strikes the solar cell, the electrons are

absorbed by silicon, they flow between n and p-layers to produce electric current and the

current leaves the cell through the metal contact. The electricity generated is of AC type.

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 Figure 2.1: Working of solar cell

2.3 Types of PV System

With growing demand for PV systems, the utilities provided an option for the consumers to

connect their systems to the grid. This step introduced a new term called “Net Metering.” Net

metering allows the consumers to send back the electricity they generate from their PV systems

to the grid. This is possible because of the grid-tied connection enabled by the utility. Similarly,

we also have systems that are independent and do not require themselves to be connected to

the grid such systems are called off-grid systems or standalone systems. Both the systems have

been explained in detail below:

1. Off-Grid Systems or Standalone

The off-grid system term states the system not relating to the gird facility. Primarily, the system

which is not connected to the main electrical grid is term as off-grid PV system (Weis, 2013).

Off-grid system also called standalone system or mini grid which can generate the power and

run the appliances by itself. Off-grid systems are suitable for the electrification of small

community. Off-grid electrification system is viable for the remote areas in the countries where

they do have little or no access to the electricity because of the distinct living and spread

population in the vast area. The off-grid system refers to the support that would be adequate

for a living without depending on the grid or other system. Electrical energy in the off-gird

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system produced through the Solar photovoltaic panels needs to be stored or saved because

requirement from the load can be different from the solar panel output, battery bank is also

used for the purpose generally.

Figure 2.2: Off-Grid Solar PV System

This project is considering the viability of having an off-grid PV system which can be used to

power a bus shelter. This concept can also be utilized on a larger scale to support all types of

homes which are in remote areas and where the cost of connecting cables and other

infrastructure of electricity to the house is expensive.

2. On Grid Solar Power or Grid-Tied System

Integrated or Grid-Tied System Grid connected photovoltaic power system is an electricity

generating system which is linked to the utility gird (energy.gov, n.d.). This photovoltaic

system contains solar panel, inverter and the equipment to provide connection to the grid.

Grid connected systems are feasible for various setup such as residential. Commercial and

larger scale grid tied system different than the off grid solar power systems. Usually grid

connected system does not need battery backup, because when system generate the energy

more than the load it will automatically transfer to the linked utility gird.

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 Figure 2.3: On-Grid Solar PV System

In the residential setups grid connected rooftop systems usually having the capability of 10

kilowatts which could be enough to meet the house requirements, and the excess would feed

the grid which can be used by other consumers connected to the grid. The feedback or excess

power transfer system works through a meter to track the transferred power. In some instances,

PV system wattage could be less than the normal consumption due to several different factors

and in this scenario, consumer will utilize the grid energy.

3. Hybrid Solar Power System

A hybrid system is a combination of the off grid and grid-connected systems. It allows for

the storage of the off grid type while being connected to the electric grid like the on grid

type. This type of solar power system can function during a blackout, which is not a

possibility for On Grid Solar Power Systems. This is because blackouts usually occur when

the electricity grid is damaged. Continuing to feed the grid with electricity is also a safety

hazard for the workers who may be repairing the network. That is why the on grid type

will cease function entirely in such situations. Since a hybrid solar system has a battery

bank, it is able to disconnect from a public electricity grid and continue to supply power

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 during a blackout. Having a battery bank as part of the hybrid type also means that this

stored reserve can be used 24-7.

Figure 2.4: Hybrid Solar System

A combination of on-grid and off-grid solar features is called a hybrid solar inverter.

This inverter will serve all your purposes. It will:

 Supply power to your house by converting DC power from solar panels to AC power

 Charge your solar batteries

 Feed excess power to the grid.

So, this inverter serves as a complete package by intelligently managing power from your solar

panels, utility grid, and solar batteries.

Moreover, you can use them without batteries in on-grid solar power systems. But in that case,

they will be an expensive option.

All these types of solar power systems function based on the core principles of a photovoltaic

solar power plant, one of the three major technologies in solar power plants. PV panels and

solar inverters are essential components of the on grid, off grid and hybrid solar power systems.

The systems are, however, different from each other on the basis of their specifications and

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features. Off grid solar systems are self-sufficient, be it for home or commercial applications.

These come with battery banks and are suited for use in remote locations where connection to

a public electric grid is difficult or unattainable. However, because it is an enclosed system,

owners of such a system cannot profit from surplus generated power. They also face limitations

as to how much energy reserves can be stored, and have no backup should the reserve is

depleted. The on grid solar power system, on the other hand, must be linked to an electric grid.

Home and commercial owners who are part of this type of system can gain from each other.

Surplus electricity generated by either can be sold to each other. However, if there were to be

a blackout, the system must be disconnected from the grid for safety reasons, and there may be

no backup. The hybrid solar power system, being the newest technology, marries the best of

both worlds and complements the weaknesses of the on grid and off grid version. Also, read

up on solar power meters and how they work.

Table 1: The Following table compares the three types of solar inverters:

Characteristics On-Grid Off-Grid Hybrid

Both On-Grid & Off-
On-Grid Solar Off-Grid Solar power
Compatible with Grid Solar Power
Power Systems Systems
Systems
No solar energy is Solar energy is stored Solar energy can be
Energy Storage
stored. in batteries. stored in batteries.
Power is not
Excess power gets Excess power gets
Power Transfer transferred because it
transferred to the transferred to the
to Grid is not connected to a
utility grid. utility grid.
grid.
Anti-Islanding
Present Absent Present
Feature
A 7.5kW On-Grid A 7.5kW Off-Grid A 7.5kW Hybrid Grid
Inverter costs about Inverter costs about Inverter costs about
Price Range
N300,000. – N700,000 - N1,000,000-
N500,000. N1,000,000. N1,800,00.

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2.4 Solar Panel

A PV module is an assembly of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a frame work for installation.

Photo-voltaic cells use sunlight as a source of energy and generate direct current electricity. A

collection of PV modules is called a PV Panel, and a system of Panels is an Array. Arrays of a

photovoltaic system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment. The most common

application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water heating systems.[Li,

Wei, 2014]

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through

the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film

cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back

layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid,

but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells are connected

electrically in series, one to another to a desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase

amperage. The wattage of the module is the mathematical product of the voltage and the

amperage of the module.

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface.

External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy

weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface can also be used.

Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in

parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes) of the solar panel or the PV system.

The conducting wires that take the current off the modules are sized according to the capacity

and may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. Bypass

diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize

the output of module sections still illuminated. Some special solar PV modules include

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concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the

use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector

shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.[Li Wei, 2014]

2.5 Definition of Terms

1. Inverter unit: This unit converts a DC voltage into AC voltage with the help of the

inverter unit.

2. Automatic Control Unit: This provides all the required control needed to meet up the

objective of the whole system.

3. Battery Unit: This is a secondary cell unit, capable of storing enough DC voltage

from either sun or AC main, of which is later converted to AC voltage.

2.6 Historical Development of Photovoltaic cell or Solar cell

In "APS News," issue 18, number 4, which was released in April 2009, the American Physical

Society describes the creation of a solar cell. (B.M. Soucase et al., 2018). According to APS

news, the solar cell's history begins with the 1839 discovery of the photovoltaic effect by

French physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. In an electrolyte solution, he was using metal

electrodes. He was unable to explain the phenomenon, but he thought that when metals were

exposed to light, tiny electric currents were produced. An English engineer by the name of

Willoughby Smith made the discovery of selenium's photoconductivity in 1873 while

investigating materials for an underwater telegraph wire. The first selenium-based solar cells

were developed by American inventor Charles Fritts in 1883. (Khattak, Yousaf Hameed, 2019).

He had hoped that his solar cells would outperform Edison's coal-fired power plant, but each

cell's efficiency at converting solar energy into electrical energy was less than 1%. (Masters,

Gilbert M. Sons, 2013). This design was therefore not particularly useful. In 1940, Bell

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Laboratories semiconductor researcher Russell Shoemaker Ohl produced the next significant

development in sun cell technology. He was utilizing silicon samples, one of which was

negatively doped and the other had cracks. He unintentionally produced a p-n junction, a crucial

part of a solar cell. (Otnes, G., et al., 2017). The solar cell that Ohl created had a conversion

efficiency of about 1%. The first silicon-based functional solar cell was developed after thirteen

years by a team of Bell Labs researchers. Daryl Chapin, a Bell Labs employee, started

developing the telephone power supply for use in remote areas in 1953. (Kazmerski LL., 2017).

He tested a variety of alternative energy sources before coming to the conclusion that solar

power is one of the most promising for this application. Gerald Pearson, a physicist, and Calvin

Fuller, a chemist, were both working on silicon chunks with gallium impurities at the same

time. (Reinders A, et al., 2017). They put a light on the silicon and connected an ammeter; the

ammeter frightened them by sharply leaping. Chapin's research was known to Pearson, who

counselled his friend against wasting time on selenium-based solar cells. Making reliable

electrical contacts and lithium finally moving through the silicon at room temperature and away

from sunlight were their two main issues at work. Zhonghui and others. They tried a variety of

impurities to solve these problems before deciding on boron and arsenic, which created a P-N

junction and stayed close to the surface. Additionally, they found that silicon and boron-arsenic

cells may make trustworthy electrical contacts. After a few minor adjustments, they connected

a few solar cells to create a solar battery. The operation of the solar panel was demonstrated

using a solar-powered radio transmitter and a miniature Ferris wheel. It was a considerable

improvement over earlier solar cells that silicon solar cells were around 6% more efficient in

converting sun energy into electricity. (Sharma, et al., 2015).

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2.6.1 Photovoltaic Module

A grouping of photovoltaic cells installed in a support structure for installation in solar panels,

photovoltaic modules use sunlight as its energy source to produce direct current electricity.

The comparisons array cell, module, panel and array.

Products from dainty film developed for making photovoltaic modules

1. Cadmium telluride (Cdre)

2. Amorphous silicone (a-Si)

3. Copper indium Diselenide (CiS)

4. Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

A layer just one micron thick may capture 90% of the solar energy that is useable because

amorphous silicon absorbs radiation 40 times more effectively than single crystal silicon.

The most popular kind of thin-film photovoltaic now used is amorphous silicon, which is

suited for lower power consumer electronics.

2.6.2 Photovoltaic Module Performance.

Unlike voltage sources like batteries that give current, a conventional persistent voltage

solar module supplies current throughout a broad range of voltages, therefore the total

overall output wattage of a photovoltaic module is equal to the output voltage multiplied

by the active current.

The output attributes of a model are defined by a curved called and IV curve which narrates

the relationship between current and voltage output. Voltage (V) is plotted along horizontal

side and current (I) is plotted along vertical side. The IV curve is specifically given for the

conditions of 500 watts per square meter to sunlight and 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees F)

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 cell temperature. 500 watts for each square meter is always known as one selected sun.

There are three factors of consideration on the IV Curve.

1. The Most Power Point (MPP) approach is frequently used with wind turbines and

photovoltaic solar systems to maximize power transmission and thermal photovoltaic.

It is the bias potential at which the solar cell outputs the maximum net power.

2. When the difference of the power produced by the cell is zero, the maximum voltage

(MPV) that can exist happens.

3. The current in a short circuit (ISC). This is the current that passes through the solar cell

when the voltage across it is zero, or when the solar cell is shorted out because of the

production and accumulation of light-generating carriers. When this happens, electrical

current encounters little to no resistance because its path has been altered from the way it

should normally flow. This causes an increase in heat, which can harm electrical

equipment.

2.6.3 Factors influencing photovoltaic module performance

i. Load resistance: A circuit's total resistance as determined by the voltage, current, or

power source that is driving the circuit. This also includes the resistance of the wires

and the resistance connected to this, which determines the voltage at which we must

operate in order for our job to be effective and for the Whitmore-Stevie carrier to walk

to the maximum level of efficiency..

ii. Power of sunlight: It is solar energy, which includes heat, light, and radiation, that

enables life to exist on Earth. When the temperature is high, more output from the

module will be produced, but when the temperature is low, it will be able to determine

what the present output levels are.

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 iii. Shading: If a photovoltaic module is partially hidden, the output will be insufficient;

similarly, if a cell is partially hidden, the output will be insufficient by a bigger

proportion. The output of the module is decreased while it is operating by the third cell,

which is partially buried.

iv. Cell temperature: The temperature of the PV array's surface is the temperature of the

photovoltaic (PV) cells. The temperature in the cells is the same at night as the ambient

temperature, but in direct sunlight, the temperature in the cells can rise by at least 30

degrees Celsius above the ambient temperature. This makes it difficult for photovoltaic

modules to function. When the temperature in the cells rises, their potential voltage

drops, which causes the cluster to move less successfully.

2.6.4 The photovoltaic effect

The most common form of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic (PV) effect in which light

falling on two layers semiconductor devices produced a photo voltage or potential difference

between the layers. This voltage is capable of driving external circuit and thereby producing

useful work. To have deeper understanding of the photovoltaic effect it is essential to become

acquainted with the principles of construction of an operation of a two-layer known as PN

Junction. It is well understood that all matter are made up of atoms which consist of small

dense nucleus containing positive and neutral particles (protons and neutrons). Is surrounding

cloud of fast-moving negative charged particles (electrons). The outermost electrons seem to

be arranged in symmetrically dead shell. The silicon properties of semiconductor power make

it a good material for photovoltaic cells.

2.6.5 Photovoltaic Arrays

The photovoltaic arrays essentially consist of a number of internal silicon-based photovoltaic

cells combined in series and in parallel depending on the voltage or current requirement. These

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cells are used to convert solar energy into electricity, this occurs when photovoltaic cells are

exposed to solar energy causing the cells electrons to drift which in turn produces an electric

current. This current varies with size of individual cells and the light intensity.

2.6.6 Electrical activities

Electrical activities of PV mode the commercial class against which all the PV modules are

valued and can be studied is called standard test conditions (STC). STC is an attribute of

practical experiments carried out in order to know the working principle of PV module can be

used. Also, the same principle is also applied to know the capacity of installation locations

since that is the standard for value insulation values. STC including standard.

 Irradiance: is the amount of solar energy that falls on a level surface as daylight in

the form of watts per square meter.

 Air Mass: - refers to the "thickness" and "clearness" of the air that the sunlight

travels through to reach the modules (sun edge influences this worth). 1.5 is the

benchmark.

 Cell temperature separates entirely from ambient temperature air. STC uses 25

degrees Celsius as the self-testing temperature definition.

2.6.7 Efficiency

The maximum number of solar cells may be found by taking the point, and efficiency is the
ratio of electrical power production to solar power output that is linked to the photovoltaic cell.
In terms of the effectiveness of the power output

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= ⇒ 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑝𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛

The terms "EMIS" and "turns of the Earth" refer to the standard and the direction that sunlight
is aimed at in order to reach models whose angle affects the values and provides the standard
of 1.5.

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2.7 Benefits of using photovoltaic system
1. One benefit of sunlight is that it is cost-free.

2. It is free from pollution

Fuel source for solar panel is direct from the sun the high temperature London open the

maintenance is minimum independent working operation is simple it does not produce noise

as there is no moving parts suitable for remote isolated and hidden places suitable for moving

load objects it can be used almost everywhere from a small electronic device cost.

2.8 Battery.

Plate 3.1: 12v 200ah Gel Battery

The battery that was used in this project is a solar battery. Without the battery, the system

could only power when the sun is shining. The power would interrupt each time the cloud

passes, the system would become very frustrating. The solar battery provided constant

electricity and the load discharges 80% of its charge. The batteries are the heart of the system

and were available in different voltages and various amp-hour ratings depending on the

requirement of the system.

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2.8.1 Types of Batteries.

We have different kinds of batteries in the marketplace in this generation each with specific

function to perform basic on the structure of each other at chargeable battery or not

rechargeable battery based on the capacity of the batteries different batteries have individual

aspect to maintain and also adverse effect of each one in using photovoltaic cell the most

reliable battery to the use is lead corrosive battery because of its durability.

 Primary batteries: - can store and deliver electrical energy, but they cannot be

recharged; an example of a primary battery is the dry cell, which is used in radios,

flashlights, and watches.

 Secondary batteries: - The ubiquitous lead acid batteries seen in cars and photovoltaic

systems are an example of a battery that can store, deliver, and be recharged by having

DC current sent through it in the opposite direction from the discharge current.

 Battery safety: This is necessary because batteries contain lead acid and hydrogen

oxygen gases, both of which have the potential to explode and burn. As a result,

appropriate safety precautions should be taken, such as donning approved safety glasses

and wearing appropriate clothing to protect one's body. Batteries should also never be

leaned on while being charged or tested, and cigarette holders should always be

removed because they could catch fire.

Day of autonomy: The number of days the battery capacity will be able to support a specific

load without needing to be recharged by the photovoltaic array is referred to as autonomy. The

number of days that are not Sundays is one of the main factors to be taken into account in

autonomy and depends on the frame system that will be used for the location in question.

doesn't comprehend that the coach is likewise a stupid little concept Electronic devices you

quickly prevented the burrito bar cheese from being overcharged by a discharge you were busy

with function of the charger glittery stupid disconnected move to Lori from the bocce when

22
batteries were charged sleep resets level and scheduled which is connected for you but you

went back to discharge to whip reset Lakewood advanced as well as senses debauchery

temperature on adjusted charging current accordingly it country last capacity function is to

control the system respective of the state of hibachi of charge windy but he's getting soon here

for the country last change the direction of Paso call Dr. occurrence by debauchery perform

blue deliver aspect of some of the Lotus call 20 control I would love with each quarter capacity

most of the country last make use of frosty call bachi footage estimate of child by thinking

about you temperature in house is the estimation.

2.8.2 Temperature effect on battery

The speed of the chemical reaction occurring in the lead-acid battery was determined by its

temperature, the colder the temperature the slower the reaction and the warmer the temperature

the faster the reaction and the more quickly the charge could be drawn from the battery. The

optimum operating temperature of a lead acid battery is around 77o Fahrenheit. An example of

temperature effect on a battery could be seen when starting a car on a cold morning; the engine

just does not turn over quickly.

2.8.3 Battery voltage

Voltage meters are used to indicate battery state of charge, they are relatively inexpensive and

easy to use. In this PV system it was usually charging or discharging or doing the both at the

same time. As the battery was charged the indicator lit up and while it discharges, another lit

to show the level of its discharge. A good, accurate digital meter with a tenth of a voltage

calibration was used with success.

2.8.4 Battery power conversion efficiency

Energy can never be created or destroyed, but it merely changes form. The efficiency of

conversion was never 100% and in the case of new batteries they ranged from 80% to 90%.

23
That means that to discharge 100 watts power battery, it would be charged with 100 to 120

watts of power.

2.8.5 Battery Monitoring and Maintenance

Monitoring battery state of charge was the single largest responsibility of the system charge

controller. The battery voltage was kept at above 50% state of charge for maximum battery

life. Should the battery is contain wet cells then it would be good to keep the battery’s

electrolyte level to the indicated level and never let the plates be exposed above the electrolyte.

Only distilled water could be used to refill the batteries, over watering dilutes the acid

excessively and electrolytes would be expelled when charging.

2.9 Review of Different Photovoltaic Mounting System

Photovoltaic mounting systems are used to fix solar panels on surfaces like roofs, building

facades, or the ground.[B.T. Wittbrodt, 2015] These mounting systems generally enable

retrofitting of solar panels on roofs or as part of the structure of the building (called BIPV).[B.T.

Wittbrodt, 2015]

Roof mounting

The solar array of a PV system can be mounted on rooftops, generally with a few inches gap

and parallel to the surface of the roof. If the rooftop is horizontal, the array is mounted with

each panel aligned at an angle. If the panels are planned to be mounted before the construction

of the roof, the roof can be designed accordingly by installing support brackets for the panels

before the materials for the roof are installed. The installation of the solar panels can be

undertaken by the crew responsible for installing the roof. If the roof is already constructed, it

is relatively easy to retrofit panels directly on top of existing roofing structures. For a small

minority of roofs (often not built to code) that are designed so that it is capable of bearing only

24
 the weight of the roof, installing solar panels demands that the roof structure must be

strengthened beforehand. In all cases of retrofits particular consideration to weather sealing is

necessary There are many low-weight designs for PV systems that can be used on either sloped

or flat roofs (e.g. plastic wedges or the PV-pod), most however, rely on a type of extruded

aluminum rails (e.g. Unirac). Recently, tension-based PV racking solutions have been tested

successfully that reduce weight and cost.[B.T. Wittbrodt, 2015] In some cases, converting to

composition shingles, the weight of the removed roof materials can compensate the additional

weight of the panel structure. The general practice for installation of roof-mounted solar panels

include having a support bracket per hundred watts of panels. (Massachusetts Department of

Energy Resources, 2012)

Ground-mounted

Ground-mounted PV systems are usually large, utility-scale stations. The PV array consist of

solar modules held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting

supports. (SolarProfessional.com) Ground-based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.

 Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar

module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system

is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies

decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.

Mounting as a shade structure

Solar panels can also be mounted as shade structures where the solar panels can provide shade

instead of patio covers. The cost of such shading systems are generally different from standard

patio covers, especially in cases where the entire shade required is provided by the panels. The

25
 support structure for the shading systems can be normal systems as the weight of a standard

PV array is between 3 and 5 pounds/ft2. If the panels are mounted at an angle steeper than

normal patio covers, the support structures may require additional strengthening. Other issues

that are considered include:

 Simplified array access for maintenance.

 Module wiring may be concealed to maintain the aesthetics of the shading structure.

 Growing vines around the structure must be avoided as they may come in contact with the

wiring. (Saber, Esmail M, 2014)

26
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 System Procedure and Configuration

During the process of procuring all the materials used for this project, taking the right decision
for the battery, inverter, solar panel and the charge controller was totally based on the result of
their individual evaluations. The materials; solar panel, inverter, batteries and the charge
controllers where all order from Lagos and Several considerations are crucial for the successful
installation of a solar system, and they encompass the following:
 The presence of solar radioactive energy at the designated site.
 Accessibility of the system or device for the workplace or business.
 The total electricity consumption of the shelter.
 The expenses associated with components or materials.
 The individual cost of each component or material.
 The convenience of space access for solar panels set at an inclined angle.
 The probability of backup hours.
These factors must be carefully considered before proceeding with the installation of
a solar system.

3.2 Site Location

The authorized site for the installation is the Gidan Kwano campus, Department of Physics,
Federal University of Technology Minna. Before commencing the installation process, the
following details were collected:

 Solar Exposure: Assess the solar radiation and exposure at the installation site to
ensure it receives an adequate amount of sunlight for efficient energy generation.

 Site Accessibility: Evaluate the accessibility of the site for both installation and
potential future maintenance or repairs, ensuring convenience for any necessary
work.

 Roof Structure Compatibility: Choose solar panels that are compatible with the
specific roof structure in use, optimizing both aesthetics and the effectiveness of
the installation.

27
  Local Climate Conditions: Consider the local climate, including temperature
variations and weather patterns, to design a solar system that can withstand and
perform well under different environmental conditions.

 Energy Consumption Analysis: Analyze the energy consumption patterns of the

site to determine the appropriate size and capacity of the solar system, aligning it
with the location's specific energy needs.

 Regulatory Cmpliance: Ensure compliance with local regulations and building

codes governing solar installations, obtaining any necessary permits or approvals
before initiating the installation process.

3.3 Load Assessment

Before initiating any PV system installation, it is crucial to ascertain the system load. The
assessment of loads for the Administrative offices has been completed, focusing on a
range of appliances, such as laptops, fans, and printers. This load assessment is a pivotal
factor in the design and cost considerations for an effective PV system. The steps to
accurately estimate this load are outlined below.

 Examine each load along with its daily usage hours. Calculate the required power
by inputting the operational voltage and the load current in amperes.

 Categorize the loads based on type and voltage, then sum up the power
requirements for each group. Incorporating this information will enable the
determination of the recommended voltage for the standalone PV system.

 Subsequently, after deciding on the system voltage, ascertain the daily ampere
hours needed at that voltage.
These meticulous steps ensure a comprehensive understanding of the system load and
pave the way for an effective and cost-efficient PV system installation.

28
Table 2: Estimation of Load Demand

S/ TOTAL POWER WORKING

LOAD POWER (W) QUANTITY
N (W) HOURS

1 Fan 60 15 900 8

2 Laptops 65 25 1625 8

3 Bulbs 5 30 150 8

4 Printers 600 3 1800 8

5 Miscellaneous 500 ----- 500 8

Total 4975W

The table above shows how to determine daily loads for the appliances.

3.4 System Sizing

 Solar panel used was Monocrystalline

 8 Solar panel each with 300 W making 2400 W

 Photovoltaic voltage each 30.15 V

 Maximum Current = 9.96 A

 When connected in series Vn = V1 + V2 = 30.15 + 30.15 = 60.3 V dc

 Where I(n) = I1 = I2 I = 9.96 A

Charge controller

 The voltage is 245V, I = 8A

 P = IV = P = 245 x 8 = 1960W

 The battery 12V each

 Total voltage = 12 x 4 = 48V

 Current= 9.96 A

29
  Power =I x V = 9.96 x 48 = 478.08W

Load Analysis

 Printer 600watt x 3 = 1800 W

 Laptop 65watt x 25 = 1625W

 Bulb 5watt x 30 = 150 W

 Fan 60watt x 15 = 585 W

 Miscellaneous 500W

Total= 4975 watt

Working Hours 8 Hours

Energy = power x time

E = Inverter size = total load + tolerance

= 4975 + T

4975 x 8 = 39,800wh

Inverter Sizing

Inverter size = total load + tolerance

= 4975 + T

Where;
4975 × 7.5
𝑇 = = 373.125
100

4975 + 373.125 = 5348.125𝑊

Power factor is between 60% and 80%, but 80% is used for efficiency.

30
 5348.125
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐴 = = 6685.156𝑉𝐴
0.8

6685.156
Inverter size in KVA = = 6.685156 KVA
1000

≃ 6.70 𝐾𝑉𝐴

The inverter used here is a pure sine wave, inverter which is 7.5 KVA.

 DOD means Depth of discharge that a battery can discharge out without being used
after it has been fully charged.
 DOA Means Days of Autonomy the hours’ battery can stay when it is being used before
complete short down.

Battery sizing and calculating the number of batteries needed

Recall that a 12v, 200Ah was used in the project which is calculated as follow:

When two batteries of 12v are connected in series, total voltage = 24v and total current = 200Ah

Now connecting the 12v batteries connected in series in parallel connection to increase the total
current = 24v, 400Ah

Total power for a single battery is 12v x 200Ah = 2400w

2400𝑤
Which means that the backup time for one battery is = 2690 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) = 0.9hr

3ℎ𝑟𝑠
But required battery backup is three (3) hours i.e. = 3.33 batteries
0.9

This also implies that 4 batteries are needed for the design but more batteries can be added for
efficiency.

Charge Controller Sizing

Because charge controller is rated in volt and Amp the voltage and current must be determined
in order to precisely adjust the controller size.

Charge controller current: 100 % of battery bank current

Bank current = 200A

31
They charge controller voltage is the voltage of the battery bank

Charge controller voltage = battery bank voltage = 48V

Therefore, the charge controller size is 48V, 200A.

3.4.1 Selection of the System Voltage

The higher the shelter energy uses, the higher the voltage needed by the solar PV system falls

to somewhere in the middle-ranged categories, and as such, a 48V was chosen. The system

voltage is selected based on the requirement of the system. Generally, the system voltage

increases with increased daily load. However, in a standalone PV system, the voltage is also

dependent on the inverters that are available. When loads require Alternating current power,

the Direct current system voltage should be selected after studying available inverter

characteristics. Since the total daily AC load is around 4975W, the selected voltage is 12 V DC

3.4.2 Charge Controller and Selection

The charge controller is chosen in this section to control the voltage and current from the PV

panels that go to the battery bank, prevent overcharging, and extend the battery life. It also

determines the amount of current that should be injected into the battery bank to achieve the

best possible performance. The charge controller also keeps the battery bank from overcharging

because it calculates the battery bank's operational life, which is an essential part of the off grid

solar PV system that was taken into consideration. Charge controllers are chosen according to

their capacity, but the most popular approach is to determine the maximum AC wattage of the

solar system's appliances. This way, the inverter can handle the power and there are additional

precautions to take into account, as some appliances, like air conditioners, occasionally need

power and surges that are greater than their rated current and watts at the same time. The

methods for choosing the ideal charge controller for an electric inverter are listed below.

32
  PV array voltage

The controller’s DC voltage input must be correspondence to the nominal voltage of

the solar array.

 PV array current

The controller must be standard to handle the maximum current produced by the PV
array, In order to select the best charge controller, we might face the following Wattage
of the array = 8 module *300 (W/module) =2400 W

3.4.3 Selection of Array PV Module

The method for the array sizing uses current (Amperes) instead of power (watts) to describe

the load requirement because it is easier to make reasonable comparison of PV module

performance specifying PV module 200A at 48V and specified the operating temperature rather

than try to compare 50 W module that may have different operating positions. The module

specification is obtained for available module so that a comparison of performance, physical

size, and expenses can be made. Generally, there are several modules that will meet a given set

of requirement. The PV module used is mono-crystalline, 300 W based on the high capacity

and its performance and warranty.

The amount of battery storage needed for a standalone PV system was calculated in this section.

The notion of system availability and battery parameter should be taken into mind before using

this selection technique. Some considerations adopted are listed below:

i. To begin with, the amount of backup energy needed for the specified application is

computed. This is typically represented as a number of days, or as the number of

overcast days that the system must operate on in order to use its energy-storage

batteries. This is dependent upon system availability requirements, battery type, and

consumption.

33
 ii. It is also important to list and take into account the variations between the rated battery

potential and usable capacity.

3.4.4 Selection of Inverter

As previously indicated, the total connected watts of alternating current, or those designated

for simultaneous application, is divided by the system voltage of direct current. This will supply

the system with the maximum direct current that it needs. Since the inverter is primarily

supposed to supply this load, the specification should be based on the AC watts. The inverter

needs to match the wattage requirements of the system.

3.5 Market Survey

A market analysis must be done before beginning the solar system installation procedure. The

advantage of this procedure is that it allows for the market availability of system components

to be sourced in order to choose the appropriate component for the proposed project's design.

In order to conduct the study, it was necessary to visit the market to examine the component's

physical layout and speak with the dealers. Manufacturers took into account the cost,

component specification, component guarantee, and component availability. The information

obtained was recorded on a receipt while it was being processed for future reference. The cost

of the project is shown in the table below.

34
Table 3: The projects Billing and Overall Cost.

S/N Description of Materials Quantity Rate(N) Amount(N)

1 7.5KVA Hybrid Inverter 1 850,000 850,000

2 300watt Panels 8 98,500 788,000

3 Battery Rack 40,000 40,000

4 Panel Rack & Accessories ---------- 55,000 55,000

5 10mm Flessible Moured Cable 60mtrs 3,500 210,000

6 Surge Protecting Device ---------- 65,000 65,000

7 AC/DC Circuit Breakers ---------- 60,000 60,000

8 Load Separation / Installation Cable 1 120,000 120,000

9 Installation accessories --------------- 70,000 70,000

10 Logistics ---------------- 75,000

11 Professional Charges ----------------- 75,000 90,000

Grand Total 2,423,000

3.6 Inspection of Components

The purchased components were tested and confirmed to verify if they were original or fake

products to avoid bringing in substandard products. The confirmation was carried out with

certain solar and electrical equipment; the components were tested and approved with the

following technique

i. The photovoltaic modules were confirm using multi-meter and by means of

exposing to sunlight to avoid overrating and also meet up with the require wattage
of 300 W.
ii. In the installation of solar system, batteries are considered to be the center of solar
system. The batteries were tested with an instrument called “Battery Tester” to

35
 ensure they are not fake batteries. After testing the Voltage and Current, the values
were 12 V and 200 AH respectively.
iii. The inverter used here is hybrid inverter, also the physical inspection was made to
ensure the condition of the inverter and to check the system requirement which is
7.5KVA 48V.
iv. Other component such as seal tape, binding wires, cable lock and wire were also
checked to ensure they are in good working standard.

3.7 Configuration and Installation in Steps

The following steps were designed to be the crucial considerations while installing a
solar Systems:

Plate 3.2: Measurement of solar module voltage

1. Arrangement of the Photovoltaic PV modules (solar panels): Connecting the solar

panels together, each rated at 300 watts at 12 volts and 9.38 amps of current, was the first

step in installing the photovoltaic system. Both series and parallel connections of the solar

panels were made during the hookup. In the first pairing of the four panels, each panel's

positive and negative terminals were clipped together, leaving each panel having both

36
positive and negative terminals (series connections). The second set of solar panels are

connected in the same way, producing a total of 24 volts.

Plate 3.3: Front Series connection of the solar panel

Parallel connections, which were invented after series connections, allow us to obtain large
currents of 32A (i.e., 4*8) from each solar panel in order to power the inverter by connecting
positive to positive and negative to Negative. A 16mm flexible core cable with a yellow, black,
and red, blue core was also introduced. The cable's wire was then paired into two, with yellow
and black acting as the negative and red and blue as the positive, before being linked to the
solar panel's terminals using parallel connections.

Plate 3.4: Back Section through parallel connection of the panel

37
Plate 3.5: 8 panels, 300watts each

Plate 3.6: Panel Information

38
Where the charge controller is linked to the charge controller, a parallel connection was created.
Six terminals on a charge controller have positive and negative connections for a solar panel,
battery, and light bulb. We attach a wire connected from the solar panel to charge controller's
interface for the solar panel.

Plate 3.7: Process of the Connection of batteries to the Inverter

2. Battery: Each battery had a voltage rating of 12 volts, thus four 200AH gel batteries were

appropriately linked in series and connected to the charge controller at the port designated

for it in the solar charge controller

Hybrid Inverter

Plate 3.8: 7.5kva Hybrid Inverter Plate 3.9: Inverter Information

39
3. Inverter: After that, 16mm cable was used to connect the battery terminals to the inverter.

Later, the exterior loads in the Professor’s offices and HOD office were linked to the

inverter. The inverter's LCD screen will display the conversion of the inverter from the

DC voltage of 24 volts to the AC voltage of 230 volts.

Plate 3.10: Surge protecting devices Plate 3.11: Load wire and connecting wire
circuit breakers 16mm with black & and 2.5mm the red one

Plate 3.12: Installation of 7.5KVA Photovoltaic Solar System Using Hybrid Inverter

40
4. Loading the House. At this stage, the useable appliances can now be powered by the

inverter's output, and the battery can also now be charged by the electricity power supply

via the inverter's charging input. The inverter won't be stressed or damaged when the house

is energized since the intended load for the inverter is isolated from the distribution board.

3.7.1 The block diagram

The photovoltaic power system PV are normally scaled and constructed to serve specific DC

and or AC electrical demands, and they are meant to function independently of the electrical

utility grid. These systems can run solely on a PV array or, in what is known as a PV hybrid

system, can also use utility power, wind, an engine generator, or auxiliary power sources.

Direct linked systems, in which a PV module or array's DC output is directly connected to a

DC load, are the most basic sort of PV.

Figure 3.1a Direct coupled PV system

In many PV system, batteries are used for energies storage. Figure 3.1b below shows diagram

of a typical PV system powering DC and AC loads.

Figure 3.1b: Block diagram of the PV system with battery storage powering DC and AC loads.

41
 Figure 3.1c: The design of the project

By essentially using the battery during times of low insolation and at night, as well as solar

energy during insolation, this design guarantees that the inverter performs at its highest

efficiency. The battery's lifespan is further guaranteed by the design, which prevents

overcharging and guarantees that the charge management circuit shuts off when the battery is

fully charged.

3.8 Principle of Solar Panel

Plate 3.13: 300W Mono Crystalline Solar Panel

42
A solar panel is a device that is able to absorb sun rays and convert it into electrical energy

precisely DC. The photovoltaic panel comprised of silicon crystals, which reacts with sun ray

and under this process, converts the sun rays into electricity. They supply the electricity for

charging the batteries and for use by the appliances either directly or through an inverter.

Multiple modules where used to produce more electricity and then any excess energy that was

produced was stored in the batteries for use during the cloudy/ rainy weather. The panels are

available in different sizes, voltages and amperage. They can be wired in series or in parallel

depending on how the system is designed.

3.8.1 Estimate Solar Panel Output

This PV system produced power in proportion to the intensity of sunlight striking the solar

array surface and this varied throughout the day, so the actual power of the solar power system

varied substantially. There were other factors that affected the output of the solar panel. These

factors needed to be understood so that there will be realistic expectation of overall system

output and its economic benefits under variable weather conditions over time.

Factors affecting Output:

3.8.2 Standard Test Conditions

Standard test conditions The Solar modules produced DC electricity. The DC output of the

solar modules was rated by the manufacturers under standard test conditions (STC). These

conditions were easily recreated in the factory, and allowed for constant comparisons of

products, under common outdoor operating conditions. Solar cell temperature = 25o C, solar

irradiance (intensity) = 1000W/m2 often referred to as peak sunlight intensity, comparable to

clear summer noon time intensity.

43
3.8.3 Temperature

Module output power reduces as module temperature increases. When operated on the roof, a

solar module will be heated up substantially, reaching temperatures of 50-75o c. For crystalline

modules, the typical temperature reduction factor, recommended by the STC was 89% or 0.89.

so the 300 watt module would be operated at about 95 watts (300 watts × 0.89 = 267Watts) in

the middle of a spring or fall day, under full sunlight conditions.

3.8.4 Dirt and Dust

Dirt and dust would accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking some of the sunlight and

reducing output. Although typical dirt and dust would cleaned off during every rainy season.

The typical annual dust reduction factor was 93% or 0.93, so the 300 watt module, operated

with some accumulated dust may operate on average of 248 watts (267 watts × 0.93 = 248

watts)

3.8.4 Mismatch and Wiring losses

The maximum power output of the total PV array was less than the sum of the maximum output

of the individual modules. This difference was the result of slight inconsistency in the

performance of one module to the next and was called module mismatch and amounts to at

least 2% loss in system power. Power was also lost to resistance in system wiring. These losses

were kept to 8 minimum but it was difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system. A

reasonable reduction factor for these losses was 95% or 0.95.

44
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 TESTING AND RESULT

4.1 Testing of System Operation

The system was in its testing and functioning phase at this point. The System's functionality

was tested while maintaining all of its demand operation.

The batteries were first attached, and the setup was powered by the switch showing ON. The

devices were then put onto the collection once the synthesis had been powered up, and they

were left there for more than 20 minutes so that we could measure the amount of heat that

would be produced and determine if the composition could support such a load. The project

has been authorized, and 230 volts of output have been permitted. The charge controller has

furthermore been checked to ensure that it is operating properly, regularly regulating the

amount of charge coming into the battery to avoid overcharging the battery. The solar panel

has also been verified to function with the sun's rays throughout the daytime before delivering

current when the sun has set during the evening. Every component of the solar panel has been

verified and given the go-ahead to function normally.

4.2 Solar inverter safety

Only fully charged, large-capacity batteries should be utilized with power inverters. If demand

is too strong, a week battery will be effectively used up. Working with enormous batteries may

be risky and, if done improperly, can really cause damage. A power inverter used improperly

might possibly result in electric shock. For a variety of reasons, anybody attempting to connect

a solar-powered inverter directly to a battery must be cautious to heed all security precautions

detailed in the inverter's instruction manual. People should choose a power inverter with a high

potential for the device they need to run since a weak inverter might overheat and start a fire

in the dashboard. Avoid using connectors that can handle more output than the device is

45
designed to handle, and make sure the area surrounding the inverter is well ventilated to prevent

it from getting too warm.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The variance in solar radioactive energy can result in significant size differences. This is so

that the sun's accessible hours are provided by solar energy. A larger system is required if there

are fewer hours of sunlight. From the observation, it may be inferred that the environment has

a significant impact on size. Additionally, the inverter and charge controller standards do not

alter with the location, as can be shown. This is because only the linked loads are a factor in

their standard. The project's objectives were accomplished, and we now fully comprehend PV

systems.

5.2 Recommendation

1. Outstanding photovoltaic systems are highly advised for use in home and industrial

settings. This project work can be used as a teaching tool by teachers and as a resource

document for students working on comparable project work. However, further progress

is possible with the following suggestion. A well set up electrical electronics lab will

result in superior project work and lower expense rates.

2. The laboratory should be well furnished with up-to-date practical literature, since this

will improve research efforts.

47
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Nigeria, the pacific J. science and technology, 7(2): 191-195.
ALTE store. (n.d.). THE ROLE OF AN INVERTER IN A SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEM.
Retrieved from ALTE store: https://www.altestore.com/howto/the-role-of-an-
inverterin- a-solar-electric-system-a15/

Alternative Energy. (n.d.). Solar Inverter Sizing. Retrieved from altenergy:

http://www.altenergy.org/renewables/solar/DIY/inverter-sizing.html
Application, 4th Edition, Pg. 147. Prentice Hall International Inc. New Jersey.

Bello, A. M. A., Makinde, V., and Sulu, H. T. (2010), performance tests and thermal efficiency
evaluation of a constructed solar box cooker at a guinea savannah station (Ilorin
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