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6. Behavior of Sound in Enclosed Space

1) The Law of Conservation of Energy

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed

• But it can be changed from one form to another.
In designing rooms for various purposes, the architect will mostly encounter acoustical
problems associated with enclosed spaces.
• When sound waves strike the enclosure of a room, a certain portion of their
energy will be reflected, absorbed, dispersed, diffracted, or transmitted into
adjacent spaces, depending on the acoustical characteristics of the enclosures.

2) Sound Absorption

• Sound absorption is the change of sound energy into some other form, usually
heat, by passing through a material or by striking a surface.
• The process of energy dissipation occurs when sound is transmitted in a lossy
material.
• The amount of heat produced by the conversion of sound energy is extremely small.
• The speed of the traveling sound wave is not affected by absorption.
• Soft, porous materials, fabrics, and also people absorb a considerable portion of
sound waves bouncing on them.

In environmental acoustics the following elements may contribute to sound absorption:

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a. Surface treatments of walls, floors and ceilings

b. Room contents, such as the audience, draperies, upholstered seats, and carpet.
c. The air of the space.

A) Sound Absorption Coefficient

• The sound absorption coefficient of a surface is the fraction of energy of the incident
sound absorbed, or not reflected, by the surface.
• Sound absorption coefficient is used to evaluate the sound absorption efficiency
of materials.
• It is the ratio of absorbed energy to incident energy and is represented by α.

α= Ia/Ii [ Ia= intensity of absorbed sound

Ii= intensity of incident sound]

• It varies with frequency and with the angle at which the sound wave or ray impinges
upon the material.
• For a material, if 55% of the incident energy is absorbed, the absorption coefficient will
be 0.55. Absorption of 1 sq m of this material is 0.55 spm sabins

B) Sound Absorption of a Surface

• The sound absorption of a surface (surface absorption) is measured in sabins,

formerly called open-window units.
• One sabin represents a surface of 1 sq ft (or 1 sqm) having an absorption
coefficient of α=1.
• The surface absorption is obtained by multiplying the area of the surface, in sqm
or sq ft by its sound absorption coefficient.

Surface absorption = Surface Area X Sound Absorption Coefficient = Sα

For example, an acoustical treatment extending over an area of S = 120 sq ft (11 sqm) having
a sound absorption coefficient of a = 0.50 has surface absorption of

Sa= 120 *0.50

=60 sq ft (or 11x 0.50 = 5.5' sq m) sabins.

• The sound absorption provided by persons or exposed objects can be also

expressed as a certain number of sabins per person or object.
➢ For example, a person in an upholstered theater seat will provide at 500 Hz,
an absorption of about 4 to 5 sabins.
➢ An open window, a perfect absorber, sound passing through it never
returns to the room, having absorption coefficient of 1, 10 sqm of it would give
10 sqm sabins of absorbance.

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C) Effect of Adding Sound-absorbing Material to a Room

In the room with no acoustical treatment, the reader hears a direct sound from the TV as well
as reflected sound from the ceiling, floor, and walls. The TV viewer, on the other hand, hears
a primarily direct sound.

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If sound-absorbing material is added to the room, the reader will hear considerably less
reflected sound. Consequently, the sound level in his part of the room will be reduced. The
sound level near the TV, however, is due mainly to direct sound, which remains
unchanged.

3) Reflection

➢ Hard, rigid, and flat surfaces, such as concrete, brick, stone, plaster, or glass, reflect
almost all incident sound energy striking them.
➢ The incident and the reflected sound rays lie in the same plane and the angle of
the incident sound wave equals the angle of the reflected sound wave (law of
reflection).
➢ Convex reflecting surfaces tend to disperse and concave surfaces tend to
concentrate the reflected sound waves in rooms

A) Reflections from Flat Surfaces

• Generates a sound image

• Reflects better from objects larger than the
wavelength of sound
• Sound above 300-400 Hz undergoes many
reflections in a room Wall

Figure 10-1 illustrates the reflection of waves from

a sound source from a rigid, plain wall surface.
The spherical wavefronts (solid lines) strike the
wall and the reflected wavefronts (broken lines)
are returned toward the source.

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➢ Like the light/mirror analogy, the reflected wavefronts act as though they originated
from a sound image. This image source is located the same distance behind the wall
as the real source is in front of the wall. This is the simple case—a single reflecting
surface.
➢ Sound is reflected from objects that are large compared to the wavelength of the
impinging sound.
➢ Below 300–400 Hz, the sound is best considered as waves.
➢ Sound above 300–400 Hz is best considered as traveling in rays. A ray of sound may
undergo many reflections as it bounces around a room. The energy lost at each
reflection results in the eventual demise of that ray.
➢ The mid/high audible frequencies have been called the specular frequencies
because sound in this range acts like light rays on a mirror. Sound follows the same
rule as light: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, as in Fig. 10-2.

B) Reflections from Convex Surfaces

• Reflection scatters in many directions

• Causes diffusion of sound
• More effective, if the size of the reflector is much larger than
the wavelength
➢ Plane sound waves impinging on a convex irregularity tend
to be dispersed through a wide-angle if the size of the
irregularity is large compared to the wavelength of the
sound.

Reflection of plane wavefronts of sound from a solid convex

surface tends to scatter the sound energy in many directions
as shown in Fig. 10-3. This amounts to a diffusion of the
impinging sound.

C) Reflections from Concave Surfaces

• Reflection tends to focus on a point

• Precision of focusing depends on the shape and
smoothness of surfaces
• More effective, if the size of the reflector much larger
than the wavelength

Plane wavefronts of sound striking a concave surface tend

to be focused to a point as illustrated in Fig. 10-4. The
precision with which sound is focused to a point is
determined by the shape of the concave surface.

➢ Plane sound waves impinging on a concave irregularity tend to be focused if the size
of the irregularity is large compared to the wavelength of the sound.
➢ Spherical concave surfaces are common because they are readily formed. They are
often used to make a microphone highly directional by placing it at the focal point.

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➢ Concave surfaces in churches or auditoriums can be the source of serious problems

as they produce concentrations of sound in direct opposition to the goal of
uniform distribution of sound.

D) Reflections from Parabolic Surfaces

● Parabola, generated by equation y = x 2 focuses

sound more precisely
● The precision of focusing depends on shape and
smoothness of surfaces

A parabola has the characteristic of focusing sound precisely

to a point (Fig. 10-5). It is generated by the simple equation
y = x2 .
➢ A very “deep” parabolic surface, such as that of
Fig. 10-5, exhibits far better directional properties
than a shallow one. Again, the directional properties
depend on the size of the opening in terms of
wavelengths.
➢ Figure 10-5 shows the parabola used as a directional
sound source with a small, ultrasonic Galton Whistle
pointed inward at the focal point.

4)Transmission

Acoustic transmission is the transmission of sounds through and between materials,

including air, wall, and musical instruments.

A) Transmission Loss (TL)

➢ Transmission loss (TL) of a partition is a measure of its sound insulation.

➢ It is equal to the number of decibels by which sound energy is reduced in passing
through the structure. Units dB.

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B) Sound Transmission Class (STC)

➢ To avoid the misleading nature of an average transmission loss (TL) value and to
provide a reliable single figure rating for comparing partitions, a different procedure for
single figure rating, called Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating, of a partition is
determined by comparing the 16 frequency TL curve with a standard reference
contour, the sound transmission class contour.

● Sound Transmission Class (or STC) is an integer rating of how well a building
partition reduces airborne sound.
● A higher number indicates more effective sound insulation than a lower number.
● The procedure is specified by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM)
● A measured graph of a wall would be placed in a certain Sound Transmission Class
(STC) by comparison to a reference graph (STC contour)
● An STC rating of 50 dBA for a wall is better in sound insulation than a wall of
STC 40 dBA

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5) Diffraction of Sound

➢ Obstacles can cause sound to change from its original rectilinear direction
➢ The process by which this change of direction occurs is called diffraction
➢ The shorter the wavelength (the higher the frequency), the less dominant is the
phenomenon of diffraction
➢ Obstacles capable of diffracting (bending) sound must be large compared to the
wavelength of the sound involved.

➢ In Fig. 11-1, two types of obstructions to plane wavefronts of sound are depicted. In
Fig. 11-1A a heavy brick wall is the obstacle.
o The sound waves are reflected from the face of the wall, as expected.
o The upper edge of the wall acts as a new, virtual source sending sound
energy into the “shadow” zone behind the wall by diffraction.
➢ In Fig. 11-1B the plane wavefronts of sound strike a solid barrier with a small hole
in it.
o Most of the sound energy is reflected from the wall surface, but that tiny
portion going through the hole acts as a virtual point source, radiating a
hemisphere of sound into the “shadow” zone on the other side.
➢ It is well known that sound travels around corners and around obstacles. Music
reproduced in one room of a home can be heard down the hall and in other rooms.
Diffraction is one of the mechanisms involved in this.
o The character of the music heard in distant parts of the house is different. In
distant rooms, the bass notes are more prominent because their longer
wavelengths are readily diffracted around corners and obstacles.

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6) Refraction of Sound

➢ Refraction changes the direction

of travel of the sound by
differences in the velocity of
propagation.
➢ The sound speed in the denser
medium is greater than that in the
less dense one.

Refraction of Sound in the Atmosphere

➢ Sometimes the air near the earth

is warmer than the air at greater
heights, sometimes it is colder.
This affects the wavefronts of the
sound.
➢ Sound has a tendency to bend
towards the denser medium as
the law of refraction of sound.
o In the atmosphere, when the
warm air goes upwards and
cool air stays near the
surfaces of earth, sound
from the source is bent down
toward the surface of the
earth and can be heard at
relatively great distances.
➢ The thermal gradient of Fig. B is
reversed from that of Fig. A, as the
air near the surface of the earth is
warmer than the air higher up.
o In this case, the wavefronts of
sound tends to bent towards the upper denser medium, resulting in
upward refraction of the sound rays.
o The same sound energy from the source S would now be dissipated in the
upper reaches of the atmosphere, reducing the chances of it being heard
at any great distance at the surface of the earth.
o This phenomenon causes sound shadows on the surface of earth where
sound wavefronts do not reach at all.

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7) Diffusion of Sound

Adequate sound diffusion is a necessary acoustical

characteristic of certain types of rooms (concert halls, radio
and recording studios, and music rooms) because it promotes
a uniform distribution of sound, accentuates the natural
qualities of music and speech, and prevents the
occurrence of undesirable acoustical defects like sound
shadow or dead spot.

➢ Specular reflection is a type of surface reflectance

often described as a mirror-like reflection of sound
from the surface. In specular reflection, the incident
sound is reflected into a single outgoing direction.
➢ Diffuse reflection is the reflection of sound or other
waves or particles from a surface such that a ray
incident on the surface is scattered at many angles
rather than at just one angle as in the case of specular
reflection
• If the sound pressure is equal in all parts of an auditorium and it is probable that
sound waves are traveling in all directions, the sound field is said to be
homogeneous;
• In other words, sound diffusion or sound dispersion prevails in the room.
• Diffusion causes incident sound to reflect equally in all directions.
• Diffusion of sound can be created in several ways (Fig. 4.3)
➢ The generous application of surface irregularities and scattering elements,
such as pilasters, piers, exposed beams, coffered ceilings, sculptured balcony
railings, and serrated enclosures
➢ The alternate application of sound-reflective and sound-absorptive surface
treatments
➢ The irregular & random distribution of differing sound absorptive treatments

It must be remembered that the overall dimensions of the surface protrusions and of the
patches of absorptive treatments must be comparable to the wavelength of every sound
wave within the entire audio frequency range.

The projections of the surface irregularities must reach at least one-seventh of the
wavelengths of those sound waves which have to be diffused.

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Cases (examples)

1. Reflection of Sound of 100 Hz

➢ Sound w/ Low frequency, large wavelength
➢ Wavelength of sound is much larger than surface irregularities
➢ Causes specular Reflection
2. Reflection of Sound of 1000 Hz (1kHz)
➢ Sound w/ medium frequency, medium wavelength
➢ Wavelength of sound is comparable to surface irregularities
➢ Causes Diffuse Reflection
3. Reflection of Sound of 10,000 Hz (10 kHz)
➢ Sound w/ high frequency, small wavelength
➢ Wavelength of sound is much smaller than surface irregularities
➢ Causes specular reflection from each individual irregularity
8) Echo

• After the direct sound is heard, if a reflected sound is heard separately, it is called
an 'echo' which must be distinguished from reverberation.
• When echoes occur, speech articulation decreases considerably since speech
sounds consist of successive short sounds, and the performance of music becomes
difficult because the rhythm is no longer easy to follow. Thus, echoes damage
room acoustics quite seriously.

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