EEE (May 2023)

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF TEXTILES
B. SC. IN TEXTILE ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (EEE)
SI CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGES

1. EEE-1 ❖ Basic Concepts 2-29
❖ Basic Laws
2. EEE-2 ❖ Method of Analysis 30-63
❖ Network Theorem
3. EEE-3 ❖ Sinusoids and Phasors 64-87
❖ AC Power Analysis
4. EEE-4 ❖ Single-Phase Circuit 88-104
❖ Three-Phase Circuit
5. EEE-5 ❖ Electronic 105-144
❖ E-Textiles
6. EEE-6 ❖ Sensor 145-190
❖ Transducer
7. EEE-7 ❖ Electrical Machine 191-245
❖ Magnetism
8. EEE-8 ❖ Power System 246-296
❖ Sub-Station
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Assistant Professor (Electrical)
Department of Textile Machinery Design and Maintenance
Bangladesh University of Textiles
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 1 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-1
 BASIC CONCEPTS
 BASIC LAWS
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208

Reference Books (EEE-1)
(1) Fundamentals of Electric Circuits- By Charles K. Alexander and Matthew N. O. Sadiku.
(2) Introductory Circuit Analysis-By Robert L. Boylestad.
(3) A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Volume I, Basic Electrical Engineering-By B.L. Theraja, A.K.
Theraja.
Practice Questions (EEE-1)

[1] Define charge, current, voltage, power and energy.
[2] Describe different circuit elements with examples.
[3] Differentiate between passive element and active element.
[4] Differentiate between dependent source and independent source.
[5] Explain the terminal characteristics of both voltage and current source with proper illustration.
[6] Demonstrate the constant current characteristic in the design of security systems.
[7] State and explain Ohm’s law, KVL and KCL with example.
[8] What is node, branch and loop? Explain.
[9] State the characteristics of series and parallel circuit.
[10] Explain the current division and voltage division rule.

CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS
__________________________________________________________________________________
Science can amuse and fascinate us all, but it is engineering that changes the world— Isaac Asimov.
__________________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Terminal Characteristics of Voltage and Current Sources

2.1 Constant current characteristic in the design of security systems
The applications section of this chapter will discuss the constant current characteristic in the design of
security systems. The basic components of an alarm system employing a constant current supply are
provided in Fig. 8.86. This design is improved over that provided in Chapter 5 in the sense that it is less
sensitive to changes in resistance in the circuit due to heating, humidity, changes in the length of the line
to the sensors, and so on. The 1.5 k rheostat (total resistance between points a and b) is adjusted to
ensure a current of 5 mA through the single-series security circuit. The adjustable rheostat is necessary to
compensate for variations in the total resistance of the circuit introduced by the resistance of the wire,
sensors, sensing relay, and milliammeter. The milliammeter is included to set the rheostat and ensure a
current of 5 mA.
If any of the sensors should open, the current through the entire circuit will drop to zero, the coil of the
relay will release the plunger, and contact will be made with the N/C position of the relay. This action will
complete the circuit for the bell circuit, and the alarm will sound. For the future, keep in mind that switch
positions for a relay are always shown with no power to the network, resulting in the N/C position of Fig.
8.86. When power is applied, the switch will have the position indicated by the dashed line. That is,
various factors, such as a change in resistance of any of the elements due to heating, humidity, and so on,
would cause the applied voltage to redistribute itself and create a sensitive situation. With an adjusted 5
mA, the loading can change, but the current will always be 5 mA and the chance of tripping reduced. Take
note of the fact that the relay is rated as 5V at 5 mA, indicating that in the on state the voltage across the
relay is 5V and the current through the relay 5 mA. Its internal resistance is therefore 5 V/5 mA = 1 kΩ in
this state.

3.1 Mathematical Problems
[1] A rechargeable flashlight battery is capable of delivering 85mA for about 12h. How much charge
can it release at that rate? If its terminals voltage is 1.2V, how much energy can the battery
deliver?
Solution:
[2] A 60W, incandescent bulb operates at 120V. How many electrons and coulombs flow through the
bulb in one day?
Solution:
[3] Charge is flowing through a conductor at the rate of 420 C/min. If 742J of electrical energy are
converted to heat in 30 s, what is the potential drop across the conductor?
Solution:
[4] The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is 24 V. If 0.4 J of energy were
dissipated in a period of 5 ms, what would the current be between the two points?
Solution:
[5] If a conductor with a current of 200 mA passing through it converts 40 J of electrical energy into
heat in 30 s, what is the potential drop across the conductor?
Solution:

[6] Between two points in an electric circuit, a voltmeter reads 12.5 V for a period of 20 s. If the
current measured by an ammeter is 10 mA, determine the energy expended and the charge that
flowed between the two points.
Solution:
[7] A battery may be rated in ampere-hours (Ah). A lead-acid battery is rated at 160Ah.
a) What is the maximum current it can supply for 40h?
b) How many days will it last if it is discharged at 1mA?
Solution:
[8] A calculator with an internal 3-V battery draws 0.4 mW when fully functional.
a. What is the current demand from the supply?
b. If the calculator is rated to operate 500 h on the same battery, what is the ampere-hour rating
of the battery?
Solution:
[9]
a. In 10 h an electrical system converts 1200 kWh of electrical energy into heat. What is the power
level of the system?
b. If the applied voltage is 208 V, what is the current drawn from the supply?
c. If the efficiency of the system is 82%, how much energy is lost or stored in 10 h?
Solution:

[10] A standard 12-V car battery has an ampere-hour rating of 40 Ah, whereas a heavy-duty battery
has a rating of 60 Ah. How would you compare the energy levels of each and the available current
for starting purposes?
Solution:
[11] A constant current of 3A for 4hours is required to charge an automotive battery. If the terminal
voltage is 10+t/2 Volt, where t is in hours,
a) how much charge is transported as a result of the charging?
b) how much energy is expended?
c) how much does the charging cost? Assume electricity costs 9 cents/kWh.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 10 of 298 (AZ)

[12] In the circuit in Figures, obtain v1 , v2 and v3.
Solution:
[13] Given the circuit in Figure, use KVL to find the branch voltages V 1 to V4.
Solution:
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[14] Find the unknown voltage V1 in the circuit of Figure.
Solution:
Taking the outer closed loop ABCDEFA and applying KVL to it, we get
− 16 × 3 − 4 × 2 + 40 − V1 =0 ; ∴ V1 = -16 V
The negative sign shows there is a fall in potential.
[15] Find i1, i2 and i3 in the figure.
Solution:
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[16] For the circuit in Figure, use KCL to find the branch currents to I1 to I4.
Solution:
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[17] In the network of Figure, the different currents and voltages are as under :
i2 = 5e− 2t , i4 = 3sint and v3 = 4e− 2t . Using KCL, find voltage v1.
Solution:
[18] In the network shown in Figure below, v1 = 4V, v4 = 4 cos2t and i3 = 2e−t/3. Determine i2.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 14 of 298 (AZ)

[19] A 50-ohm resistor is in parallel with 100-ohm resistor. Current in 50-ohm resistor is 7.2 A. How
will you add a third resistor and what will be its value of the line-current is to be its value if the
line-current is to be 12.1 amp ? [Answer: 227Ohm]
Solution: Source voltage = 50 × 7.2 = 360 V, Current through 100–ohm resistor = 3.6 A
Total current through these two resistors in parallel = 10.8 A
For the total line current to be 12.1 A, third resistor must be connected in parallel, as the third branch, for
carrying (12.1 − 10.8) = 1.3 A. If R is this resistor R = 360/1.3 = 277 ohms
[20] A circuit consists of four 100-W lamps connected in parallel across a 230-V supply.
Inadvertently, a voltmeter has been connected in series with the lamps. The resistance of the
voltmeter is 1500 Ω and that of the lamps under the conditions stated is six times their value then
burning normally. What will be the reading of the voltmeter?[ 150V (approx)]
Solution:
The circuit is shown in Fig. 1.18. The wattage of a lamp is given by :

W = I2R = V2/R
∴ 100 = 2302/R ∴ R = 529 Ω
Resistance of each lamp under stated condition is =6×529=3174 Ω
Equivalent resistance of these four lamps connected in parallel = 3174/4 = 793.5 Ω
This resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter of 1500 Ω resistance.
∴ total circuit resistance =1500+793.5=2293.5 Ω
∴ circuit current =230/2293.5 A
According to Ohm’s law, voltage drop across the voltmeter =1500×230/2293.5=150V(approx)
May 2023 Page 15 of 298 (AZ)

[21] Find the current supplied by the battery in the circuit. [Answer: 5A, 9A, 15A]
(i) (ii) (iii)

Solution: (Try to solve)
[22] What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit of Figure between terminals A and B? All
resistances are in ohms. [4 Ω].
Solution: [Try to solve]

[23] Compute the value of battery current I in Figure. All resistances are in ohm.[ Answer: 6 A]
[24] Find RAB in the circuit. [Answer: 22.5 ohms ]
Solution:
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[25] In Figure if all the resistances are of 6 ohms, calculate the equivalent resistance between any
two diagonal points. [Answer: 3 Ohm]
Solution:
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[26] Calculate the equivalent resistance in the circuit in Figure.
Solution:
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[27] Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Figure and use it to find current i.
Solution:
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[28] Obtain the equivalent resistance at the terminals a-b for each of the circuits in Figures.
Question: 1.35(a)
Solution:
Question: 1.35(b)
Solution:
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Question: 1.35(c)
Solution:
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[29] Calculate the indicated currents and voltage of Figure.
Solution:
[30] For the multiple ladder configuration of Figure:

a. Determine I.
b. Calculate I4.
c. Find I6.
d. Find I .
May 2023 Page 22 of 298 (AZ)

Solution:
[31] Calculate the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B in the network shown in Fig.
2.187 (a).
Solution:
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[32] Calculate the current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor of Fig. 2.188 (a) by using any method.
Solution:
[33] A bridge network ABCD has arms AB, BC, CD and DA of resistances 1, 1, 2 and 1 ohm
respectively. If the detector AC has a resistance of 1 ohm, determine by star/delta
transformation, the network resistance as viewed from the battery terminals.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 24 of 298 (AZ)

[34] Use delta-star conversion to find resistance between terminals ‘AB’ of the circuit shown in Fig.
2.193 (a). All resistances are in ohms.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 25 of 298 (AZ)

[35] As a design engineer, you are asked to design a lighting system consisting of a 70W power
supply and two lightbulbs as shown in Fig. 2.118. You must select the two bulbs from the following
three available bulbs.
RI = 80Ω, cost = $0.60 (standard size)
R2 = 90Ω, cost = $0.90 (standard size)
R3 = 100Ω, cost = $0.75 (nonstandard size)
The system should be designed for minimum cost such that I = 1.2 A ± 5 percent.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 26 of 298 (AZ)

[36] As a design engineer, an electric pencil sharpener rated 240 mW, 6V is connected to a 9V
battery as shown in Fig. 2.126. Calculate the value of the series-dropping resistor Rx needed to
power the sharpener.
Fig.2.126
Solution:
May 2023 Page 27 of 298 (AZ)

[37] A loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier as shown in Fig. 2.127. If a 10Ω loudspeaker draws
the maximum power of 12W from the amplifier, determine the maximum power a 4Ω loudspeaker
will draw.
Fig. 2.127
Solution:
48.1) A washing machine consumes 300 watts each time while in running. The entire cycle lasts an
hour. It is operated twice a day. (i) How much electricity does it consume annually? (ii) If
electricity price 10.00 BDT per unit, then what will be the cost of this energy usage?
Solution:
(i) Daily energy usage = machine rating × hours in cycle × number of cycles per day
= 300 W × 1 Hour × 2
= 600 Wh
Annual energy use = 600 Wh × 365 = 219,000 Wh = 219000/1000 kWh=219 Unit
(ii) The annual electricity cost = 219 Unit ×10.00BDT/Unit = 2190 BDT
May 2023 Page 28 of 298 (AZ)

4.1 Two electric bulbs of 60W and 100W are given. Which one will be brighter when they are
connected in (i) series and (ii) in parallel? If one of the bulbs is turned off, what will be the effect of
illumination.
Which bulb will be more brighter it is determined by the rate of energy dissipation (P=I2R).
(i) Series connection: The 60W bulb has more resistance (R=V2/P) than that of 100W. Therefore, when
the two bulbs are connected in series, the rate of energy dissipation (P=I2R, I is same) is more in that bulb
which has larger resistance. Consequently, 60W will glow brighter.
When one of the bulbs is switched off, the circuit resistance decreases hence current increases. As a
result, rate of energy dissipation (P=I2R) increases. Hence the total light of the room will increase.
(ii) Parallel connection: The 60W bulb has more resistance (R=V2/P) than that of 100W. Therefore,
when the two bulbs are connected in parallel, the rate of energy dissipation (P=V2/R, V is same) is more in
that bulb which has smaller resistance. Consequently, 100W will glow brighter.
When one of the bulbs is switched off, the circuit resistance increases hence current decreases. As a
result, rate of energy dissipation (P=I2R) decreases. Hence the total light of the room will decrease.
******** Best of Luck********
May 2023 Page 29 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-2
 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
 NETWORK THEOREM
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 30 of 298 (AZ)

(1) Fundamentals of Electric Circuits-By Charles K. Alexander and Matthew N. O. Sadiku.
Theraja.

[1] Write down the steps of nodal analysis and mesh analysis.
[2] What are the steps of branch-current analysis method?
[3] What is supernode and supermesh? Explain with example.
[4] State and explain source transformation theorem. Explain with example.
[5] What are constant voltage and constant current sources? Voltage and current sources are mutually
transferable. Explain with example.
[6] State and explain superposition principle with example.
[7] Prove that average power delivered to a circuit by several sinusoidal sources, acting together, is equal
to the sum of the average power delivered to the circuit by each sources acting along and if no two of
the sources have the same frequency.
[8] Prove that the total power delivered to a resistive element must be determined using the total current
through or the total voltage across the element and cannot be determined by a simple sum of the
power levels established by each source.
[9] How can you thevenize of a given circuit? Explain with example.
[10] How can you nortonize of a given circuit? Explain with example.
[11] State the maximum power transfer theorem. From here prove the necessary condition for DC ciruit.
May 2023 Page 31 of 298 (AZ)

CHAPTER 2
METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND NETWORK THEOREM
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Scientists study the world as it is, engineers create the world that never has been –Theodore von Karman
__________________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION 1: METHOD OF ANALYSIS

[1] Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. 3.5(a)
Fig.3.5(a)
Solution:
Fig.3.5(b)
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May 2023 Page 33 of 298 (AZ)
[2] Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit of Fig. 3.6. [ v1=32 V, v2=25.6 V,
v3= 62.4V ]
Fig.3.6
Answer: [Try to solve it]
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[3] For the circuit shown in Fig, find the node voltages.
Answer: [Try to solve]
[4] For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.9, find the node voltages.
Fig.3.9
Solution:
3.10(a)
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3.10(b)
[5] Find v and i in the circuit of Figure. [Answer: - 400 mV, 2.8 A]
May 2023 Page 36 of 298 (AZ)

[6] Use mesh analysis to determine current in Fig. 3.25. [ Answer: i 1=4.632 A, i2= 631.6 mA,
i3=1.4736 A.]
Fig.3.25
[7] For the circuit in Fig. 3.18, find the branch currents I 1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis.
Fig.3.18
Solution:
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[8] Calculate the mesh currents I1 and I2 of the circuit of Fig. 3.19. [I1=2.5A, I2=0]
Fig.3.19
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[9] Use mesh analysis to find the current Io in the circuit of Fig. 3.20.
Fig.3.20
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[10] Using mesh analysis, find Io in the circuit of Figure. [Answer: -4A]
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[11] Find io and vo in the circuit of Figure.
Solution:
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[12] For the bridge network in Figure, find io using mesh analysis.
Solution:
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[13] Use mesh analysis to find vab and io in the circuit of the circuit.
Solution:
[14] Find vx and ix in the circuit shown in Fig.
Solution:
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[15] Determine current in 5Ω resistor by any one method. [Answer: 3.633A ]
[16] Apply nodal analysis to find io and the power dissipated in each resistor in the circuit .
Solution:
May 2023 Page 44 of 298 (AZ)

[17] Use nodal analysis to determine the voltage across 5Ω resistance and the current in the 12V
source. [Answer: 14.18 volt, 1.412 amp ]
May 2023 Page 45 of 298 (AZ)

2.2 The Power Superposition Principle
In this section, let us consider the case when the circuit contains two or more sources. For example,
consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.7-1 a with two sinusoidal voltage sources. The principle of
superposition states that the response to both sources acting together is equal to the sum of the
responses to each voltage source acting alone.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.7-1 (a) Circuit with two sources (b)Using superposition to calculate the resistor current as
i(t)=i1(t)+ i2(t)
The application of the principle of superposition is illustrated in Figure 11.7-1b, where i1 is the response
to source 1 acting alone, and the response i2 is the response to source 2 acting alone.
The total response is
i = i1 + i2
The instantaneous power is
p = i 2 R = R(i1 + i2 ) 2 = R(i12 + i22 + 2i1i2 )

where, R is the resistance of the circuit.
Then the average power is
T
1 T R
P=
T 0
pdt =  (i12 + i 22 + 2i1i 2 )dt
T 0
T T T T
R R 2R 2R
=  i12 dt +  i 22 dt +  T 0
i1i 2 dt = P1 + P2 + i1i 2 dt (1)
T 0 T 0 T 0
where P1 is the average power due to v1 and P2 is the average power due to v2. We will see that when v1
and v2 are sinusoids having different frequencies, then
T
2R
T 0
i1i2 dt = 0 (2)
When Eq.(2) is satisfied, then Eq. (1) reduces to

P = P1 + P2
This equation states that the average power delivered to the resistor by both sources acting together is
equal to the sum of the average power delivered to the resistor by each voltage source acting alone. This
May 2023 Page 46 of 298 (AZ)

is the principle of power superposition. Notice that the principle of power superposition is valid only
when Eq.(2) is satisfied.
Now let us determine under what conditions Eq.(2) is satisfied. Let the radian frequency for the first
source be mω and let the radian frequency for the second source be nω. The currents can be represented
by the general form
i1 = I1Cos(mt +  )
and
i2 = I 2Cos(nt +  )
It can be shown that
T
0 mn
 Cos(mt +  )Cos(nt +  )dt = Cos( −  )
0
m=n
Consequently,
2R
T
0 mn
T 0 i1i2 dt = 
 RI1 I 2Cos( −  ) m = n
Therefore, in summary, the superposition of average power states that the average power delivered to a
circuit by several sinusoidal sources, acting together, is equal to the sum of the average power
delivered to the circuit by each source acting alone, if, and only if, no two of the sources have the
same frequency. Similar arguments show that superposition can he used to calculate the reactive power
or the complex power delivered to a circuit by several sinusoidal sources, provided again that no two
sources have the same frequency.
If two or more sources are operating at the same frequency, the principle of power superposition is not
valid, but the principle of superposition remains valid. In this case, we use the principle of superposition
to find each phasor current and then add the currents to obtain the total phasor current
I = I + I +  + I N
for N sources. Then we have the average power
I m2 R
P=
2
where I = Im
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4.3 Mathematical Problem (Network Theorem)
[1] Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig. 4.6.
Fig.4.6
Solution:
May 2023 Page 48 of 298 (AZ)

25.2) i
Using nodal analysis find current o in the cuircuit. [io=……A]
[2] For the circuit in Fig. 4.12, use the superposition theorem to find i.
Fig.4.12
Solution:
May 2023 Page 49 of 298 (AZ)

[3] Find I in the circuit of Fig. 4.14 using the superposition principle. [Answer: 375 mA]
May 2023 Page 50 of 298 (AZ)

[4] In the circuit of Fig. 2.19 (b), find current through 1Ω resistor using both THEVENIN’s theorem
and SUPERPOSITION theorem.
2.19(b)
Solution:
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[5] Use source transformation to find in the circuit of Fig. 4.17.
Fig.4.17
Solution:
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[6] Find io in the circuit using source transformation. [Answer: 1.78 A.]
[7] Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.27, to the left of the terminals
a-b Then find the current through RL= 6, 16 and 36 Ohm.
Fig.4.27
Solution:
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May 2023 Page 54 of 298 (AZ)
[8] Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.31 at terminals a-b.
Fig.4.31
Solution:
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May 2023 Page 56 of 298 (AZ)
32.2) Obtain the thevenin equivalent at terminal a-b of the circuit.
[9] Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig. 4.43 at terminals a-b.
Fig.4.43
Solution:
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[10] Using Norton’s theorem, calculate the current in the 6Ω resistor in the network of as shown in
Figure. All resistance are in ohms.
Solution:
Short Circuit Current (ISC):
(a) (b)
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When the branch containing 6Ω resistance is short-circuited, the given circuit is reduced to that shown in
Fig.(a) and finally to Fig. (b). As seen, the 12A current divides into two unequal parts at point A. The
current passing through 4 Ω resistor forms the short-circuit current ISC.
Norton’s Resistance (RN):
(c)
Resistance RN between points C and D when they are open-circuited. It is so because the constant-current
source has infinite resistance i.e., it behaves like an open circuit as shown in Fig.(c).
RN=(8+4)‖(10+2)=6Ω
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:
(d)
Hence, Norton’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.(d). As seen current of 8A is divided equally between
the two equal resistances of 6Ω each. Hence, current through the required 6 Ω resistor is 4A.
Answer: Current through the required 6 Ω resistor is 4A.
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[11] Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig. 4.50. Find the maximum
power.
Fig.4.50
Solution:
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[12] In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.232(a) obtain the condition from maximum power transfer to the
load RL. Hence determine the maximum power transferred.
Fig.2.232(a)
Solution:
Fig.2.232
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[13] Prove that under maximum power transfer conditions, the power transfer efficiency is only
50%.
Power Transfer Efficiency:
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[14] A voltage source delivers 4A when the load connected to it is 5Ω and 2A when the load becomes
20Ω. Calculate (a) maximum power which the source can supply (b) power transfer efficiency of
the source with RL of 20 Ω (c) the power transfer efficiency when the source delivers 60W.
Solution:
*********Best of Luck*********
May 2023 Page 63 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-3
 SINUSOIDS AND PHASOR
 AC POWER ANALYSIS
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 64 of 298 (AZ)

Theraja.

[1] What are sinusoids and phasor? What is the significance of the symbol v(t) and V.
[2] Define resistance, capacitance, inductance, impedance, admittance, conductance, reactance and
susceptance.
[3] Derive mathematical formula and corresponding phasor diagram for resistor, inductor and capacitor.
[4] Show that in case of inductor the current lags the voltage by 90 0 but in case of capacitor the current
leads the voltage by 900. What is the phase difference between the current and voltage for resistor?
[5] Show that the inductor is an open circuit but capacitor is a short circuit to high frequencies (AC).
While at low frequency (i.e., at DC) inductor is a short circuit but capacitor is an open circuit.
[6] What is RMS or effective value? What is the significance of average values and RMS value of current
and voltage?
[7] Define form factor and crest factor. Write down their physical significance these terms.
[8] Derive the equation of energy stored by inductor and capacitor.
[9] Show that a resistive load absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load absorbs zero average
power. Also show the flow power curve.
[10] Why net flow of power to the pure inductor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is lost in the
transaction.
[11] Draw the power curve for a purely capacitive load and show that the net flow of power to the pure
capacitor is zero over a full cycle.
[12] Define complex power, apparent power, real and reactive power.
[13] Draw the power triangle and impedance triangle.
[14] What is power factor? Write down the physical significance of power factor.
[15] What are the bad effects of low power factor and why?
[16] Why correction of power factor is necessary? Explain with example.
[17] Find the value of required shunt capacitance for correction of power factor of an inductive load.
May 2023 Page 65 of 298 (AZ)

CHAPTER 3
SINUSOIDS, PHASOR AND AC POWER ANALYSIS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
An expert problem solver must be endowed with two incompatible qualities, a restless imagination
and a patient pertinacity — Howard Whitley Eves.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION 1: SINUSOIDS AND PHASOR

[1] Find the phasors corresponding to the following signals:
(a) v(t)=21cos(4t-15o) V
(b) i(t)=-8sin(10t+70o) mA
(c) v(t)=120sin(10t–50o) V
(d) i(t)=-60cos(30t+10o) mA
Solution:
[2] Obtain the sinusoids corresponding to each of the following phasors:

(a) V1=60∠15oV, ω=1
(b) V2 =6+j8V, ω=40
(c) I1 =2.8e-jπ/3 A, ω=377
(d) I 2 =-0.5– j1.2A, ω =103
Solution:
[3] Given v1=20Sin(ωt+60∠) and v2=60Cos(ωt−10∠), determine the phase angle between the two
sinusoids and which one lags the other.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 66 of 298 (AZ)

[4] For the following pairs of sinusoids, determine which one leads and by how much.
(a) v(t)=10Cos(4t−60∠) and i(t)=4Sin(4t+50∠)
(b) v1(t)=4Cos(377t+10∠) and v2(t)=−20Cos377t
(c) x(t)=13Cos2t+5Sin2t and y(t)=15Cos(2t−11.8∠)
Solution:
[5] A series RLC circuit has R=80Ω, L =240 mH, and C=5 mF. If the input voltage is v(t)=10cos2t find
the current flowing through the circuit.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 67 of 298 (AZ)

[6] In the circuit of Fig. 9.43, determine i. Let v = 60cos(200t - 10o)V.
Solution:
[7] An alternating voltage is given by v(t)=20cos(5t-30o)V. Use phasors to find
Assume that the value of the integral is zero at t = - ∞.

Solution:
May 2023 Page 68 of 298 (AZ)

[8] Using phasors, determine i(t) in the following equations:
Solution:
[9] If v(t)=160cos50t V and i(t)=–20sin(50t–30°)A, calculate the instantaneous power and the
average power.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 69 of 298 (AZ)

[10] Assuming that vs=8cos(2t–40º)V in the circuit of Fig. 11.37, find the average power delivered
to each of the passive elements.
Solution:
Converting the circuit into the frequency domain, we get:
[11] Calculate the effective value of the current waveform of the figure given below and the average
power delivered to a 12Ω resistor when the current runs through the resistor.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 70 of 298 (AZ)

[12] Find the rms value of the waveform.
(i) Solution:
(ii) Solution:
May 2023 Page 71 of 298 (AZ)

(iii) Solution:
(iv) Solution:
May 2023 Page 72 of 298 (AZ)

(v) Solution:
(vi) Solution:
May 2023 Page 73 of 298 (AZ)

(vii) Solution:
(viii) Solution:
May 2023 Page 74 of 298 (AZ)

(ix) Solution:
(x) Solution:
May 2023 Page 75 of 298 (AZ)

(xi) Solution:
(xii) Solution:
May 2023 Page 76 of 298 (AZ)

(xiii) Solution:
[13] Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. 11.14. If the current is passed
through a 2 Ohm resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 77 of 298 (AZ)

[14] Find the rms value of the current waveform of Fig. 11.15. If the current flows through a
resistor, calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor. [Answer: 9.238 A, 768 W]
Solution:
May 2023 Page 78 of 298 (AZ)

[15] Determine the average value, rms value, form factor and amplitude factor of the following
waveform. Find the amount of average power dissipated in a 10Ω resistor.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 79 of 298 (AZ)

[16] Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified sine wave in Fig. 11.17. Calculate the average
power dissipated in a resistor. [Answer: 70.71V, 833.3W]
Solution:
[17] A 110-V rms, 60Hz source is applied to a load impedance Z. The apparent power entering the
load is 120VA at a power factor of 0.707 lagging.
(a) Calculate the complex power.
(b) Find the rms current supplied to the load.
(c) Determine Z.
(d) Assuming that Z = R + jωL, find the values of R and L.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 80 of 298 (AZ)

[18] Determine the complex power for the following cases:
(a) P = 269 W, Q = 150 VAR (capacitive)
(b) Q = 2000 VAR, pf = 0.9 (leading)
(c) S = 600 VA, Q = 450 VAR (inductive)
(d) Vrms = 220 V, P = 1 kW,
(e) |Z| = 40 Ω(inductive)
Solution:
[19] Find the complex power for the following cases:
Solution:
May 2023 Page 81 of 298 (AZ)

[20] For the entire circuit in Figure, calculate:
(a) the power factor
(b) the average power delivered by the source
(c) the reactive power
(d) the apparent power
(e) the complex power
Solution:
May 2023 Page 82 of 298 (AZ)

[21] A series-connected load draws a current i(t)=4cos(100πt+10 ∠)A when the applied voltage is
v(t)=120cos(100πt−20∠)V. Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load. Determine
the element values that form the series-connected load.
Solution:
[22] The voltage across a load is v(t)=60cos(ωt−10 ∠)V and the current through the element in the
direction of the voltage drop is i(t)=1.5cos(ωt +50 ∠)A. Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers,
(b) the real and reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 83 of 298 (AZ)

[23] A load Z draws 12kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a 120V rms sinusoidal source.
Calculate: (a) the average and reactive powers delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c)
the load impedance.
Solution:
[24] Find the wattmeter reading of the circuit in Fig. 11.32.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 84 of 298 (AZ)

[25] When connected to a 120-V (rms), 60Hz power line, a load absorbs 4kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.
Solution:
[26] Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a load of 140 kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to
unity pf. Assume that the load is supplied by a 110V (rms), 60-Hz line.
Answer: 30.69mF
Solution: [Try to solve it]
May 2023 Page 85 of 298 (AZ)

[27] A 300kW load supplied at 13kV (rms) operates 520 hours a month at 80 percent power factor.
Calculate the average cost per month based on this simplified tariff:
Energy charge: 6 cents per kWh
Power-factor penalty: 0.1 percent of energy charge for every 0.01 that pf falls below 0.85.
Power-factor credit: 0.1 percent of energy charge for every 0.01 that pf exceeds 0.85.
Solution:
[28] An 800kW induction furnace at 0.88 power factor operates 20 hours per day for 26 days in a
month. Determine the electricity bill per month based on the tariff in previous example (example
44.3)
Answer: $24,885.12.
Solution: [Try to solve it], Hints: In this case, Wt=W-∆W
[29] (i) Why Battery is rated in Ah (Ampere hour) and not in VA?
(ii) Why Motor is rated in kW/Horsepower instead of kVA?
(iii) Why Alternator/Generator Rated in kVA. Not in kW?
Answer:
*********Best of Luck*********
May 2023 Page 86 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-4
 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUIT
 THREE PHASE CIRCUIT
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 87 of 298 (AZ)

(2) Introductory Circuit Analysis- By Robert L. Boylestad.

[1] What are the advantages of the three phase system over single phase system?
[2] List the possible connection configurations of three phase system. Show that the algebraic summation of
phase voltages of three phase system will be zero.
[3] Show that in a balanced Y-Y system line voltage is √3 times of the phase voltage and also line voltage
leads phase voltage by 300.
[4] Why the ∆-connected load is more desirable than Y-connected load? Why Y-connected source is more
preferable then delta?
[5] Show that the 3-Ф system uses only 75% of the material used in the equivalent 1-Ф system.
[6] Show that the instantaneous power supplied by the balanced three phase system is constant.
[7] Describe the two watt-meter method of 3-Φ power measurement and also write down different loading
conditions.
[8] Why a textile engineer should study about electrical engineering? Or write down the significance of
electrical engineering and its applications in textile fields.
[9] Write down/list application of resistor, inductor and capacitor?
May 2023 Page 88 of 298 (AZ)

CHAPTER 4
SINGLE AND THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The desire to understand the world and the desire to reform it are the two great engines of progress,
without which human society would stand still or retrogress. It’s coexistence or no existence. —
Bertrand Russell
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION 1: SINGLE PHASE CIRCUIT PROBLEMS

1.4 The potential difference measured across a coil is 4.5 V, when it carries a direct current of 9 A.
The same coil when carries an alternating current of 9 A at 25 Hz, the potential difference is 24 V.
Find the current, the power and the power factor when it is supplied by 50 V, 50Hz supply.
Solution:
2.4 Two impedances consist of (resistance of 15 ohms and series-connected inductance of 0.04 H)
and (resistance of 10 ohms, inductance of 0.1 H and a capacitance of 100 μF, all in series) are
connectd in series and are connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz a.c. source. Find : (i) Current drawn, (ii)
Voltage across each impedance, (iii) Individual and total power factor. Draw the phasor
diagram.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 89 of 298 (AZ)

3.4 A tungsten filament bulb rated at 500-W, 100-V is to be connected to series with a capacitance
across 200V, 50Hz supply. Calculate : (a) the value of capacitor such that the voltage and power
consumed by the bulb are according to the rating of the bulb. (b) the power factor of the current
drawn from the supply. (c) draw the phasor diagram of the circuit.
Solution:
4.4 A pure resistance of 50 ohms is in series with a pure capacitance of 100 microfarads. The series
combination is connected across 100-V, 50-Hz supply. Find (a) the impedance (b) current (c)
power factor (d) phase angle (e) voltage across resistor (f) voltage across capacitor. Draw the
vector diagram.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 90 of 298 (AZ)

5.4 A 240-V, 50-Hz series R-C circuit takes an r.m.s. current of 20 A. The maximum value of the
current occurs 1/900 second before the maximum value of the voltage. Calculate (i) the power
factor (ii) average power (iii) the parameters of the circuit.
Solution:
6.4 A resistance of 20 Ω, an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 100 μF are connected in series
across 220-V, 50-Hz mains. Determine the following (a) impedance (b) current (c) voltage
across R, L and C (d) power in watts and VA (e) p.f. and angle of lag.
Solution:
7.4 A resistance of 20ohm, inductance of 0.2H and capacitance of 150μF are connected in series and
are fed by a 230V, 50Hz supply. Find XL, XC, Z, Y, p.f., active power and reactive power.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 91 of 298 (AZ)

8.4 A two-element series circuit consumes 700W and has a p.f.=0.707 leading. If applied voltage is
v=141.1sin (314t+30°), find the circuit constants.
Solution:
9.4 A voltage e(t)=100sin314t is applied to series circuit consisting of 10ohm resistance,

0.0318henry inductance and a capacitor of 63.6μF. Calculate (i) expression for i(t) (ii) phase
angle between voltage and current (iii) power factor (iv) active power consumed.
Solution:
10.4 A resistance R, an inductance L=0.01H and a capacitance C are connected in series. When a
voltage v=400cos(300t−10°) volts is applied to the series combination, the current flowing is
10√2cos( 3000 t-55°) amperes. Find R and C.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 92 of 298 (AZ)

SECTION 2
THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT
1.4 Introduction
A single-phase ac power system consists of a generator connected through a pair of wires (a transmission
line) to a load. Fig.1 depicts a single-phase two-wire system, where Vp is the magnitude of the source
voltage and φ is the phase. Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at the same frequency but
different phases are known as polyphase. Fig.2 shows a two-phase three-wire system and Fig.3 shows a
three-phase three-wire system. As distinct from a single-phase system, a two-phase system is produced
by a generator consisting of two coils placed perpendicular to each other so that the voltage generated by
one lags the other by 90◦. By the same token, a three-phase system is produced by a generator consisting
of three sources having the same amplitude and frequency but out of phase with each other by 120 ◦.
Fig.1 Single Phase Fig.2 Two Phase Fig.3 Three Phase
2.4 Three-Phase Generator

Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac generator (or alternator) whose cross-
sectional view is shown in Fig.1 . The generator basically consists of a rotating magnet (called the rotor)
surrounded by a stationary winding (called the stator). Three separate windings or coils with terminals a-
a´, b-b´, and c-c´ are physically placed 120◦ apart around the stator. Terminals a and a´, for example, stand
for one of the ends of coils going into and the other end coming out of the page. As the rotor rotates, its
magnetic field “cuts” the flux from the three coils and induces voltages in the coils. Because the coils are
placed 120◦ apart, the induced voltages in the coils are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 120◦
Fig.25 . Since each coil can be regarded as a single phase generator by itself, the three-phase generator
can supply power to both single-phase and three-phase loads.
Fig.1: A three-phase generator Fig.2: The generated voltages are 120◦ apart from each
other
May 2023 Page 93 of 298 (AZ)

3.4 Three Phase Sources
A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources connected to loads by three or four
wires. The voltage sources can be either wye-connected or delta-connected.
Fig.1 Y-connected source Fig.2 Δ-connected source
Let us consider the wye-connected voltages. The voltages Van, Vbn, and Vcn are respectively between lines
a, b, and c, and the neutral line n. These voltages are called phase voltages. Balanced phase voltages are
equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each other by 120◦. This implies that,
van + vbn + vcn = 0

Van = Vbn = Vcn
The 3-Φ voltages mathematically can be expressed as
van = Vm Sint
vbn = Vm Sin(t − 1200 )
vcn = Vm Sin(t − 2400 ) = Vm Sin(t + 1200 )
Or in phasor form
Van = Vm 00
Vbn = Vm  − 1200
Vcn = Vm  − 2400 = Vm  + 1200 )
This is known as the abc sequence or positive sequence. In this phase sequence, V an leads Vbn, which in
turn leads Vcn. The phase sequence is the time order in which the voltages pass through their respective
maximum values.
Another sequence is,
Van = Vm 00
Vcn = Vm  − 1200
Vbn = Vm  − 2400 = Vm  + 1200 )
This is called the acb sequence or negative sequence. For this phase sequence, Van leads Vcn, which in turn
leads
Vbn.
May 2023 Page 94 of 298 (AZ)

Fig.1 abc or positive sequence Fig.2 acb or negative sequence
The algebraic sum of 3-Φ voltages is zero.
Van + Vbn + Vcn = Vm 0 0 + Vm  − 1200 + Vm  + 1200

1 3 1 3
= Vm (1 + j 0 − −j − +j )
2 2 2 2
=0
4.4 Phasor diagrams illustrating the relationship between line voltages and phase
voltages
For Y-connection phase voltages are
Van = Vm 0 0
Vbn = Vm  − 1200
Vcn = Vm  + 1200 )
So the line to line voltage or simply line voltage between a and b is
Vab = Van + Vbn
= Van + Vnb
= Van − Vbn
= Vm00 − Vm − 1200
1 3
= Vm (1 + j 0 + + j )
2 2
3 3
= Vm ( + j )
2 2
= 3Vm  + 300
So the line voltages are
Vab = 3Vm  + 300

Vbc = 3V m − 900
Vcb = 3Vm  − 2100
May 2023 Page 95 of 298 (AZ)

(a) (b)
Fig.1: Phasor diagram relationship between line voltages and phase voltages
Thus, the magnitude of the line voltages VL is √3 times the magnitude of the phase voltages V m that is
VL=√3Vm. Also the line voltages lead their corresponding phase voltages by 30◦.
5.4 Three Phase Load

The 3-Φ load may be Y-connected or Δ-connected. Reminder: A Y-connected load consists of three
impedances connected to a neutral node, while a Δ-connected load consists of three impedances
connected around a loop. A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude
and in phase.
For a balanced wye-connected load, Z1=Z2=Z3 =ZY. Where ZY is the load impedance per phase.
For a balanced delta-connected load, Za=Zb=Zc=ZΔ. Where ZΔ is the load impedance per phase.
Fig.1 Y-connected load Fig.2 Δ-connected load
6.4 Balanced Δ-connected load is more desirable than the balanced Y-connected
load
A balanced Δ-connected load is more common than a balanced Y-connected load. This is due to the ease
with which loads may be added or removed from each phase of a Δ-connected load. This is very difficult
with a Y-connected load because the neutral may not be accessible.
7.4 Balanced Y-connected source is more desirable than the balanced Δ-connected
source
Delta-connected sources are not commonly used. Because if the three-phase voltages are slightly
unbalanced then the circulating current will flow through the delta-mesh.
May 2023 Page 96 of 298 (AZ)

8.4 Advantages/importance of 3-Φ system compared to 1-Φ system
1. Nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase, at the operating frequency of 60
Hz or 50Hz. When one-phase or two-phase inputs are required, they are taken from the three-phase
system rather than generated independently. Even when more than three phases are needed such as
in the aluminum industry, where 48 phases are required for melting purposes. They can be provided
by manipulating the 3-Φ supplied.
2. The instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant (not pulsating).This results in
uniform power transmission and less vibration of three-phase machines.
3. For the same amount of power, the three-phase system is more economical than the single-phase.
The amount of wire required for a three-phase system is less than that required for an equivalent 1-Φ
system.
9.4 Four possible connection configuration of 3-Φ system

1. Y-Y connection: A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected source
and a balanced Y-connected load.
2. Y-Δ connection: A balanced Y-∆ system consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a balanced
Δ-connected load.
3. Δ-Δ connection: A balanced ∆-∆ system is one in which both the balanced source and balanced load
are ∆-connected.
4. Δ-Y connection: A balanced ∆-Y system consists of a balanced ∆ -connected source feeding a
balanced Y-connected load.
Fig.1 Y-Y connection Fig.2 Y-Δ connection
Fig.3 Δ-Δ connection Fig.4 Δ-Y connection
May 2023 Page 97 of 298 (AZ)

10.4 Show that the instantaneous power supplied by the balanced three phase system is
constant.
For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are

v AN = Vm Sint
vBN = Vm Sin(t − 120)
vCN = Vm Sin(t + 120)
Let, the phase currents lag behind their corresponding phase voltages by θ. Thus,
ia = I m Sin(t −  )
ib = I m Sin(t −  − 120)
ic = I m Sin(t −  + 120)
The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the instantaneous powers in the three phases.
That is
p = p a + pb + p c
= v AN ia + v BN ib + vCN ic
( ) ( )
= Vm I m SintSin(t −  ) + Vm I m Sin t − 1200 Sin(t −  − 1200 ) + Vm I m Sin t + 1200 Sin(t −  + 1200 )
1
= Vm I m
2
2SintSin(t −  ) + 2Sin(t − 120 )Sin(t −  − 120 ) + 2Sin(t + 120 )Sin(t −  + 120 )
0 0 0 0
1

= Vm I m Cos − Cos(2t −  ) + Cos − Cos(2t −  − 2400 ) + Cos − Cos(2t −  + 2400 )
2

1

= Vm I m 3Cos − Cos(2t −  ) − Cos(2t −  − 2400 ) − Cos(2t −  + 2400 )
2

3 3
= Vm I m Cos − Vm I m [Cos(2t −  ) + Cos(2t −  − 2400 ) + Cos(2t −  + 2400 )]
2 2
3
2
3

= Vm I m Cos − Vm I m Cos(2t −  ) + Cos(2t −  )Cos 2400 + Sin(2t −  ) Sin2400 + Cos(2t −  )Cos 2400 − Sin(2t −  ) Sin2400
2

3 3  1 3 1 3 
= Vm I m Cos − Vm I m Cos(2t −  ) − Cos(2t −  ) + Sin(2t −  ) − Cos(2t −  ) − Sin(2t −  )
2 2  2 2 2 2 
3
= Vm I m Cos
2
Thus the total instantaneous power in a balanced three-phase system is constant e.i. it does not change
with time as the instantaneous power of each phase does. This result is true whether the load is Y-
connected or Δ-connected.
May 2023 Page 98 of 298 (AZ)

11.4 How the balanced three phase power can be measured by two wattmeter method?
May 2023 Page 99 of 298 (AZ)

May 2023 Page 100 of 298 (AZ)
Problem (Three Phase Circuit)
22.4 Determine the phase sequence of the set of voltages
van = 200 Cos(ωt + 10∠)
vbn = 200 Cos(ωt − 230∠)
vcn = 200 Cos(ωt − 110∠)
Solution:
23.4 Given that Vbn=110∠30∠, find Van and Vcn, assuming a positive (abc) sequence.
Solution:
24.4 Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system of Fig. 12.13.
Fig.12.13
Solution:
May 2023 Page 101 of 298 (AZ)

Fig.12.12
25.4 A balanced abc-sequence Y-connected source with Van= 100∠100V is connected to a Δ-

connected balanced load (8+j4)Ω per phase. Calculate the phase and line currents.
Solution:
This can be solved in two ways.
May 2023 Page 102 of 298 (AZ)

26.4 One line voltage of a balanced Y-connected source is VAB =120∠-20∠V. If the source is
connected to a Δ-connected load of 20∠40∠Ω, find the phase and line currents. Assume the abc
sequence.
Solution:
27.4 Design a three-phase heater with suitable symmetric loads using wye-
connected pure resistance. Assume that the heater is supplied by a 240-V line
voltage and is to give 27 kW of heat.
May 2023 Page 103 of 298 (AZ)

37.5 A textile plant is supplied with a 3-phase 380VLL 50Hz source. The loads of the
plant are given in the table. Calculate the total current supplied by the source and
the power factor of the source.
Source
380 VLL
Other
Motors Heaters
loads
Quantities Output Power Loads Power Factor

60 3 kW Induction motors 0.8 lag
6 50 kVAr Capacitor bank 0 pf lead
8 10 kW Heater 1 pf
Answer: Try to solve.
27.5 A servo electric motor used in a sewing machine operates by 220v and 550-
watt power given at 5000rpm. What will be the power used by the machine if
you use the motor at 2100 rpm?
Answer: Try to solve
**********Best of Luck**********
May 2023 Page 104 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-5
 ELECTRONICS
 E-TEXTILES
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 105 of 298 (AZ)

(1) Principles of Electronics-By V K Mehta and Rohit Mehta.
(2) Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory-By Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky.

[1] Describe the V-I characteristic of a semiconductor diode.
[2] Write short-notes on the following topics related to P-N junction: (i) Knee voltage (ii) Breakdown voltage
(iii) Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
[3] Prove that the maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%.
[4] Describe the operation of a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.
[5] Find the value of ripple factor of a full wave bridge rectifier.
[6] Prove that the maximum efficiency of a full-wave bridge rectifier is 81.2%.
[7] Explain the working principle of N-P-N transistor.
[8] How does the transistor circuit act as an amplifier?
[9] Explain the operation of a transistor as an amplifier and also write down its application in textile industry.
[10] Explain the operation of a push-pull amplifier.
[11] How does the transistor circuit act as a switch?
[12] Describe the block diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
[13] What is E-Textiles? Write down the applications of smart textiles.
[14] Depicts a smart suit with electronics and sensors for patient monitoring.
May 2023 Page 106 of 298 (AZ)

CHAPTER 5
ELECTRONICS AND E-TEXTILES
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The first industrial revolution used water and steam power to mechanize production. The second
used electric power to create mass production. The third used electronics and information
technology to automate production —Klaus Schwab
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.5 Electronics
The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a vacuum or gas or
semiconductor is known as electronics. Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their
utilization.
2.5 p-n Junction

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn
junction. In relation to a pn junction, there are following two bias conditions:
❖ Forward biasing
❖ Reverse biasing
Forward Biasing: When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels
the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing.To apply forward bias,
connect positive terminal of the battery to p-type and negative terminal to n-type as shown in Fig.1.1. The
applied forward potential establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to potential barrier.
Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced at the junction as shown in
Fig.1.1. As potential barrier voltage is very small (0.1 to 0.3V), therefore, a small forward voltage is
sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward
voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire
circuit. Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.
Fig.1.1: Forward Biasing
With forward bias to pn junction, the following points are worth noting:
o The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (0.1 to 0.3 V), it is eliminated
altogether.
o The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, rf) to current flow.
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o Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance path. The magnitude of
current depends upon the applied forward voltage.
Reverse Biasing: When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that
potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse biasing. To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal
of the battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as shown in Fig.1.2. It is clear that applied
reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction as the field due to potential
barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as
shown in Fig.4.3. Increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence the current does not flow.
Fig.1.2: Reverse Biasing
With reverse bias to pn junction, the following points are worth noting:
o The potential barrier is increased.
o The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse resistance,Rr) to current flow.
o No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of high resistance path.
3.5 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of pn Junction

Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a pn junction (also called a crystal or semiconductor diode) is the
curve between voltage across the junction and the circuit current. Usually, voltage is taken along x-axis
and current along y-axis. Fig.1.3 shows the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of
a pn junction. The characteristics can be studied under three heads, namely
o Zero external voltage
o Forward bias
o Reverse bias.
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Fig.1.3: Circuit for V-I characteristics
Zero External Voltage:When the external voltage is zero, i.e. circuit is open at K, the potential barrier at
the junction does not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero as indicated by point O in
Fig.1.4.
Fig.1.4: V-I characteristics of pn junction
Forward Bias: With forward bias to thepn junction i.e. p-type connected to positive terminal and n-type
connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier is reduced. At some forward voltage (0.7V for Si and
0.3V for Ge), the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing in the circuit. From
now onwards, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Thus, a rising curve OB is
obtained with forward bias as shown in Fig. 5.25. From the forward characteristic, it is seen that at
first(region OA),the current increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear. It is because the external
applied voltage is used up in overcoming the potential barrier. However, once the external voltage
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exceeds the potential barrier voltage, thepn junction behaves like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, the
current rises very sharply with increase in external voltage (region AB on the curve).
Reverse Bias: With reverse bias to the pn junction i.e. p -type connected tonegative terminal and n-type
connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is increased. Therefore, the junction
resistance becomes very high and practically no current flows through the circuit. However, in practice, a
very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit with reverse bias as Fig. 5.26 shown in the
reverse characteristic. This is called reverse saturation current (Is) and is due to the minority carriers. It
may be recalled that there are a few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material.
These undesirable free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers. As shown in
Fig.1.5, to these minority carriers, the applied reverse bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small
current flows in the reverse direction.
Fig.1.5
If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) may
become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this stage breakdown of
the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance
of barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.
4.5 Some Definitions

Breakdown Voltage: It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down with sudden
rise in reverse current. Under normal reverse voltage, a very little reverse current flow through a pn
junction. However, if the reverse voltage attains a high value, the junction may break down with sudden
rise in reverse current. For understanding this point, refer to Fig.1.6. Even at room temperature, some
hole-electron pairs (minority carriers) are produced in the depletion layer as shown in Fig. 1.6(i). With
reverse bias, the electrons move towards the positive terminal of supply. At large reverse voltage, these
electrons acquire high enough velocities to dislodge valence electrons from semiconductor atoms as
shown in Fig.1.6(ii). The newly liberated electrons in turn free other valence electrons. In this way, we get
an avalanche of free electrons. Therefore, the pn junction conducts a very large reverse current. Once the
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breakdown voltage is reached, the high reverse current may damage the junction. Therefore, care should
be taken that reverse voltage across a pn junction is always less than the breakdown voltage.
Fig.1.6(i) Fig.1.6(ii)
Knee Voltage: It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase
rapidly. When a diode is forward biased, it conducts current very slowly until we overcome the potential
barrier. For silicon pn junction, potential barrier is 0.7V whereas it is 0.3 V for germanium junction. It is
clear from Fig.1.7 that knee voltage for silicon diode is 0.7V and 0.3V for germanium diode. Once the
applied forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the current starts increasing rapidly. It may be added
here that in order to get useful current through apn junction, the applied voltage must be more than the
knee voltage.
Fig.1.7
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the pn junction
without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction
may be destroyed due to excessive heat. The peak inverse voltage is of particular importance in rectifier
service. Apn junction i.e. a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to change alternating current into direct
current. In such applications, care should be taken that reverse voltage across the diode during negative
half-cycle of a.c. does not exceed the PIV of diode.
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5.5 Crystal Diode Equivalent Model
Fig.1.8
6.5 Half-wave Rectifier

In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during the positive half-cycles of input a.c.
supply. The negative half-cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed i.e. during negative half-cycles, no current is
conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load. Therefore, current always flows in one direction
(i.e. d.c.) through the load though after every
half-cycle.
(i)
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(ii)
Fig.1.8
Circuit Details: Fig.1.8 shows the circuit where a single crystal diode acts as a half-wave rectifier. The
a.c. supply to be rectified is applied in series with the diode and load resistance RL. Generally, a.c. supply
is given through a transformer. The use of transformer permits two advantages. Firstly, it allows us to
step up or step down the a.c. input voltage as the situation demands. Secondly, the transformer isolates
the rectifier circuit from power line and thus reduces the risk of electric shock.
Operation: The a.c. voltage across the secondary winding AB changes polarities after every half-cycle.
During the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, end A becomes positive w.r.t. end B. This makes the
diode forward biased and hence it conducts current. During the negative half-cycle, end A is negative
w.r.t. end B. Under this condition, the diode is reverse biased and it conducts no current. Therefore,
current flows through the diode during positive half-cycles of input a.c. voltage only; it is blocked during
the negative half-cycles [Fig.1.8 (ii)]. In this way, current flows through load RL always in the same
direction. Hence d.c. output is obtained across RL. It may be noted that output across the load is pulsating
d.c. These pulsations in the output are further smoothened with the help of filter circuits.
Disadvantages of Half-Wave Rectifier:

The pulsating current in the load contains alternating component whose basic frequency is equal to the
supply frequency. Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady direct current.
The a.c. supply delivers power only half the time. Therefore, the output is low.
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7.5 Efficiency of Half-Wave Rectifier:
The ratio of d.c. power output to the applied input a.c. power is known as rectifier efficiency.
Fig.1.9
Consider a half-wave rectifier shown in Fig.1.9. Let v = Vmsin θ be the alternating voltage that appears
across the secondary winding. Let rf and RL be the diode resistance and load resistance respectively. The
diode conducts during positive half-cycles of a.c. supply while no current conduction takes place during
negative half-cycles.
d.c. power: The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore, in order to find d.c. power, average
current has to be found out.
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8.5 Full-Wave Rectifier
In full-wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same direction for both half-cycles of
input a.c. voltage. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately. For the positive half-cycle of
input voltage, one diode supplies current to the load and for the negative half-cycle, the other diode does
so; current being always in the same direction through the load. Therefore, a full-wave rectifier utilizes
both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage to produce the d.c. output. The following two circuits are commonly
used for full-wave rectification.
o Centre-tap full-wave rectifier
o Full-wave bridge rectifier
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form bridge as shown in Fig.1.10. The a.c. supply to
be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the transformer. Between
other two ends of the bridge, the load resistance RL is connected.
Fig.1.10
Operation: During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end P of the secondary winding
becomes positive and end Q negative. This makes diodes D 1and D3 forward biased while diodes D2 and D4
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are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. These two diodes will be in series through
the load RL as shown in Fig.1.11(i). It may be seen those current flows from A to B through the load R L,
During the negative half-cycle of secondary voltage, end P becomes negative and end Q positive. This
makes diodes D2 and D4 forward biased whereas diodes D1and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore, only
diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes will be in series through the load R L as shown in Fig.1.11(ii).
It may be seen that again current flows from A to B through the load i.e. in the same direction as for the
positive half-cycle. Therefore, d.c. output is obtained across load RL.
(i)
(ii)
Fig.1.11
Efficiency of a Full-Wave Rectifier:

Fig.1.12 shows the process of full-wave rectification. Let v =Vmsinθ be the a.c. voltage to be rectified. Let
rf and RL be the diode resistance and load resistance respectively. Obviously, the rectifier will conduct
current through the load in the same direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. The instantaneous
current i is given by:
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Fig.1.12
d.c. output power: The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore, in order to find the d.c.
power, average current has to be found out. From the elementary knowledge of electrical engineering.
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9.5 Transistor
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly; there are two types of transistors, namely;
o n-p-n transistor
o p-n-p transistor
An n-p -n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p-type as
shown in Fig.1.13(i). However, a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section
of n-type as shown in Fig.1.13(ii).
Fig.1.13
10.5 Naming the Transistor Terminals

A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is the
emitter and the section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle section is called the base and
forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.
Emitter: The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called the
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large number of
*majority carriers.Fig.1.14(i), the emitter (p -type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies hole
charges to its junction with the base. Similarly, in Fig.1.14(ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn transistor has a
forward bias and supplies free electrons to its junction with the base.
Collector: The section on the other side that collects the charges is called the collector. The collector is
always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. In Fig. 8.2 (i), the
collector (p -type) ofpnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the output
circuit. Similarly, in Fig.1.14(ii), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse bias and receives
electrons.
Base: The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and collector is called the
base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the emitter circuit. The
base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.
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Fig.1.14
11.5 Some Facts About the Transistor

Before discussing transistor action, it is important that the reader may keep in mind the following facts
about the transistor:
o The transistor has three regions, namely; emitter, base and collector. The base is much thinner than
the emitter while collector is wider than both as shown in Fig. 8.3. However, for the sake of
convenience, it is customary to show emitter and collector to be of equal size.
o The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers (electrons or
holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin; it passes most of the emitter injected
charge carriers to the collector. The collector is moderately doped.
o The transistor has two pn junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction between emitter and base
may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The junction between the base and
collector may be called collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
o The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is always reverse biased.
o The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to collector diode
(reverse biased).Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter diode is generally very small whereas
reverse bias on the collector diode is much higher.
12.5 Transistor Action

The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector-base junction is reverse
biased. If for a moment, we ignore the presence of emitter-base junction, then practically no current
would flow in the collector circuit because of the reverse bias. However, if the emitter-base junction is
also present, then forward bias on it causes the emitter current to flow. It is seen that this emitter current
almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the current in the collector circuit depends upon
the emitter current. If the emitter current is zero, then collector current is nearly zero.
However, if the emitter current is 1mA, then collector current is also about 1mA. This is precisely what
happens in a transistor. We shall now discuss this transistor action for npn and pnp transistors.
(i) Working of npn transistor: Fig.1.15 shows the npn transistor with forward bias to emitter- base
junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type
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emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through
the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore,
only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base current I B. The remainder
(more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current I C. In this way, almost
the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of
collector and base currents i.e. IE =IB + IC
Fig.1.15: Basic connection of a npn transistor
(ii) Working of pnp transistor: Fig.1.16 shows the basic connection of a pnp transistor. The forward bias
causes the holes in the p -type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As
these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly doped
and very thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The remainder
(more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the
entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be noted that current conduction within pnp
transistor is by holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still by electrons.
Fig.1.16: Basic connection of pnp transistor
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Transistor Symbols
Fig.1.17
13.5 Transistor Circuit as an Amplifier

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. Fig.1.18 shows the basic
circuit of a transistor amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is
taken across the load RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to achieve faithful amplification, the
input circuit should always remain forward biased. To do so, a d.c. voltage VEE is applied in the input
circuit in addition to the signal as shown. This d.c. voltage is known as bias voltage and its magnitude is
such that it always keeps the input circuit forward biased regardless of the polarity of the signal. As the
input circuit has low resistance, therefore, a small change in signal voltage causes an appreciable change
in emitter current. This causes almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The
collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large voltage across it. Thus, a
weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit. It is in this
way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.
Fig.1.18
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Illustration: The action of a transistor as an amplifier can be made more illustrative if we consider typical
circuit values. Suppose collector load resistance RC=5kΩ. Let us further assume that a change of 0.1V in
signal voltage produces a change of 1mA in emitter current. Obviously, the change in collector current
would also be approximately 1mA. This current flowing through collector load RC would produce a
voltage=5kΩ×1mA=5V. Thus, a change of 0.1V in the signal caused a change of 5V in the output circuit. In
other words, the transistor has been able to raise the voltage level of the signal from 0.1V to 5V i.e. voltage
amplification is 50.
Fig.1.19
14.5 Push Pull Amplifier

A push pull amplifier is an amplifier which has an output stage that can drive a current in either
direction through through the load. The output stage of a typical push pull amplifier consists of of two
identical BJTs or MOSFETs one sourcing current through the load while the other one sinking the current
from the load. Push pull amplifiers are superior over single ended amplifiers (using a single transistor at
the output for driving the load) in terms of distortion and performance. A single ended amplifier, how
well it may be designed will surely introduce some distortion due to the non- linearity of its dynamic
transfer characteristics. Push pull amplifiers are commonly used in situations where low distortion, high
efficiency and high output power are required. The basic operation of a push pull amplifier is as follows:
The signal to be amplified is first split into two identical signals 180° out of phase. Generally this splitting
is done using an input coupling transformer. The input coupling transformer is so arranged that one
signal in applied to the input of one transistor and the other signal is applied to the input of the other
transistor. Advantages of push pull amplifier are low distortion, absence of magnetic saturation in the
May 2023 Page 123 of 298 (AZ)

coupling transformer core, and cancellation of power supply ripples which results in the absence of hum
while the disadvantages are the need of two identical transistors and the requirement of bulky and
costly coupling transformers.
Class A push pull amplifier: A push pull amplifier can be made in Class A, Class B, Class AB or Class C
configurations. The circuit diagram of a typical Class A push pull amplifier is shown above. Q1 and Q2 are
two identical transistor and their emitter terminals are connected together. R1 and R2 are meant for
biasing the transistors. Collector terminals of the two transistor are connected to the respective ends of
the primary of the output transformer T2. Power supply is connected between the center tap of the T2
primary and the emitter junction of the Q1 and Q2. Base terminal of each transistor is connected to the
respective ends of the secondary of the input coupling transformer T1. Input signal is applied to the
primary of T1 and output load RL is connected across the secondary of T2. Quiescent current of Q2 and
Q1 flows in opposite directions through the corresponding halves of the primary of T2 and as a result
there will be no magnetic saturation.
Fig. Class A push-pull amplifier
From the figure you can see the phase splited signals being applied to the base of each transistors. When
Q1 is driven positive using the first half of its input signal, the collector current of Q1 increases. At the
same time Q2 is driven negative using the first half of its input signal and so the collector current of Q2
decreases. From the figure you can understand that the collector currents of Q1 and Q2 ie; I1 and I2 flows
in the same direction trough the corresponding halves of the T2 primary. As a result an amplified version
of the original input signal is induced in the T2 secondary. It is clear that the current through the T2
secondary is the difference between the two collector currents. Harmonics will be much less in the output
due to cancellation and this is results in low distortion.
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Class B push pull amplifier: The Class B push pull amplifier is almost similar to the Class A push pull
amplifier and the only difference is that there is no biasing resistors for a Class B push pull amplifier. This
means that the two transistors are biased at the cut-off point. The Class B configuration can provide
better power output and has higher efficiency (up to 78.5%). Since the transistor are biased at the cutoff
point, they consumes no power during idle condition and this adds to the efficiency. The advantages of
Class B push pull amplifiers are, ability to work in limited power supply conditions (due to the higher
efficiency), absence of even harmonics in the output, simple circuitry when compared to the Class A
configuration etc. The disadvantages are higher percentage of harmonic distortion when compared to the
Class A, cancellation of power supply ripples is not as efficient as in Class A push pull amplifier and which
results in the need of a well regulated power supply. The circuit diagram of a classic Class B push pull
amplifier is shown in the diagram below.
Fig. Class B push pull amplifier
The circuit arrangement of the Class B push pull amplifier is similar to the Class A push pull amplifier
except for the absence of the biasing resistors. T1 is the input coupling capacitor and the input signal is
applied to its primary. Q1 and Q2 are two identical transistors and their emitter terminals are connected
together. Center tap of the input coupling transformer and the negative end of the voltage source is
connected to the junction point of the emitter terminals. Positive end of the voltage source is connected to
the center tap of the output coupling transformer. Collector terminals of each transistor are connected to
the respective ends of the primary of the output coupling transformer T2. Load RL is connected across the
secondary of T2. The input signal is converted into two similar but phase opposite signals by the input
transformer T1. One out of these two signals is applied to the base of the upper transistor while the other
one is applied to the base of the other transistor. You can understand this from the circuit diagram. When
transistor Q1 is driven to the positive side using the positive half of its input signal, the reverse happens
in the transistor Q2. That means when the collector current of Q1 is going in the increasing direction, the
collector current of Q2 goes in the decreasing direction. Anyway the current flow through the respective
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halves of the primary of the T2 will be in same direction. Have a look at the figure for better
understanding. This current flow through the T2 primary results in a wave form induced across its
secondary. The wave form induced across the secondary is similar to the original input signal but
amplified in terms of magnitude.
Class AB push pull amplifier: Class AB is another type of push pull amplifier which is almost similar to
that of a Class A push pull amplifier and the only difference is that the value of biasing resistors R1 and R2
are so selected that the transistors are biased just at the cut in voltage (0.7V). This reduces the time for
which both transistors are simultaneously OFF (the time for which input signal is between (-0.7V and
+0.7V) and so the cross over distortion gets reduced. Of the above said classes Class A has least distortion,
then Class AB and then Class B. Any way Class AB configuration has reduced efficiency and wastes a
reasonable amount of power during zero input condition. Class B has the highest efficiency (78.5%), then
Class B (between 78.5 to 50%) and then Class A (50%).
15.5 Transistor as a Switch

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a way that it
always operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the output characteristics curves are
used.
However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid
state switch by biasing the transistors Base terminal differently to that for a signal amplifier.
Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistor to switch a DC output “ON”
or “OFF”. Some output devices, such as LED’s only require a few milliamps at logic level DC voltages and
can therefore be driven directly by the output of a logic gate. However, high power devices such as
motors, solenoids or lamps, often require more power than that supplied by an ordinary logic gate so
transistor switches are used.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor, either NPN or PNP
is arranged to operate the transistor at both sides of the “ I-V ” characteristics curves we have seen
previously.
The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region.
This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider circuitry required
for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF”
(cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation) regions as shown below.
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Operating Regions
The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off” region while the blue area to
the left represents the “Saturation” region of the transistor. Both these transistor regions are defined as:
o Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero output collector
current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large depletion layer and no
current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.
Cut-off Characteristics
• The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”
Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a switch as
being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must
be negative with respect to the Base.
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied, resulting in
maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage drop which results in the
depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current flowing through the transistor.
Therefore, the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
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o Saturation Characteristics
• The input and Base are connected to VCC

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = ”0″
• Transistor operates as a “closed switch”
Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a switch as
being, both junctions forward biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter
potential must be positive with respect to the Base.
16.5 Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions. It has
three terminals: anode(A), cathode(C) and a gate (G). Figure (1) shows the thyristor symbol and the
sectional view of the three p-n junctions.
Fig(1): Thyristor symbol and three pn-junctions
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Fig.2: Thyristor circuit and V-I characteristics
When the anode voltage made positive with respect to the cathode, junctions J 1 and J3 are forward
biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. The thyristor said to be in the forward blocking or off-state
condition. A small leakage current flows from anode to cathode and is called the off-state current. If the
anode voltage VAK is increased to a sufficiently large value, the reverse biased junction J 2 would
breakdown. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the corresponding voltage is called the forward
breakdown voltage VBO. Since the other two junctions J1 and J3 are already forward biased, there will be
free movement of carriers across all three junctions. This results in a large forward current. The device
now said to be in a conducting or on state. The voltage drop across the device in the on-state is due to the
ohmic drop in the four layers and it is very (typically 1 V). In the on state the anode current is limited by
an external impedance or resistance as shown in figure (2-a).
Latching Current (IL): This is the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in the on-
state immediately after a thyristor has been turned on and the gate signal has been removed. If a gate
current, greater than the threshold gate current is applied until the anode current is greater than the
latching current IL then the thyristor will be turned on or triggered.
Holding Current (IH): This is the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in the on
state. To turn off a thyristor, the forward anode current must be reduced below its holding current for a
sufficient time for mobile charge carriers to vacate the junction. If the anode current is not maintained
below IH for long enough, the thyristor will not have returned to the fully blocking state by the time the
anode-to-cathode voltage rises again. It might then return to the conducting state without an externally
applied gate current.
Reverse Current (IR): When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the junction J2 is
forward biased but junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased. The thyristor is said to be in the reverse
blocking state and a reverse leakage current known as reverse current IR will flow through the device.
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Forward Break-over Voltage VBO : If the forward voltage VAK is increased beyond VBO, the thyristor can be
turned on. However, such a turn-on could be destructive. In practice, the forward voltage is maintained
below VBO and the thyristor is turned on by applying a positive gate signal between gate and cathode.
Once the thyristor is turned on by a gate signal and its anode current is greater than the holding current,
the device continues to conduct due to positive feedback even if the gate signal is removed. This is
because the thyristor is a latching device and it has been latched to the on state.
Thyristor Applications: Thyristors, or silicon-controlled rectifiers, SCRs are used in many areas of
electronics where they find uses in a variety of different applications. Some of the more common
applications for them are outlined below:
o AC power control (including lights, motors etc).
o Overvoltage protection crowbar for power supply.
o Thyristors are able to switch high voltages and withstand reverse voltages making them ideal for
switching applications, especially within AC scenarios.
o Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.
o Within photographic flash lights where they act as the switch to discharge a stored voltage through
the flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required time.
17.5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile laboratory instrument used for
studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for measurement of voltage, current,
power and frequency, in fact, almost any quantity that involves amplitude and waveform. It allows the
user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a function of time on the screen. It is widely used for
trouble shooting radio and TV receivers as well as laboratory work involving research and design. It can
also be employed for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude distortion and
deviation from the normal. In true sense the cathode ray oscilloscope has been one of the most important
tools in the design and development of modern electronic circuits.
Fig: CRO block diagram
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Figure: Oscilloscope
A basic block diagram of a general-purpose oscilloscope is shown in figure. The instrument employs a
cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the oscilloscope. It generates the electron beam, accelerates
the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains a phosphor screen where
the electron beam eventually becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various electrical signals
and voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope. Low
voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron beam and high
voltage, of the order of few thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam.
Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits of the oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and screen to deflect the beam
according to input signal. Electron beam strikes the screen and creates a visible spot. This spot is
deflected on the screen in horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time dependent rate. This is
accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope. The signal to be viewed is supplied to
the vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal
to a level that will provide usable deflection of the electron beam. Now electron beam deflects in two
directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing
two types of deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal
each time it sweeps.
18.5 Conductive Yarns

Control of static and current electricity is a crucial consideration in industrial product design. By using
combinations of different polymers and coatings, industrial yarn and threads can be designed to help
conduct or impede electrical charges as required for different product applications. Conductive yarns can
be constructed by starting with a non-conductive or less conductive substrate such as polyester, nylon,
and aramids. These substrates are then coated or impregnated with conductive elements such as gold,
silver, copper, nickel, or carbon to enable them to carry an electrical charge. Methods of producing
conductive yarns can be summarized as follows:
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o Adding carbon or metals in different forms such as wires, fibres or particles (eg. core spun,
blends)
o Using inherently conductive polymers
o Coating with conductive substances
Applications Conductive Yarns: By utilizing the conductive yarns in the fabric structures, various
functionalities may be attributed to the fabrics. Enhancing both the properties of textile structures and
the function of conductivity, conductive textiles have important applications not only in medical and
military fields, but also in the fields of fashion, architecture and design for their aesthetic appeal.
Therefore textiles with conductivity function are used in many technical applications such as protection
of people and electronic devices from electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electrostatic discharge,
heating, wearable electronics, Power Transfer, data storage and transmission, sensors and actuators.
Benefits of Using Conductive Yarns vs Wire:
o Flexibility
o Ability to use in existing textile applications such as weaving, braiding, and sewing
o Weight savings and tensile strength advantages as compared to wire
o
E-embroidery: How to make a LED circuit? (See Fig.14.6)
o Sketch your embroidery pattern on the fabric
o Plan where to place the LED and switch
o Embroider your pattern
o Place the LED by pressing the legs through the fabric
o Twist the LED legs: Mark the + leg by twisting it in square shape
o Make the battery holder from felt: Mark the + side by cutting it in arrow shape
o Place the battery inside the holder: Close the holder by sewing it tightly
o Sew your circuit (see picture)
o Attach the battery holder to your embroidery work
o Connect one LED leg to one side of the battery with the conductive yarn - remember to connect
(+) to (+) and (-) to (-)!
o Attach the other side of the battery to one side of the metal button
o Attach the other LED leg to the other side of the metal button
o Sew the metal buttons to the fabric leaving some loose thread
o Turn the LED on by closing the metal button!
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Fig.14.5: Conductive Yarn Circuit
19.5 Smart Textiles/E-Textiles

E-textiles, also known as smart garments, smart clothing, electronic textiles, smart textiles, or smart
fabrics, are fabrics that enable digital components (including small computers), and electronics to be
embedded in them.
(a) E-yarns/E-textiles (b) Fashionable E-Textile
(c) Sensor Gloves (d) Fabric Electrode and Sensor

Fig.15.6: Smart Textiles
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We can say that electronic textiles (e-textiles) are fabrics that have electronics and interconnections
woven into them. Components and interconnections are intrinsic to the fabric. The most convenient point
is that not only having "wearable" capabilities like any other garment, but also to have local monitoring
and computation, as well as wireless communication capabilities. The sensors and simple computational
elements are embedded in e-textiles, as well as built into yarns, with the goal of gathering sensitive
information, monitoring vital statistics, and sending them remotely (possibly over a wireless channel) for
further processing.
Electronic textiles (e-textiles) have evolved from the concept of wearable computers. The wearable
electronics and electronic textiles lie at the two ends of a spectrum that ranges from added-on electronics
to components integrated with textile yarn to true integration. A first-generation wearable computer
system is wearable, it is not integrated into the clothing of the user but in the second generation of
wearable computing, the system is surface mounted on clothing in a hybrid package.
More recently researchers had developed a third generation of wearable electronics where the electronic
and the clothing functions are equally important and both the dress and the necklace meet clothing and
esthetic functions and they carry lighting and sensing functions.
Properties of e-textiles
o Flexible
o No wires to snag environment
o Large surface area for sensing
o Invisible to others
o Cheap manufacturing
o Permeability
o Strength
o Thermal Resistance
o Electrical resistance
Limitations of E-textiles
Limited reliability yet trouble concerning stuff production yet processing and tankage capability-limited
control furnish particular thoroughness of functions namely no longer as much bendy as much fabric
clothing.
Types of electronic textiles
The field of electronic textiles can be divided into two main types:
o Electronic textiles with classical electronic devices such as conductors, integrated circuits, LEDs,
and conventional batteries embedded into garments.
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o Electronic textiles with electronics integrated directly into the textile substrates. This can include
either passive electronics such as conductors and resistors or active components like transistors,
diodes, and solar cells.
Also, there are three kinds of e-textiles, these are as follows:
Passive Smart textiles: It can only sense the environment.
Active Smart textiles: It can sense the stimuli from the environment as well as react to them.
Very Smart Textiles: It has the gift to adapt its behavior to the circumstances.
20.5 Smart Textiles Functions

The smart textile has 5 functions in smart textile clothing. It could be categorized as follows:
Intelligent Unit Name Smart Textiles Functions
The sensor transforms data or signal into another data or signal. It only can be
read and executed by a predefined reader. It must be a real device or a person.
Sensors
Sensors can measure bio-signals such as heart and respiration rate,
temperature, as well as motion.
It is one of the complicated parts of smart textile. Case, It is the main bottleneck
at present is the interpretation of the data. In smart Textile, sensors can
provide a huge amount of data. But, textile material in itself doesn’t have
Data Processing
computing power at all. Researchers are trying to generate power from the
fiber. If it could be possible, the application of smart textiles will grow up faster
than now.
From sensors, Actuators respond to the impulse result. It helps to make things
Actuators move. It releases substances, makes noise, and does many other things. Shape
memory textile materials are the best ones in this area.
Some smart clothing often needs some storage capacity. Storage helps sensing,
Storage
data processing, actuation, and communication. But it needs electrical power.
Smart clothing has many communication faces. It’s used to pass information
Communication between the individual elements of smart clothing as well as the environment
to the wearer to clothing.
21.5 Integration of Electronics Textiles at Yarn Level

E-textiles represent integration at the yarn level. E-yarns are used to make functional circuits, and are
made functional by weaving. This approach is illustrated in Fig.1. The weft yarn of this fabric is silk
wound with copper foil. This is an example of hybrid electronics at the yarn level. The wearable
electronics follow the microprocessor model and E-textiles are hybridized with silicon integrated circuits.
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Fig. Integration of electronics at yarn level
Applications of E-textiles
There are lots of scopes and application is going on around the globe in the recent area due to its state-of-
art and portable quality. The different applications of e-textiles are described as follows:
Gore-Tex Smart Fabric

In 1978, Gore Company designed Gore-Tex, which was the first smart textiles fabric. This application of
smart textiles started a new era of smart clothing. It has the capability of letting moisture flow in one
direction. The fabric membrane contains Ten billion pores density per square inch.
In simple words, pore density is on the microscopic level, where a water droplet is 20000 thousand times
larger than pores and 700 times larger than a water vapor molecule. Therefore, it allows perspiration and
water vapor to escape from the body. This property makes it waterproof, windproof as well as breathable.
Additionally, Gore-Tex Smart Fabric repels insects that can affect the membrane.
Fig: Gore-Tex Structure
❖ Smart Running Shoes

Adidas’s introduced commercially the first smart shoes to the market in 2004. The smart shoes consist of
a sensor, microprocessor, electric motor, and the actual smart electronic textile material. It can adjust its
cushioning system. That depends on what surface the wearers are running over or walking.
This smart shoe sensor has 20 MHz processors that can read 20,000 readings per second. These help to
make 10,000 calculations in a second. A small motor in the heel can change the tension of a metal cord
that assists the user. Additionally, it has a shock absorption mechanism that is appropriate to assist the
runners.
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Fig: Smart shoe Structure
Recently, the Nike brand manufactured the latest smart socks and shoes. That uses a lot of special sensors
that can track the wears’ interactive activities. It can communicate to android devices with information.
Via the android applications, the wearer can receive the information on running conditions, speed, total
distance run, and other data to his mobile. It’s also able to transmit the data which can automatically
upload and post a status on Facebook automatically.
Many other researchers work with smart shocks and shoes. In near future, collaborations of the
application of smart textiles with smart shock and shoes will help us to make a revolution in smart
clothing.
Fig: Smart Shocks
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❖ Smart Bra
The smart bra is one of the best examples of smart clothing as well as the most useful application of smart
textiles. It improves overall bra wear comforts to the women. Australian Wallace et. al at the University of
Wollongong developed a smart bra. This smart bra can change its properties in response to breast
movement. Therefore, it provides better support to women’s work activity. Today smart bras could be
monitored from mobile applications.
The Smart bra is effective in preventing breast pain and sag by tightening and loosening its straps or
stiffening as well as relaxing its cups to restrict breast motion. Usually, Smart manufactures by conductive
polymer coated fabrics. The smart fabric can change its elasticity in response to data collected that how
much strain they are under. Consequently, it’s capable of instantly tightening and loosening its straps or
stiffening cups by detecting excessive movement.
Fig: Smart Bra
❖ Motion Detecting Smart Pants

Virginia Polytechnic Institute co-ordinately with State University in Blacksburg’s research teams
developed a pair of pants as an example of smart fabric definition.
Example of Smart pant definition: The specialty of this smart pant is that its smart fabric can sense the
movement, rotation, speed, and location of the wearer. Developed smart fabric stored detailed data about
the movement to a cloud system by sending a wireless signal. Today, motion-detecting pants are hyping
the people to move forward to the application of smart textiles in fashion.
May 2023 Page 138 of 298 (AZ)

Fig: Smart Pants
❖ NASA AeroGel Jacket

NASA invented the Aerogel component is the best insulation material for smart clothing. This application
of smart textiles makes a revolution in the aerospace textile industry. Cause its very weight, low density,
and often translucent appearance. Aero gels are often called solid smoke. It has flexible nature
manufacturing textile blankets, beads, thin sheets, and molded parts. Therefore the products are not
heavy and bulky.
Fig. AeroGel Jacket
❖ Smart Baby Vest

Researchers developed a special vest for babies at the ITV Denkendorf. The smart baby vest equips with
microchips and sensors. It can be continuous monitoring of vital issues. Such as heart, lungs, as well as
body temperature. As a result, doctors can easily detect heart circulatory illnesses. It’s already applied to
prevent a baby’s cot death. Besides, it is also used for other adult patients’ life-threatening situations to
save a life. Smart Baby Vest sensors are attached in such a way that doesn’t disturb the baby. This is one
of the most revolutionary applications of smart textiles in the medical sector.
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Fig: Smart Baby Vest
❖ Smart Fire Fighter Jacket

In 2009, VIKING invent the smart fire fighter’s jacket. It integrates with thermal sensors as well as the
interior and exterior layers of the coat. So that inside of the coat which is close to the body can control the
high temperature near the fire-fighter.
The firefighter smart jacket sensors are connected to 2 LED displays. One is on the sleeve and another is
on the back. The upper left shoulder display indicates critical situations. And the lower sleeve of The LED
display indicates hazardous heat levels.
The smart firefighting jacket has a power supply from rechargeable and removable batteries. The smart
firefighter jacket contains microelectronics chips that help to indicate the hazardous condition with the
LED display. For Different temperatures, LED displayed different hazardous alarms to firefighters. For
this successful application of smart textiles, firefighter knows about the actual situation and take the
appropriate decision at the same time.
Fig: Smart Fire Fighting
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❖ Smart Textiles in Fashion Industry
In this modern era people’s daily tech-friendly lifestyle boosting the application of smart textiles in the
fashion industry. People adopt much other smart clothing just because of fashion to be smart. Fast
Fashion and smartness collab together in this segment of smart textile in fashion.
Philips and Levi Strauss introduced their ICD+ jacket in 2000. That combines a remote-controlled mobile
phone and an MP3 player. The ICD+ jacket was the first wearable device as well as a washable smart
jacket.
In 2004-5, Canesis launched electrically warmed wool socks. The smart socks are manufactured by using
conductive yarns and wool, aimed at the hiking purpose. Battery-powered shocks are perfect for work in
extremely cold or for patients who suffer from poor circulation. Smart shocks generate the same amount
of heat which is equal to the rate of heat loss. This innovation makes a revolutionary change in the
segment of smart textiles in sportswear.
There a lot of commercially available clothing’s manufactured by using the application of smart textiles
technology. The range of functions of the smart textile has been diverted by implementation in the
fashion industry.
Fig. Visualization of Smart Textile in Fashion
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22.5 Wireless Interface for Sensors in Smart Textiles
❖ Abstract
This paper describes a smart suit with sensors and electronics for monitoring patients at hydrotherapy
sessions in swimming-pools. The smart suit allows the monitoring of the heart rate, patient posture and
activity level. The sensors input is converted in a PWM using a V-F converter. A robust, low-voltage (3.0
V) and low-power electronic wireless CMOS RF interface was implemented at 433 MHz using ASK
modulation.
❖ Introduction
An emerging new field of research is the smart textiles. The smart textiles have not only the wearable
capabilities but also have local monitoring and computation, as well as wireless communication
capabilities. The sensors and a simple computational element are embedded in smart textiles with the
goal of gathering sensitivity sensitive information. The concept of wireless smart suit for hydrotherapy
sessions allows the monitoring of individual biometric data, such as heart rate, movement and
temperature of the patient body and swimming-pool water temperature. The smart suit will be
lightweight, machine washable, comfortable, easy-to-use shirt with embedded sensors. The sensitive
information is able to monitoring vital statistics and sending them remotely for further processing.
Therefore, a small-size, robust, low-cost and low-power electronic microsystem embedded in the cloth is
a promising approach. The information data from the electronics microsystems network must be sent by
radio signal as Bluetooth or any IEEE 802.11 standard to PC or PDAs or by a dedicated CMOS RF
transceiver.
❖ Design
The monitoring electrodes, the sensors and the electronics are sewed in the textile material (e.g.
neoprene, usually used in diving suits) achieving a good skin contact. The sensors are plugged into the
suit around patient’s chest and abdomen, which allows to measure the heart rate, movement and
temperature of the patient body and swimming-pool water temperature. Thus, a single-channel measures
heart rate; a 2-axis accelerometer senses patient posture and activity level; and a network of CMOS
temperature sensors distributed in the suit is used for monitoring the body and water temperature. The
microsystem has the look and feel of typical garments (Fig. 1) and can be tossed into the washing
machine. A RF transceiver operating at 433 MHz, with ASK modulation, was fabricated in 0.7 µm CMOS
process (with 2 metals and 1 polysilicon layer) (Fig. 2). The radio signals are sent through a commercial
half-wave dipole wire antenna, mounted on the cap. A 3 V battery is required for the transceiver. A block-
diagram of the transceiver is depicted in Fig. 3. The 433 MHz carrier frequency is generated by a phase-
looked-loop (PLL) in transmitter section. The reference signal of the PLL is generated by a crystal
oscillator working at 13.86 MHz. The sensors input is connected to a voltage-frequency converter (V-F
converter) in order to achieve a digital PWM. This digital signal is modulated at ASK and is further
amplified by a switched class E power amplifier. The receiver (used for configuration and calibration of
the sensors) was implemented with super-regenerative architecture. As depicted on Fig. 3, the receiver
includes an oscillator, two buffers, a quenching amplifier and an envelope detector as demodulator. The
quenching network supervises the super-regeneration phenomena and the output of the receiver is
transmitted through a bit stream.
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Fig.1. An artist impression of the smart suit.
Fig. 2. RF CMOS transceiver at 433 MHz (1.6 mm×1.5 mm size dimensions) fabricated in CMOS 0.7 µm.
Fig. 3. 433 MHz RF CMOS transceiver block-diagram.
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Experimental Results
The measurement of the water and body patient temperatures is shown in Fig. 4. It was used a thermistor
as temperature sensor. The input is connected a V-F converter.
Fig. 4. The water (2 kHz@22 ºC) and body patient (10 kHz@36 ºC) temperatures.
❖ Conclusions
A wireless smart suit, containing sensors and electronics for monitoring patients at hydrotherapy
sessions in swimming-pools was designed. The smart suit allows the monitoring of the heart rate, patient
posture and activity level. The sensors input are converted in a PWM using a V-F converter. A robust, low-
voltage (3.0 V) and low-power electronic wireless CMOS RF interface was implemented.
at 433 MHz using ASK modulation. This smart suit can be a powerful tool, helping health professionals
with rapid, accurate and sophisticated diagnostic in free-living patients, when are doing hydrotherapy
sessions in swimming-pools. Additional analysis in the future may include respiration rate, blood oxygen
saturation and a complete electrocardiogram (ECG) diagnostic.
************ Best of Luck ************
May 2023 Page 144 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-6
 SENSOR
 TRANSDUCER
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 145 of 298 (AZ)

1) A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation-By A Sawhney.

[1] What is sensor? Write down the application of sensor technology in textiles.
[2] Explain the difference between sensor and transducer.
[3] Define the following terms: sensitivity, resolution, accuracy, precision, calibration and compensation.
[4] Describe the architecture of a textile based capacitive pressure sensor.
[5] How hall effect sensor can be used as a theft prevention device for merchandise?
[6] How pressure can be measured using strain gauge/speed using DC techogenerator.
[7] What is the function of color sensor? How color sensor can be used to detect the color of a sample?
[8] What are the applications of noise sensor in the textiles industry?
[9] Explain the working principle of thermistor in a practical circuit.
[10] List the different types of photo sensor. Describe the function of any one type of torque
measurement process.
[11] Describe the functions, working principle and applications of (i) Strain gauge (ii) RTD (iii)
Piezoelectric effect (iv) Light dependent resistor (LDR) (v) Thermistor
[12] Show that the voltage generated by piezoelectric effect, E= P g t, symbols have their usual meanings
[13] What are the difference thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors and infrared devices?
[14] List various types of proximity sensor. How can you select a suitable proximity sensor based on
application?
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CHAPTER 6
SENSOR AND TRANSDUCER
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
From wearable sensors to video game treatments, everyone seems to be looking to technology as the
next wave of innovation for mental health care—Thomas R. Insel
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.6 Differences Between Sensor and Transducer

Sensor is a device used to generate an equivalent electrical signal, either in the form of voltage or current,
if a non-electrical physical quantity is applied to it. Example: A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a sensor
in which the resistance changes if the intensity of light is changed. If the LDR is connected with a voltage
source, the current will also change (Fig.1). The change of current will be in accordance with the change
of light intensity.
Fig.1 Sensor Fig.2 Transducer
Usually, the electrical signal extracted by a sensor is too weak to be used further. In such cases an
amplifier is used at the first step, to make the signal strong, so that it can be now connected to other
circuit. A transducer is a device which include a sensor and other circuits, if necessary, to produce a
suitable electrical signal, which can be connected directly to other circuits, for control or further
processing (Fig.2).
In the broadest sense, a transducer is any device that receives energy from one system and retransmits it,
usually in another form, to a system. The word sensor is more restrictive, it refers to that part of a
transducer that responds to the quantity being measured.
2.6 Non-electrical Quantity

• Position and displacement
• Rotation
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Light intensity
• Fluid flow
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3.6 Sensor Terminology
Accuracy: The degree to which a measurement agrees with the standard or desired amount, sometimes
expressed as an amount of error as a percent of full‐range output. It is a general term and should not be
used in a specification. A specification should list errors or inaccuracies instead.
Active transducer: A transducer that does not require external application of energy (other than the
energy that is being transduced) in order to produce a desired output.
A/D or ADC Analog‐to‐digital converter: Usually to convert an analog voltage or current to a digital
representation of same and to a specified number of binary bits. For example, a voltage input 12 bit A/D
converter accepts an input voltage that can be variable over a determined range and changes it to a
number of output binary bits (equivalent to 4096 base 10, 0 through 4095). In this case, there would be
12 binary bits in which each can be a 1 or a 0. If all 1s, the output is 4095, base 10.
Calibration: A test during which a series of known measurand values are applied to a sensor so that
adjustments can be made to the sensor in order to minimize errors.
Compensation: The addition of circuitry or the application of an algorithm to measurement data in order
to counteract undesired influences or tendencies. For example, a position sensor that has undesired
thermal sensitivity may be compensated to make it less temperature sensitive; a position sensor that has
a nonlinear position response can be compensated to be less nonlinear.
D/A or DAC: Digital‐to‐analog converter. Converts a binary number (usually from a microcontroller) to
an analog voltage or current. For example, a voltage output 12 bit D/A converter accepts a binary input
(up to 4095 base 10) and changes it to a voltage output over a determined range.
Damping: A characteristic of decreasing amplitude of an oscillating system as a result of energy being
drained from the system. With a measurand step change having been applied to a sensor, the sensor is
underdamped if the output level overshoots the final output before settling. Critical damping provides the
shortest amount of time until the sensor output reaches its final value without overshoot. The output of
an overdamped sensor also comes to the final value without overshoot but has more damping than is
necessary to avoid overshoot.
Diaphragm: A thin barrier between two spaces, moving up or down in relation to a pressure difference.
Often made of a circular metal sheet having surface convolutions to extend the range of linear motion.
Two diaphragms edge welded together may form a pressure capsule.
Full scale: The maximum or 100% of the measurand in the operating range of a transducer or sensor.
Full‐scale range/full range: In a unipolar output sensor, it is the difference between full scale and zero.
In a bipolar output sensor, it includes the sum of positive and negative portions of the range
Offset: A difference between a measured value and the expected value that is constant at different levels
of the measurand, that is, not a scale factor error
Range: The extent of values over which the measurand is intended to measure, bounded by zero and full
scale.
Sensitivity: A ratio of the amount of change in output signal resulting from an amount of change in the
input measurand.
Stability: The ability of a sensor or other device to maintain its performance (such as output voltage)
over time
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Precision: The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. In other
words, if exactly the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor would output exactly
the same value every time. But real sensors output a range of values distributed in some manner relative
to the actual correct value. For example, suppose a pressure of exactly 150 mm Hg is applied to a sensor.
Even if the applied pressure never changes, the output values from the sensor will vary considerably.
Some subtle problems arise in the matter of precision when the true value and the sensor's mean value
are not within a certain distance of each other (e.g., the 1-s range of the normal distribution curve).
Resolution: This specification is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the reading (or the
full-scale reading) or in absolute terms.
Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the actual value
(which must be measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the indicated value at the
output of the sensor. Again, the accuracy can be expressed either as a percentage of full scale or in
absolute terms.
Response Time: Sensors do not change output state immediately when an input parameter change
occurs. Rather, it will change to the new state over a period of time, called the response time (Tr in Figure
5). The response time can be defined as the time required for a sensor output to change from its previous
state to a final settled value within a tolerance band of the correct new value. This concept is somewhat
different from the notion of the time constant (T) of the system. This term can be defined in a manner
similar to that for a capacitor charging through a resistance and is usually less than the response time.
Hysteresis: A transducer should be capable of following the changes of the input parameter regardless of
which direction the change is made; hysteresis is the measure of this property.
Linearity: The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which the actual measured
curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve.
Dynamic Linearity: The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid changes
in the input parameter. Amplitude distortion characteristics, phase distortion characteristics, and
response time are important in determining dynamic linearity.
4.6 Application of Sensor Technology in Textiles

Normally a sensor is a converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which
can be read by an observer or by an (today mostly electronic) instrument. In this modern technology era
sensor is widely used in all branch of the textile industry, at all of the departments. Without applying of
sensor technology efficiency of the machine will be decrease, wastage will be increase and overall cost
will be increase. Besides, accident can be occurred without using sensor in textile machine. Without
machinery, textile sensor systems are capable of capturing comprehensive physiologic data from the body
and are designed to be seamlessly integrated into everyday garments. Wearable monitoring provides a
comfortable and user-friendly way to obtain body data measurements to assist consumers in managing
their top wellness concerns of weight loss, physical health and energy level. Textronics sells sensor
components and markets its own line of clothes for personal monitoring under the brand name
May 2023 Page 149 of 298 (AZ)

NuMetrex™. Now a days, sensor is widely used in smart textile. So, we must have to know about the
Sensor technology and it’s operating and working procedure to become a good textile engineer.
It is seen in textile industry so far that, the sensor problems and sensor technology related issues are
being observed and fixed by the computer engineers. But, as the textile engineers knows everything about
textile except sensor, it is the time to learn about the sensor technology to have an all-round performance
in textile engineering. life.
The offered range of textile machine sensors is developed by trusted vendors, who ensure to made it
utilizing high grade raw material and innovative technology. Along with this, the offered range of textile
machine sensors is ideally utilized in different sectors such as textile industry foe sensing applications.
In Textile, two types of Sensors are used. One is Capacitive Sensor; another is Optical Sensor. Again,
Optical Sensor is divided into two types: 1. One Dimensional Optical Sensor, 2. Two-Dimensional Optical
Sensor.
Capacitive Sensor: Capacitive Sensor is used for determination of mass variation. In textile spinning
industry, the Capacitive sensor is widely used in order to determine the production parameters. By taking
the calculation result from the capacitive sensor, some of the spinning machines are to be set up.
Optical Sensor: Optical sensor is used for determination of diameter variation. It has advantages with
regard to visual appearance of the yarn. One dimensional sensor comes to very close to observation of
human eye; whereas, two-dimensional Optical sensor offers advantages for the determination of the
roundness and the density of the Yarn.
The other major sensors are: Proximity Sensors, Inductive Sensor, Namur Sensors, Field Plate/Hall
Sensors, Photo Electric Sensors, Sensors & Electronic module for textile - Indigenous /Imported
Machines, Connector & cable assembly and Peripheral & Relay Units, Certified Zener Barriers, Field
Programmable smart Sensors for which WIPO patent is pending.
Sensor is used in all kind of textile machineries but widely used in machines such as Air Jet Loom, Auto
Coner 138, 238 / Auto Coro, Carding, Drawing Frame, Pre-Winder, Rapier Loom, Projectile Loom, Staubli
Dobby 2605, P 7100, PU 85, PU 153, GTM Loom, Omni Loom, Ring Frame etc.
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5.6 Architecture Of a Textile Based Capacitive Pressure Sensor
The textile sensor consists of a basic three-layer structure and forms a variable capacitor. Two electrodes
made of conductive textile. Single electrodes are arranged on one side of the spacer as an array and the
other side consists of one common electrode, which forms the capacitors between each electrode and the
common electrode. A compressible spacer like foam is arranged that varies its thickness dependent on
the pressure induced. The spacer between the electrodes defines the pressure range and the resolution of
the sensor. The capacitance C of a parallel-plate capacitor of area A is inverse proportional to the distance
d between the plates (electrodes) at a given permittivity ɛ of the material between the plates.
A
C = .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... (i )
d
Fig.1: Textile based capacitive pressure sensor
The single electrodes are embroidered with conductive yarn. The common electrode consists of a
silver-coated woven textile. Additional layers of conductive textile are arranged covering both sides of the
array for shielding purposes. A replaceable spacer enhances the flexibility of the sensor system since the
spacer can be chosen according to the desired range and resolution. When selecting the spacer, the focus
can be set to criteria such as pressure range, comfort (textile feeling, breathable), and robustness, instead
of having good linearity due to the modeling.
6.6 Features of Textile Sensors

❖ Longer functional life
❖ High performance
❖ Easy maintenance
❖ Reliable operations
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7.6 Light Sensors
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy
that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called light and which ranges in frequency from
Infrared to Visible up to Ultraviolet light spectrum. The light sensor is a passive device that convert this
light energy whether visible or in the infra-red parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light
sensors are more commonly known as Photoelectric Devices or Photo Sensors because the convert light
energy (photons) into electricity (electrons). Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main
categories, those which generate electricity when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives
etc, and those which change their electrical properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photo-
conductors. This leads to the following classification of devices.
Photo-emissive Cells: These are photo devices which release free electrons from a light sensitive
material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The amount of energy the photons
have depends on the frequency of the light and the higher the frequency, the more energy the photons
have converting light energy into electrical energy.
Photo-conductive Cells: These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subjected to light.
Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which controls the current flow
through it. Thus, more light increases the current for a given applied voltage. The most common
photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells.
Photo-voltaic Cells: These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the radiant light energy
received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls on to two semiconductor
materials sandwiched together creating a voltage of approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic
material is Selenium used in solar cells.
Photo-junction Devices: These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across their PN-
junction. Photojunction devices are specifically designed for detector application and light penetration
with their spectral response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.
Light Dependent Resistor: A photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. The resistance of LDR is of the order of mega
ohms (MΩ) in the absence of light and reduces to a few ohms (Ω) in presence of light. A photoresistor is
made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency,
photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
Incident
light
Cadmium sulfide or
Cadmium selenide
Fig. LDR
May 2023 Page 152 of 298 (AZ)

Application of LDR: Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can be
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarm devices,
outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc. They are also used in some dynamic
compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction
and are also used in bed lamps, etc.
8.6 Piezoelectric Transducer

There are some special types of materials in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces
of some crystals if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by application of an oscillatory mechanical
force. The effect is reversible, that is, if a varying potential is applied, the dimension will change. The
effect is known as piezoelectric effect. Some piezoelectric materials are, rochelle salt, lithium sulphate,
dipotassium tartarate etc. A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect.
Force
Upper Lower electrode

electrode
material
Piezoelectric
Material
Lower electrode
Fig.2 Piezoelectric effect
❖ Expression for Voltage sensitivity of Piezoelectric Transducer
Figure: Piezoelectric Crystal

The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of the applies forces.
were, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals
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F – applied force in Newton
The force changes the thickness of the crystals.

Where A – area of crystals in meter square
t – the thickness of crystals in meter
E – Young’s modulus N/m2
The young modulus is,
where ω – width of crystals in meter

l – the length of crystals in meter
On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge, we get
The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges.
The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals.

Where E0 – electric field strength, V/m
The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity and pressure.
When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge develops
the voltages across the electrodes.
The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of the
force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity of the charges depend on the
magnitude and the direction of the applied force.
Application of Piezoelectric Effect:

o Microphones, Touchscreen
o Detection and generation of sonar waves
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o Energy harvesting
o Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. Medical treatment, sono-chemistry and
industrial processing).
o Piezoelectric micro-balances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors.
❖ Energy Harvesting
The process by which energy is derived from external sources, captured, and stored for different
purposes is called Energy harvesting. Harvesting and storing electrical energy is an essential issue for the
different parts of world to fulfill the electrical energy demands of consumers.
Piezoelectric Fabrics for Energy Harvesting:
Fig.1 Piezofiber composite structure

It represents the conversion of electrical energy from mechanical energy by developing textile fabrics
which are able of performing the mentioned act (i.e. piezoelectric effect). The mechanical energy is
achievable from wind (environmental resource) or from the motion of the user of the textile fabric. For
example, piezoelectric fabrics could be used in the design of clothing capable of collecting some of the
mechanical energy associated with walking or running. The harvested Energy could be used to recharge
battery or to directly power a device (wireless sensor networks, wearable instruments, and LED).
❖ A voltage is generated across a piezoelectric material, 0.5 cm thick, subjected to an impact of 5

N/m2. The voltage coefficient of the material is 23 kV-m/N. What will be the magnitude of the
generated voltage?
The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain material to generate AC (alternating current) voltage when
subjected to mechanical stress or vibration or, to vibrate when subjected to an AC voltage or both. The
magnitude of voltage generated is given by,
V=p⋅g⋅t
Where,
p = pressure (N/m2)
g = sensitivity or voltage coefficient
t = thickness of material
Calculation:
Given that,
Thickness of material (t) = 0.5 cm = 0.5 × 10-2 m
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Pressure given to it (p) = 5 N/m2
Voltage coefficient of materials = 23 kV – m/N
⇒ V = 5 × 23 k × 0.5 × 10-2
= 5 × 23 × 103 × 0.5 × 10-2
= 575 V
10.6 Strain Gauge

Any external force applied to a stationary object produces stress and strain. The object's internal
resisting forces are referred to as stress while the displacement and deformation that occur is termed as
strain. Strain can be either compressive or tensile and is usually measured by strain gauges. A strain gage
is a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the compression and tension forces it is
experiencing. It is used to measure displacement, force, load, pressure, torque or weight etc.
The strain gauge is connected into a wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in the diagram. The complete
Wheatstone bridge is excited with power supply and with additional conditioning electronics, can be
zeroed at the null point of measurement. Typically, the rheostat arm R 2 of the bridge is set at a value equal
to the strain gauge resistance with no force applied. The two ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3) are set
equal to each other. Thus, with no force applied to the strain gauge, the bridge will be symmetrically
balanced and the voltmeter will indicate zero volts, representing zero force on the strain gauge. As the
strain gauge is either compressed or tensed, its resistance will decrease or increase, respectively, thus
unbalancing the bridge and producing an indication at the voltmeter.
Strain Gauge Factor Derivation:

In this article, we will discuss strain gauge factor derivation. The strain gauge is a passive transducer that
converts the strain produced by a force to a change in the resistance.
Stress: Stress is defined as a restoring force per unit area of any given material. It is denoted by the Greek
letter σ, and is measured using Pascal or N/m2.
Stress is mathematically expressed as-
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Strain: Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of the force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body. The strain is a dimensionless quantity that defines the
relative change in shape.
Strain is mathematically represented as:
The types of strain gauge factor derivations are: unbonded strain gauge and bonded strain gauge. The
unbonded resistance strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating
medium, such as air. In this type, the strain gauge is not directly bonded to the surface which is subjected
to the stress. Instead, the wire is stretched between two frames with the help of insulation pins. The wires
are kept under tension so as to avoid sag and/or free vibration. Unbonded strain gauge factor derivation
is usually connected in a bridge circuitry. The bridge is balanced with no load applied to it. The bonded
strain gauges are directly placed or bonded on the surface of any device or component which is subjected
to stress.
Wire Type strain gauge: They are available in bonded and unbonded types. In the bonded type, the
strain gauge is directly placed on the surface of the structure under test. To place the strain gauge on the
structure, adhesives are used which are responsible for transmitting the strain from the structure to the
gauge wires. This type of gauge is basically fabricated in four varieties. They are:
a. Flat grid wire gauge: In the flat grid wire gauges, the fine wire is wound back and forth (i.e., arranged
in the form of a grid), and then it is pasted on a backing material (ex: epoxy, paper, etc), with the help of
an adhesive.
b. Wrap Around Wire Gauge: In a wrap-around wire gauge, a fine wire is wound on a thin strip or a
flattened tube of paper. They can be made smaller in length for the same value of resistance as compared
to the flat grid type. In the wrap-around wire gauge type, the wire grid is in between the two planes, the
gauge has a very high surface thickness. So, creep and hysteresis increase.
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c. Single Wire Gauge: Single wire gauge type of wire gauge is mainly designed to avoid any cross-
sensitivity factor. These are formed when the single wires are stretched across and laid as shown below.
In order to avoid the looping of the same material, thick copper wires are also attached (welded) at the
ends. Due to this, cross-sensitivity is reduced to a great extent.
d. Woven Type Gauge: A woven type gauge is formed when a silk-insulated eureka wire is wound as the
weft on a textile or rayon wrap. These gauges can measure large strains. They are also used to carry out
tests on leather and fabrics.
Strain Gauge Factor Derivation: We know that
As a result of the strain, two physical parameters are of particular interest.

1. The change in gauge resistance.
2. The change in length.
The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to the strain is called the gauge factor (GF). It is the
ratio of the change in the resistance ΔR/R by changes in the length Δl/l
Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,
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Putting the value of strain in equation (1), we get
where σ is a strain in the lateral direction.

The resistance of the conductor of a uniform cross-section is
Since
where
• ρ= specific resistance of the conductor
• l = length of the conductor
• d= diameter of the conductor
When this conductor is stressed due to the strain, the length of the conductor increases by Δl and
simultaneously decreases by Δd in diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor can be written as
Since Δd is very small, Δd2 can be neglected
Now as per Poisson’s ratio μ is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to the strain in
the axial direction, that is,
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Substituting Value Δd/d from equation (5) in equation (4), we get
By rationalizing the above equation, we get
Since Δl is very small, we can neglect the higher powers of Δl.
From equation number 3,
Therefore,
The Change in resistance is
Gauge Factor will be
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Problem 1:
Solution:
11.6 Speed Measurement Using DC Tachometer Generator

The DC tachometer generator can be used for speed measurement. The armature of the tachometer is
kept in the permanent magnetic field. The armature is coupled to the machine whose speed is to be
measured. When the shaft of the machine revolves, the armature of the tachometer revolves in the
magnetic field producing EMF which is proportional to the product of the flux and speed to be measured.
May 2023 Page 161 of 298 (AZ)

Now as the field of the permanent field is fixed, the EMF generated is proportional to the speed directly.
The EMF induced is measured using moving coil voltmeter with uniform scale calibrated in speed
directly. The series resistance is used to limit the current under output short circuit condition. The
polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation. The commutator collects current from
armature conductors and converts internally induced AC EMF into DC EMF while the brushes are used to
collect current from commutator and make it available to external circuitry of DC tachometer generator.
❖ Advantages
The output voltage is small enough to measure it with conventional d.c voltmeters.
The polarity of output voltage directly indicates the direction of rotation.
❖ Disadvantages
Because of variations in contact resistance, considerable error is introduced in the output voltage. Hence
periodic maintenance of the commutator and brushes is required.
Non-linearity in the output of the d.c tachogenerator occurs because of distortions in the permanent
magnetic field due to large armature currents. Hence input resistance of meter should be very high as
compared to the output resistance of the generator.
❖ A tachometer has the tachometer constant Kn = 6V/krpm and is connected to a 8 bit ADC which
has input voltage range from 0 to 10V. (a) Calculate the maximum acceptable velocity which
can be measured by the tachometer in this configuration. (b) Calculate the velocity
measurement resolution of the tachometer with ADC.
Solution:
(a) For Vmax = 10 V and Kn = 6 V/krpm
Angular velocity n(krpm)
nmax = Vmax /Kn = 10V/ (6V/krpm) = 1.667 krpm
(b) Voltage resolution at 8-bit is

rd = 10V/28 = 10/256 = 0.039 V
Ripple voltage of 2% of 10V gives 0.2V, an error about 5 times higher than the digital resolution.
Reduction of ripple voltage effect is required for a more accurate angular velocity measurement.
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12.6 Microphone and Speaker
Dynamic Moving-coil Microphone Sound Transducer: The construction of a dynamic microphone is
shown in Fig.13. It is a moving coil type microphone which uses electromagnetic induction to convert the
sound waves into an electrical signal. It has a very small coil of thin wire suspended within the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet. As the sound wave hits the flexible diaphragm, the diaphragm moves back
and forth in response to the sound pressure acting upon it causing the attached coil of wire to move
within the magnetic field of the magnet.
Fig.13 Dynamic Moving-coil Microphone
The movement of the coil within the magnetic field causes a voltage to be induced in the coil as defined
by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic Induction. The resultant output voltage signal from the coil is
proportional to the pressure of the sound wave acting upon the diaphragm so the louder or stronger the
sound wave the larger the output signal will be, making this type of microphone design pressure
sensitive.
As the construction of this type of microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, it is also possible to use
an actual loudspeaker as a microphone.
Moving Coil Loudspeaker: Loudspeakers are audio sound transducers that are classed as “sound
actuators” and are the exact opposite of microphones. Their job is to convert complex electrical analogue
signals into sound waves being as close to the original input signal as possible.
Loudspeakers are available in all shapes, sizes and frequency ranges with the more common types
being moving coil, electrostatic, isodynamic and piezo-electric. Moving coil type loudspeakers are by far
the most commonly used speaker in electronic circuits, kits and toys, and as such it is this type of sound
transducer we will examine below.
The principle of operation of the Moving Coil Loudspeaker is the exact opposite to that of the “Dynamic
Microphone” we look at above. A coil of fine wire, called the “speech or voice coil”, is suspended within a
very strong magnetic field, and is attached to a paper or Mylar cone, called a “diaphragm” which itself is
suspended at its edges to a metal frame or chassis. Then unlike the microphone which is pressure
May 2023 Page 163 of 298 (AZ)

sensitive input device, this type of sound transducer can be classed as a pressure generating output
device.
Fig.14: Moving Coil Loudspeaker
When an analogue signal passes through the voice coil of the speaker, an electro-magnetic field is
produced and whose strength is determined by the current flowing through the “voice” coil, which in turn
is determined by the volume control setting of the driving amplifier or moving coil driver. The electro-
magnetic force produced by this field opposes the main permanent magnetic field around it and tries to
push the coil in one direction or the other depending upon the interaction between the north and south
poles.
As the voice coil is permanently attached to the cone/diaphragm this also moves in tandem and its
movement causes a disturbance in the air around it thus producing a sound or note. If the input signal is a
continuous sine wave then the cone will move in and out acting like a piston pushing and pulling the air
as it moves and a continuous single tone will be heard representing the frequency of the signal. The
strength and therefore its velocity, by which the cone moves and pushes the surrounding air produces the
loudness of the sound.
13.6 Hall Effect Sensor

The Hall effect sensor is a semiconductor device that generates an output voltage when exposed to a
magnetic field. The basic construction consists of a slab of semiconductor material through which a
current is passed, as shown in Fig. 11.50(a). If a magnetic field is applied as shown in the figure
perpendicular to the direction of the current, a voltage VH will be generated between the two terminals,
as indicated in Fig. 11.50(a). The difference in potential is due to the separation of charge established by
the Lorentz force first studied by Professor Hendrick Lorentz in the early eighteenth century. He found
that electrons in a magnetic field are subjected to a force proportional to the velocity of the electrons
through the field and the strength of the magnetic field. The direction of the force is determined by the
left-hand rule.
May 2023 Page 164 of 298 (AZ)

FIG.11.50 Hall effect sensor: (a) orientation of controlling parameters; (b) effect on electron flow.
Simply place the index finger of the left hand in the direction of the magnetic field, with the second
finger at right angles to the index finger in the direction of conventional current through the
semiconductor material, as shown in Fig. 11.50(b). The thumb, if placed at right angles to the index finger,
will indicate the direction of the force on the electrons. In Fig. 11.50(b), the force causes the electrons to
accumulate in the bottom region of the semiconductor (connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
VH), leaving a net positive charge in the upper region of the material (connected to the positive terminal
of VH). The stronger the current or strength of the magnetic field, the greater the induced voltage VH.
In essence, therefore, the Hall effect sensor can reveal the strength of a magnetic field or the level of
current through a device if the other determining factor is held fixed. Two applications of the sensor are
therefore apparent—to measure the strength of a magnetic field in the vicinity of a sensor (for an applied
fixed current) and to measure the level of current through a sensor (with knowledge of the strength of the
magnetic field linking the sensor).
❖ How Hall Effect Sensor can be Used as a Theft Prevention Device for Merchandise?
The Hall effect sensor has a broad range of applications that are often quite interesting and innovative.
The most widespread is as a trigger for an alarm system in large department stores, where theft is often a
difficult problem. A magnetic strip attached to the merchandise sounds an alarm when a customer passes
through the exit gates without paying for the product. The sensor, control current, and monitoring system
are housed in the exit fence and react to the presence of the magnetic field as the product leaves the store.
When the product is paid for, the cashier removes the strip or demagnetizes the strip by applying a
magnetizing force that reduces the residual magnetism in the strip to essentially zero.
May 2023 Page 165 of 298 (AZ)

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
❖ How Hall Effect Sensor can be Used to Indicate the Speed of a Bicycle?
The Hall effect sensor is also used to indicate the speed of a bicycle on a digital display conveniently
mounted on the handlebars. As shown in Fig. 11.51(a), the sensor is mounted on the frame of the bike,
and a small permanent magnet is mounted on a spoke of the front wheel. The magnet must be carefully
mounted to be sure that it passes over the proper region of the sensor. When the magnet passes over the
sensor, the flux pattern in Fig. 11.51(b) results, and a voltage with a sharp peak is developed by the
sensor. Assuming a bicycle with a 26-in.-diameter wheel, the circumference will be about 82 in. Over 1 mi,
the number of rotations is
If the bicycle is traveling at 20 mph, an output pulse will occur at a rate of 4.29 per second. It is interesting
to note that at a speed of 20 mph, the wheel is rotating at more than 4 revolutions per second, and the
total number of rotations over 20 mi is 15,460.
(b)
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FIG. 11.51 Obtaining a speed indication for a bicycle using a Hall effect sensor: (a) mounting the
components; (b) Hall effect response.
14.6 Optical Dust Sensor

GP2Y1010AU0F is a commonly used Optical Dust Sensor in air purifier systems to detect very fine dust
particles like cigarette smoke in air. It consists an infrared emitter and a phototransistor which are
diagonally arranged to detect reflected light from dust. The sensor is very compact and has a very low
current consumption. By using this module, we can easily detect the presence of dust by the photometry
of only one pulse. It can also distinguish smoke from house dust by pulse pattern of output voltage.
Applications:
❖ Air monitoring textile factory
❖ Air Dust Detection
❖ Air Purifiers
❖ Air Conditioners
❖ Air Monitors
Optical Dust Sensor GP2Y1010AU0F Features:
❖ Very compact size
❖ Low power consumption
❖ RoHS complaint and lead free
❖ Can distinguish between smoke and dust
❖ Dust can be detected even by a single pulse
❖ Operating Voltage: 5V
❖ Max. Current: 20mA
❖ Operating Temperature: -10 ~ +65°C
Figure: Internal Schematic of Optical Dust Sensor
May 2023 Page 167 of 298 (AZ)

15.6 Sound Sensor
The sound sensor is one type of module used to notice the sound. Generally, this module is used to detect
the intensity of sound. The applications of this module mainly include switch, security, as well
as monitoring. The accuracy of this sensor can be changed for the ease of usage.
This sensor employs a microphone to provide input to buffer, peak detector and an amplifier. This sensor
notices a sound, & processes an o/p voltage signal to a microcontroller. After that, it executes required
processing.
This sensor is capable to determine noise levels within DB’s or decibels at 3 kHz 6 kHz frequencies
approximately wherever the human ear is sensitive. In smartphones, there is an android application
namely decibel meter used to measure the sound level.
This sensor includes three pins which include the following.
Pin1 (VCC): 3.3V DC to 5V DC

Pin2 (GND): This is aground pin
Pin3 (DO): This is an output pin
❖ Working Principle:
The working principle of this sensor is related to human ears. Because human eye includes a diaphragm
and the main function of this diaphragm is, it uses the vibrations and changes into signals. Whereas in this
sensor, it uses a microphone and the main function of this is, it uses the vibrations and changes into
current otherwise voltage.
Generally, it includes a diaphragm which is designed with magnets that are twisted with metal wire.
When sound signals hit the diaphragm, then magnets within the sensor vibrates & simultaneously current
can be stimulated from the coils.
Features:
❖ The features of the sound sensor include the following
❖ These sensors are very simple to use
❖ It gives analog o/p signal
❖ Simply incorporates using logic modules on the input area
Specifications:
❖ The specifications of the sound sensor include the following
May 2023 Page 168 of 298 (AZ)

❖ The range of operating voltage is 3.⅗ V
❖ The operating current is 4~5 mA
❖ The voltage gains 26 dB ((V=6V, f=1kHz)
❖ The sensitivity of the microphone (1kHz) is 52 to 48 dB
❖ The impedance of the microphone is 2.2k Ohm
❖ The frequency of m microphone is16 to 20 kHz
❖ The signal to noise ratio is 54 dB
Applications
The applications of the sound sensor include the following.
❖ This sensor can be used to build various electronic projects with the help of an Arduino board.
For instance, this project uses a grove sensor, which fundamentally gives your Arduino’s ears. In
this project, a microphone can be attached to an analog pin of the board. This can be used to
notice the noise level within the nearby surroundings.
❖ The grove sensors support platforms like Arduino, Raspberry Pi, BeagleBone Wio, and LinkIt
ONE. This sensor plays an essential role while activating the light in your office or house by
detecting a precise whistle or clap sound.
❖ Some more applications of this sensor include the following.
❖ Security system for Office or Home
❖ Spy Circuit
❖ Home Automation
❖ Robotics
❖ Smart Phones
❖ Ambient sound recognition
❖ Audio amplifier
❖ Sound level recognition (not capable to obtain precise dB value)
❖ Sound Sensor Circuit Diagram
The sound sensor circuit can be implemented by using operational amplifiers and comparator chips. The
sound sensor circuit diagram using the LM393N comparator chip is shown in the figure below. This
simple switch circuit is used in electrical appliances like fans, tube lights, radios, etc, and in any other
applications to turn ON/OFF LEDs and sound.
The above sound sensor circuit is built with a dual voltage LM393N comparator, 2N4401 transistor,
2N4403 transistor, resistors of 10K, 100K, 10K, 20K, and 100K (variable), 120nF, IN4001 diode, relay, an
electret mic, and DC supply 9V-12V.
A dual voltage comparator LM393N IC contains 2 comparators integrated into an 8-pin DIP chip. In the
sound sensor switch circuit, only one of the two LM393Ns is used, which acts as the heart of the circuit.
May 2023 Page 169 of 298 (AZ)

Figure: Sound Sensor Switch Circuit Diagram
When the audio input comes from an electret microphone, the 120nF capacitor blocks the DC component
of the received sound and allows only the AC to flow through the 2N4401N transistor. This AC signal now
serves as a control signal for the base terminal of the 2N4401 transistor. The voltage level of the signal
can be controlled by a voltage divider network. The audio signal is amplified by the 2N4401 received
from the electret mic.
After that, this amplified signal is fed to the LM393N dual voltage comparator IC, and the output is
obtained from the ICs output pin-8. To drive the SPDT (single pole dual throw) relay switch, a 2N4403
PNP transistor is utilized at the output of the IC. To adjust or vary the sensitivity of the sound sensor
switch circuit, variable resistors of 100K and 20K are used. Generally, the circuit’s operating voltage
ranges from 9V to 12V DC and also at a low operating voltage of 3V to 6V. So, the type of relay used in the
circuit depends on the operating voltage.
16.6 Colours Sensor

A colour sensor is a type of "photoelectric sensor" which emits light from a transmitter, and then detects
the light reflected back from the detection object with a receiver. A colour sensor can detect the received
light intensity for red, blue and green respectively, making it possible to determine the colour of the
target object.
Figure: Color-Sensor
May 2023 Page 170 of 298 (AZ)

❖ Working Principle of Color Sensor
There are two types of colour sensors. One illuminates the object with broad wavelength light and
differentiates the three types of colour in the receiver. The other type illuminates the object with the
three types of light (red, blue, and green) independently. In both scenarios, the received light intensity of
red, blue and green are detected, and the ratio of light received is calculated. If light containing the red,
blue, and green wavelengths is shown on a red object, only red light will be reflected.
* The white circle in the diagram represents a white light source.
For a white object, all three colours of red, blue, and green are reflected.
* The white circle in the diagram represents a white light source.
The ratio of the red, green, and blue reflections vary according to the colour of the object.
Object colour Reflected light
Red Green Blue
Red ✓
Yellow ✓ ✓
Green ✓
Blue ✓
White ✓ ✓ ✓
May 2023 Page 171 of 298 (AZ)

Object colour Reflected light
Red Green Blue
Black
By calculating the ratio of the intensity of the red, green, and blue light received, it is possible to
distinguish differences in the colour or appearance of the object.
Differences can be detected

Left: Received light ratio 1:1:1
Right: Received light ratio 4:4:1
Applications:
❖ Colour sensors are applied to measure, detect the color of the surfaces. These sensors have a
wide range of applications in industrial, medical and security systems.
❖ Some of the applications are the light color temperature measurement, RGB LED consistency
control, medical diagnosis systems, health fitness systems, industrial process control, etc…
Examples
Some of the examples of color sensors available in the market are AS73211, TCS3200, TCS3400,
TCS34715, TCS34727, colorPAL from parallax, SEN-11195, Lego Mindstorms EV3, etc…
Besides RGB some color sensors can also detect different colors. IR and UV radiations are to be filtered
out to determine the accurate color of the material. Sensors also contain programmable light to frequency
converters. These sensors are usually very thin and can be easily interfaced with a microcontroller.
The color sensor is also opted by students for cool projects using microcontrollers like Arduino. For
which of your application was color sensor useful? What are the challenges you faced while using the
color sensor?
May 2023 Page 172 of 298 (AZ)

17.6 Noise sensor
The noise sensor is also known as a noise level sensor or sound sensor. It is one type of module used to
notice the sound. Generally, this module is used to detect the intensity of sound. The noise sensor doesn't
record sounds but monitors changes in the noise level in the environment.
Rika Sensors has two types of noise level sensors: RK300-06A microphone noise sensor and RK300-06B
mushroom noise sensor. Both models can be used inside to detect indoor noise level and outside to
monitor the sound level in the environment. The noise sensors can be widely used in industrial noise
measurement of various machines, vehicles, ships, electrical appliances, etc., and can also be used in
environmental noise, labor protection, and industrial hygiene measurement. Contact us for further details
of the sound level sensor.
❖ RK300-06A (Noise Sensor Noise Level Sensor)

RK300-06 Noise sensor is a kind of digital and modular multi-function sound level meter.Using a digital
signal processing chip and digital detection technology, has a high reliability, good stability, wide dynamic
range, without range switching, etc. Can be widely applied to various machines, vehicles, ships, electrical
appliances and other industrial noise measurement, can also be used for environmental noise
measurement, labor protection, industrial hygiene.
❖ Noise Calculations
May 2023 Page 173 of 298 (AZ)

❖ A receiver has a 400 Ω input resistance, a bandwidth of 6 MHz and a temperature of 29°C.
What is input thermal voltage? Given Boltzmann's constant is 1.38 × 10-23 J/K.
Noise Voltage:
May 2023 Page 174 of 298 (AZ)

May 2023 Page 175 of 298 (AZ)
18.6 Soil Sensor
Sensors that detect soil conditions have become an important tool for modern farmers in crop
production. The benefits of soil sensor are obvious. There are different types of soil sensors, such as soil
moisture sensor, soil temperature sensor, soil EC sensor, soil PH sensor, etc. The reason why needs to
measure soil moisture is that soil moisture plays an important role in the growth and development of
plants. Soil temperature is often an important factor, especially in agriculture and land handling of
organic wastes, because the growth of biological systems is affected by soil temperature. So, soil
temperature measurement is also important.
May 2023 Page 176 of 298 (AZ)

Due to differences in electrical resistance or electrical conductivity, information on soil moisture and soil
particle composition can be clearly reflected, as well as intuitive conclusions on density, pH,
salinity/conductivity and temperature. Through the network construction on the farm, the real-time
parameters collected by the soil sensor are transmitted to the computer mainframe and connected with
the system installed on the machine to realize automatic control spraying of fertilizer and pesticide.
Welcome to contact for further information on soil temperature moisture sensor. We provide top quality
soil moisture sensor and soil temperature probe.
Figure: Soil Sensor
RK520-11(Soil Sensor):
The transmitter has stable performance, high sensitivity, fast response and stable output, and is suitable
for various soil types. It is an important tool to observe and study the occurrence, evolution, improvement
and water-salt dynamics of saline soil. By measuring the dielectric constant of soil, it can directly and
stably reflect the real moisture content of various soils. It can measure the volume percentage of soil
moisture, which is a soil moisture measurement method in line with current international standards. It
can be buried in the soil for a long time, resistant to long-term electrolysis, corrosion resistance, vacuum
potting, and completely waterproof.
The transmitter is suitable for soil moisture monitoring, scientific experiments, water-saving irrigation,
greenhouses, flowers and vegetables, grassland pastures, soil rapid testing, plant cultivation, sewage
treatment, precision agriculture and other occasions temperature and humidity, conductivity, PH value
testing.
19.6 Air quality sensor

The air quality sensor is part of the air conditioning system. Air quality sensor is also known as air
pollution sensors can detect and monitor dust and particulate matter in the air around us. These sensors
can be used inside to detect indoor air pollution and outside to monitor pollution in the environment.
May 2023 Page 177 of 298 (AZ)

Rikasensor has many types of sensors to detect the air quality, for example PM2.5 dust sensor, Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) Sensor, Ammonia (NH3) Sensor, Sulfur Dioxide Sensor and etc. These sensors are small and
provide data in near-real-time at low cost and using low amounts of power.
Sensor-based measurement devices are becoming more popular as people are becoming aware of
harmful pollution, smoke and dust, and the health impacts this has on individuals and the environment
around us. The air quality sensor comes bundled with our weather station solution.
Figure: Dust Sensor

RK300-02A (Indoor Dust Sensor, PM1.0 PM2.5 PM10)
RK300-02 Dust Sensor using laser scattering principle, detecting the existence of dust particle
concentration in the air, the minimum can detect 1.0um particles, has a good consistency and stability.
According to different usage environment, there are indoor type and outdoor type to select.
20.6 Resistance Temperature Detector

Resistance thermometers or resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure
temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements
consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The RTD element is made
from a pure material, platinum, nickel or copper. The material has a predictable change in resistance as
the temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used to determine temperature.
Fig.1 Resistance temperature detector
Resistance at toC, Rt = Rref (1+ t)

Rref = Resistance at reference temperature
May 2023 Page 178 of 298 (AZ)

t = Difference between operating and reference temperature
 = Temperature co-efficient
Application of RTD
❖ Textile production
❖ Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
❖ Food Processing
❖ Stoves and grills
❖ Plastics processing
❖ Petrochemical processing
❖ Micro electronics
❖ Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement
❖ Exhaust gas temperature measurement
❖ Problem: A platinum RTD PT100 measures 100 Ω at 0 °C and 139.1 Ω at 100 °C.
Calculate the resistance of the RTD at 50 °C.
Calculate the TCR for platinum.
Calculate the temperature when the resistance is 110 Ω.
Calculate the Temperature Coefficient of RTD PT100
Solution:
R50 = Ro (1 + αt) = 100 (1 + 0.00391×50) = 119.55Ω
Rt = Ro(1 + αt) ⇒ 110 = 100(1 + 0.00391t)

Rt =1 + 0.00391t = 1.1 ⇒ 0.00391t = 0.1 ⇒ t = 25.58 °C.
21.6 Thermistor
Initially, thermistor is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be measured. Then,
thermistor is connected in a series simple circuit consisting of battery and micro-ammeter as shown
below. Any change in temperature causes a change in resistance of thermistor. Hence, corresponding
change in circuit current. By directly calibrating micro-ammeter in terms of temperature, we can measure
temperature.
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❖ A thermistor has a resistance of 1 kΩ at temperature 298 K and 465 Ω at temperature
316K. What is the temperature sensitivity of this thermistor at 316 K?
The temperature sensitivity = (1/R)(dR/dT). Unit is K-1.

Solution:
❖ Difference between RTD and Thermistor

RTD (Resistance Temperature
Basis For Comparison Thermistor
Detector)
1. Definition The device use for measuring the It is a thermal resistor whose
change in temperature is known as resistance changes with the
the RTD or Resistance Temperature temperature.
Detector.
2. Symbol
3. Material Metals (platinum, nickel, copper, Semiconductor
May 2023 Page 180 of 298 (AZ)

RTD (Resistance Temperature
Basis For Comparison Thermistor
Detector)
etc.)
4. Accuracy Less accurate. Their accuracy is high. It can detect

even small changes in temperature
because of negative temperature
coefficient.
5. Response Time Slow Fast
6. Temperature Range Up to 850ºC -55°C and + 114°C
7. Characteristic Graph Linear Non-linear
8. Sensitivity Low High
9. Size Large Small
10. Cost Cheap Expensive
11. Resistivity High Low
12. Hysteresis Effect Low High
13. Applications In industries for measuring large For measuring the temperature of
temperature. home appliances.
22.6 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of metals, joined
together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a voltage is created that can
be correlated back to the temperature. A thermocouple is a simple, robust and cost-effective temperature
sensor used in a wide range of temperature measurement processes.
Figure: Thermocouple
May 2023 Page 181 of 298 (AZ)

Thermocouples are manufactured in a variety of styles, such as thermocouple probes, thermocouple
probes with connectors, transition joint thermocouple probes, infrared thermocouples, bare wire
thermocouple or even just thermocouple wire.
Thermocouples are commonly used in a wide range of applications. Due to their wide range of models
and technical specifications, but it is extremely important to understand its basic structure, functionality,
ranges as to better determine the right thermocouple type and material of thermocouple for an
application.
Working Principle of Thermocouples:

When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated,
there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. If this circuit is broken at the
center, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the
composition of the two metals. Which means that when the junction of the two metals is heated, or
cooled, a voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature.
Figure: Thermocouple
❖ What is the difference: thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors and infrared devices?

To select between the sensors above, you should consider the characteristics and costs of the various
sensors as well as the available instrumentation. In addition, Thermocouples generally can measure
temperatures over wide temperature ranges, inexpensively, and are very rugged, but they are not as
accurate or stable as RTD’s and thermistors. RTD’s are stable and have a fairly wide temperature range,
but are not as rugged and inexpensive as thermocouples. Since they require the use of electric current to
make measurements, RTD’s are subject to inaccuracies from self-heating. Thermistors tend to be more
accurate than RTD’s or thermocouples, but they have a much more limited temperature range. They are
also subject to selfheating. Infrared Sensors can be used to measure temperatures higher than any of the
other devices and do so without direct contact with the surfaces being measured. However, they are
generally not as accurate and are sensitive to surface radiation efficiency (or more precisely, surface
emissivity). Using fiber optic cables, they can measure surfaces that are not within a direct line of sight.
May 2023 Page 182 of 298 (AZ)

❖ A thermocouple having an internal resistance of 40Ω and lead resistance of 10Ω produces a
voltage of 100 mV. If the output is read by a voltmeter having an internal resistance of 150Ω,
what will be the voltage indicated by the voltmeter?
Solution:
Concept:
Thermocouple:
• A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming an electrical
junction.
• A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this
voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
• A thermocouple consists of two wire lags made from different metals. The wire legs are welded together at
one end, creating a junction.
• This junction is where the temperature is measured.
• When the junction experienced a change in temperature, a voltage is created.
May 2023 Page 183 of 298 (AZ)

23.6 Proximity sensor
Proximity sensors are sensors that detect the movement/presence of objects without physical contact
and relay that information captured into an electrical signal. It can also be defined as a proximity switch, a
definition given by the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) to all contactless detecting sensors
Sounds complex? A proximity sensor simply means; A sensor that detects, captures, and relays movement
information of objects without any physical contact!
Where are Proximity Sensors used?

❖ Proximity Sensors are widely used in industrial and manufacturing applications, especially for safety
and inventory management applications. In an automated production line, for example, it is used for
object detection, positioning, inspection and counting. It is also used for part detection in an
industrial conveyor system.
❖ Proximity sensors can also be found in consumer devices. In smartphones, proximity sensors are
used to detect if a user is holding their phone near their face. They are also used as capacitive touch
switches on consumer electronics products.
❖ It is also used for many other different applications such as a diffuse sensor in a public washrooms or
a collision detection sensor for robots!
Proximity Sensor Features
To further understand what proximity sensor is all about, we’ll take a look at its features. The following is
its features, with some uniquely seen as compared to traditional optical/contact sensors:
❖ Contactless sensing: Contactless proximity sensing allows for detection without touching the object,
ensuring object stays well-conditioned
❖ Unaffected by surface conditions: Proximity sensors are nearly unaffected by surface colors of
objects since it mainly detects physical changes
❖ Suitability for wide range of applications: Proximity sensors are suitable for damp conditions and
wide temperature range usage, unlike your traditional optical detection. Proximity sensors are also
applicable in phones as well, be it your Andriod or IOS devices. It consists of simple IR technology
that switches on and off display accordingly to your usage. For example, it turns off your display
when a phone call is ongoing such that you wouldn’t accidentally activate something while placing it
near your cheeks!
❖ Longer service life: Since a proximity sensor uses semiconductor outputs, there are no moving parts
dependent on the operating cycle. Thus, its service life tends to be longer as compared to other
sensors!
❖ High speed response rate: Compared to switches where contact is required for sensing, proximity
sensors offer a higher-speed response rate.
❖ Types of Proximity Sensor
Here’s the rundown of the different proximity sensor types!
May 2023 Page 184 of 298 (AZ)

❖ Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity sensors are contactless sensors used to only detect metal objects. It’s based on the
law of induction, driving a coil with an oscillator once a metallic object approaches it. It comprises of 4
main components as seen in the picture; Coil, Oscillator, Schmitt Trigger, and output switching circuit
How do Inductive Proximity Sensors work?
An alternating current is supplied to the coil, generating an electromagnetic detection field. When a metal
object comes closer into the magnetic field, eddy currents build-up, and result in coil inductance changes.
When coil inductance changes, the circuit that has been continuously monitoring, will trigger the sensor’s
output switch
Common applications:
❖ Industrial usages
❖ Production automation machines that count products, product transfers
❖ Security usages
❖ Detection of metal objects, armory, land mines, etc.
❖ Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
❖ Contactless detection
❖ Environment adaptability; resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such as dust and
dirt
❖ Capable and versatile in metal sensing
❖ Considerably cheap when it comes to price
❖ No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of inductive proximity sensors
❖ Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 80mm
❖ Can only detect metal objects
❖ Performance can be affected by external conditions; extreme temperatures, cutting fluids or
chemicals
May 2023 Page 185 of 298 (AZ)

Figure: Grove – 2-Channel Inductive Sensor (LDC1612)
❖ Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Capacitive proximity sensors are contactless sensors that detect both metallic and non-metallic objects,
including liquid, powders, and granular. It operates by detecting a change in capacitance. Similarly, to
inductive sensors, it consists of an oscillator, Schmitt trigger and output switching circuit. The only
difference is it comprises of 2 charging plates (1 internal, 1 external) for capacitation: Internal plate
connected to the oscillator and External plate (sensor electrodes) used as the sensing surface.
How do capacitive proximity sensors work?

Capacitive proximity sensor produces an electrostatic field. When an object (conductive/non-conductive)
approaches the sensing area, the capacitance of both plates increases, resulting in oscillator amplitude
gain. The resulted amplitude gain triggers sensor output switch.
Common applications:
❖ Industrial usages
❖ Production automation machines that count products, product transfers
❖ Filling processes, pipelines, inks, etc.
❖ Fluid level, composition, and pressure
❖ Moisture control
❖ Non-invasive content detection
❖ Touch applications
❖ Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
May 2023 Page 186 of 298 (AZ)

❖ A wide array of materials able to be detected
❖ Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
❖ Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
❖ Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only wanted
objects will be sensed
❖ No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
❖ Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors
❖ Higher price as compared to inductive sensors
Grove – Capacitive Moisture Sensor (Corrosion Resistant)
❖ Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors:

Third on this list is ultrasonic proximity sensors, detecting the presence of objects through emitting high-
frequency ultrasonic range. It does so through the conversion of electrical energy. Similarly, to capacitive
sensors, it can detect objects in solid, liquid, granular, or granular as well. Probably the easiest among all,
it only comprises an ultrasonic transmitter and an ultrasonic receiver.
❖ How does Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor work?

The sonic transducer emits sonic waves. Sonic waves bounces off the object. The wave that bounced off is
then returned to the sensor. Time that it took to emit and receive sound waves is then used to determine
distance/proximity.
Common applications
❖ Distance measurement
❖ Anemometers for wind speed and direction detection
❖ Automation production processes
❖ Fluid detection
❖ Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for object monitoring
❖ Robotics
❖ Advantages of ultrasonic proximity sensors
May 2023 Page 187 of 298 (AZ)

❖ Not affected by object color and transparency
❖ Not affected by external environmental conditions, reliable solution
❖ Works well in places with extreme conditions
❖ Able to be used in dark environments
❖ Low current consumption
Disadvantages of an ultrasonic proximity sensors

❖ Limited detection range though capable of higher range as compared to inductive and capacitive
sensors
❖ Doesn’t work in a vacuum since ultrasonic sensors operate via sound waves
❖ Not able to measure the distance of Soft objects or ones with extreme textures
Figure: Grove – Ultrasonic Sensor: Improved version of the HC-SR04
Made with significant benefits over the traditional HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor, the Grove – Ultrasonic
Sensor is the perfect ultrasonic module for not just proximity sensing, but as for distance measurement
and ultrasonic detector. as well!
❖ IR Proximity Sensor
IR, in short for infrared, detects the presence of an object by emitting a beam of infrared light. It works
similarly to ultrasonic sensors, though instead of using sonic waves, IR is transmitted. Infrared proximity
sensors consist of an IR LED that emits, and a light detector for detection of reflection. It has an in-built
signal processing circuit that determines an optical spot on the PSD.
How do IR proximity sensors work?

Infrared light is emitted from the IR LED emitter. The beam of light hits the object and gets reflected back
in an angle. The reflected light will reach the light detector. The sensor in the light detector determines
the position/distance of reflective object.
Common applications
❖ Distance measurement
❖ Item counter; when object cuts the radiating light, it counts as one
May 2023 Page 188 of 298 (AZ)

❖ Security systems such as surveillance, burglar alarms, etc.
❖ Monitoring and control applications
❖ Advantages of IR proximity sensors
❖ Applicable for daytime and nighttime usages
❖ Secured communication through a line of sight
❖ Able to measure the distance to soft objects unlike ultrasound proximity sensors
❖ Accuracy of the infrared sensor not affected by corrosion or oxidation
Disadvantages of IR proximity sensors

❖ Affected by environmental conditions and hard objects, implying inability fo usage through walls
or doors
❖ Requires line of sight between transmitter and receiver for communication
❖ Performance dips over longer distances
❖ Infrared Proximity Sensor offered at Seeed
Figure: Grove – 80cm Infrared Proximity Sensor
May 2023 Page 189 of 298 (AZ)

❖ How to choose a suitable proximity sensor
Now to help you select a suitable one out of the four, I’ve provided criteria that you should consider when
making a proximity sensor selection. However, as always, you’ll have to first consider your intended
purpose; What are you trying to use it for in the first place.
Proximity Sensor Sensor Suitability

How to select
Crieria
Take a look at the object you’re planning to ❖ IR proximity sensor is most

use a proximity sensor on consider the suited for complex object
following factors: requirements
Object requirements
❖ Object color ❖ Ultrasonic proximity sensor
❖ Shape of object is not suited for complex
❖ Object material object requirements
❖ Capacitive (most-suited),
Take a look at the environment that you’re
Inductive and Ultrasonic
going to sense your object at
are suited for harsh
Environment of Consider the following factors:
environment
sensing ❖ Cleanliness
❖ IR proximity sensor is not
❖ Temperature
suited for harsh
❖ Moisture
environment:
❖ Inductive and capacitive

proximity sensors are
Take a look at whether your object will be
suited for close range
placed close to the sensor face consider the
Sensing sensing.
following factors:
Range/Distance ❖ Ultrasonic and IR proximity
❖ Distance between object placed and
sensors are suited for long
sensor (Far or Close)
range sensing.
********Best of Luck********
May 2023 Page 190 of 298 (AZ)

EEE-7
 ELECTRICAL MACHINE
 MAGNETISM
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 191 of 298 (AZ)

1) A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Volume II, AC and DC Machines-By B.L. Theraja, A.K. Theraja.
2) Direct and Alternating Current Machinery-By Rosenblatt and Friedman.

[1] What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?
[2] Define the following terms: magnetic field strength (H), magnetic potential (M) and flux density (B)
[3] Why eddy current loss and hysteresis loss are produced in electrical machines and how can these
losses be reduced?
[4] Derive the expression of eddy current loss in a core of laminated sheet.
[5] State and explain the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
[6] Derive the equations of the alternating voltages and current.
[7] Derive the expression for force on a current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic field.
[8] Derive the expression for magnetic field strength of a long solenoid.
[9] Describe the basic principle of AC voltage generation in a generator.
[10] Describe the operating principle of DC generator with proper illustration.
[11] With neat sketch give the construction details of a DC machine.
[12] Whenever, motor action occurs, the generator action is simultaneously developed -Justify the
statement.
[13] Explain the classification of DC generator.
[14] Why starter is required for DC motor?
[15] A DC motor fails to start when switched on. What could be the possible reasons and remedies?
[16] A DC motor is found to stop running after a short period of time. What do you think could be the
reasons? How would you remedy each?
[17] What happens when a DC motor is connected across an AC supply?
[18] Describe different types of electric braking.
[19] Describe the operating principle of a three-phase induction motor with proper illustration
[20] Describe the operating principle of a three-phase induction motor.
[21] How can the direction of rotation of 3-φ induction motor be reversed?
[22] Describe the working principle of the three-phase synchronous motor.
[23] What modification of a 3-Φ induction motor will convert it into 3-Φ synchronous motor?
[24] Describe the working principle of a transformer.
[25] How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
[26] What are the losses of single-phase transformer?
[27] Is it possible to make a transformer working in DC? Give explanation on your answer.
[28] Write short note on loom motors and ring frame motors.
[29] Give a suitable motor for the following drives machine: (i) Coil winding machines (ii) Teleprinters
and clocks (iii) Textile machinery and boring mills (iv) Small domestic appliances (v) Elevators and
compressors (vi) Drills (vii) Cement industries (viii) Laundry washing machines.
[30] What is the function of an inverter in textile machine drives? Illustrate with proper examples.
May 2023 Page 192 of 298 (AZ)

CHAPTER 7
ELECTRICAL MACHINE AND MAGNETISM
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Electric power is everywhere present in unlimited quantities and can drive the world’s machinery
without the need of coal, oil, gas, or any other of the common fuels—Nikola Tesla.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.7 Introduction to Magnetism

Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry, research, or
the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape recorders, and
telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important tasks. The compass, used by
Chinese sailors as early as the second century A.D., relies on a permanent magnet for indicating direction.
The permanent magnet is made of a material, such as steel or iron, that will remain magnetized for long
periods of time without the need for an external source of energy.
In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that the needle of a compass would
deflect if brought near a current-carrying conductor. For the first time it was demonstrated that
electricity and magnetism were related, and in the same year the French physicist André-Marie Ampère
performed experiments in this area and developed what is presently known as Ampère’s circuital law. In
sub-sequent years, men such as Michael Faraday, Karl Friedrich Gauss, and James Clerk Maxwell
continued to experiment in this area and developed many of the basic concepts of electromagnetism—
magnetic effects induced by the flow of charge, or current.
2.7 Magnetic Fields
In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exists a magnetic field, which can be represented
by magnetic flux lines similar to electric flux lines. Magnetic flux lines, however, do not have origins or
terminating points as do electric flux lines but exist in continuous loops, as shown in Fig. 11.1. The symbol
for magnetic flux is the Greek letter φ (phi).
Fig.11.1 Flux distribution for a permanent magnet
FIG. 11.2 Flux distribution for two adjacent, opposite poles.
May 2023 Page 193 of 298 (AZ)

The magnetic flux lines radiate from the north pole to the south pole, returning to the north pole
through the metallic bar. Note the equal spacing between the flux lines within the core and the symmetric
distribution outside the magnetic material. These are additional properties of magnetic flux lines in
homogeneous materials (that is, materials having uniform structure or composition throughout). It is also
important to realize that the continuous magnetic flux line will strive to occupy as small an area as
possible. This will result in magnetic flux lines of minimum length between the like poles, as shown in Fig.
11.2. The strength of a magnetic field in a particular region is directly related to the density of flux lines in
that region. In Fig. 11.1, for example, the magnetic field strength at a is twice that at b since twice as many
magnetic flux lines are associated with the perpendicular plane at a than at b. Recall from childhood
experiments that the strength of permanent magnets was always stronger near the poles.
If unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought together, the magnets will attract, and the flux
distribution will be as shown in Fig.11.2. If like poles are brought together, the magnets will repel, and the
flux distribution will be as shown in Fig. 11.3
Fig 11.3: Flux distribution for two adjacent, like poles.
If a nonmagnetic material, such as glass or copper, is placed in the flux paths surrounding a
permanent magnet, there will be an almost unnoticeable change in the flux distribution (Fig. 11.4).
However, if a magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed in the flux path, the fluxlines will pass through
the soft iron rather than the surrounding air because flux lines pass with greater ease through magnetic
materials than through air. This principle is put to use in the shielding of sensitive electrical elements and
instruments that can be affected by stray magnetic fields (Fig. 11.5).
FIG. 11.4: Effect of a ferromagnetic sample on the flux distribution of a permanent magnet.
May 2023 Page 194 of 298 (AZ)

FIG. 11.5: Effect of a magnetic shield on the flux distribution
As indicated in the introduction, a magnetic field (represented byconcentric magnetic flux lines, as in
Fig. 11.6) is present around every wire that carries an electric current. The direction of the magnetic flux
lines can be found simply by placing the thumb of the right hand in the direction of conventional current
flow and noting the direction of the fingers. (This method is commonly called the right-hand rule.) If
theconductor is wound in a single-turn coil (Fig. 11.7), the resulting flux will flow in a common direction
through the center of the coil. A coil of more than one turn would produce a magnetic field that would
exist in a continuous path through and around the coil (Fig. 11.8).
Fig.11.6: Magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying conductor.
Fig.11.7: Flux distribution of a single-turn coil.
May 2023 Page 195 of 298 (AZ)

Fig.11.8: Flux distribution of a current-carrying coil.
FIG. 11.9: Electromagnet.
The flux distribution of the coil is quite similar to that of the permanent magnet. The flux lines leaving
the coil from the left and entering to the right simulate a north and a south pole, respectively. The
principal difference between the two flux distributions is that the flux lines are more concentrated for the
permanent magnet than for the coil. Also, since the strength of a magnetic field is determined by the
density of the flux lines, the coil has a weaker field strength. The field strength of the coil can be
effectively increased by placing certain materials, such as iron, steel, or cobalt, within the coil to increase
the flux density (defined in the next section) within the coil. By increasing the field strength withthe
addition of the core, we have devised an electromagnet (Fig. 11.9) that, in addition to having all the
properties of a permanent magnet, also has a field strength that can be varied by changing one of the
component values (current, turns, and so on). Of course, current must pass through the coil of the
electromagnet in order for magnetic flux to be developed, whereas there is no need for the coil or current
in the per-manent magnet. The direction of flux lines can be determined for the electromagnet (or in any
core with a wrapping of turns) by placing the fingers of the right hand in the direction of current flow
around the core. The thumb will then point in the direction of the north pole of the induced magnetic flux,
as demonstrated in Fig. 11.10(a). A cross section of the same electromagnet is included as Fig. 11.10(b) to
introduce the convention for directions perpendicular to the page. The cross and dot refer to the tail and
head of the arrow, respectively.
May 2023 Page 196 of 298 (AZ)

FIG. 11.10: Determining the direction of flux for an electromagnet: (a) method; (b) notation.
Application for electromagnetic effects: Other areas of application for electromagnetic effects are shown
inFig. 11.11. The flux path for each is Indicated in each figure.
Air Gaps: An air gap has an effect on a magnetic circuit. The spreading of the flux lines outside the
common area of the core for the air gap in Fig. 11.35(a) is known as fringing.
Fig.11.35: Fringing
May 2023 Page 197 of 298 (AZ)

3.7 Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials
Those materials which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetized in the direction of the
applied field are called ferromagnetic material. Example: iron, nickel, cobalt etc. Ferromagnetism is
the property of a material to be strongly attracted to a magnetic field and to become a powerful magnet.
Ferromagnetic materials have following properties:
o A ferromagnetic material is strongly attracted by a magnet.
o In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic lines of forces due to the applied magnetic field are
strongly attracted towards the material.
o When a rod of ferromagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it
quickly aligns itself in the direction of the applied field.
o When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it movers from
weaker to stronger regions of magnetic field.
o All ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic above a temperature called Curie
temperature.
o The relative permeability (µr) is greater than 1(one).
o Magnetic susceptibility is large and positive.
o Magnetic susceptibility decreases with the rise in temperature according to Curie-Weiss law.
o The source of ferromagnetism is the spin of the electrons.
o Ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Co, Ni have incomplete inner shells. These shells can be
completed by using Hund’s rule.
o When the specimen of a ferromagnetic material is magnetized by gradually increasing the
magnetizing fields, then the change of magnetic flux through the material is not continuous but
in small discrete steps. Along the steep portion of the M-H magnetization curve, the
discontinuous rotation of the magnetic domains give rise to Barkhauszen effect.
4.7 Domain Theory of Magnetism

Within each atom, the orbiting electrons are also spinning as they revolve around the nucleus. The atom,
due to its spinning electrons, has a magnetic field associated with it. In nonmagnetic materials, the net
magnetic field is effectively zero since the magnetic fields due to the atoms of the material oppose each
other. In magnetic materials such as iron and steel, however, the magnetic fields of groups of atoms
numbering in the order of 1012 are aligned, forming very small bar magnets. This group of magnetically
aligned atoms is called a domain. Each domain is a separate entity; that is, each domain is independent of
the surrounding domains. For an unmagnetized sample of magnetic material, these domains appear in a
random manner, such as shown in Fig.(a). The net magnetic field in any one direction is zero.
Fig.: Demonstrating the domain theory of magnetism.
May 2023 Page 198 of 298 (AZ)

When an external magnetizing force is applied, the domains that are nearly aligned with the applied field
will grow at the expense of the less favorably oriented domains, such as shown in Fig.(b). Eventually, if a
sufficiently strong field is applied, all of the domains will have the orientation of the applied magnetizing
force, and any further increase in external field will not increase the strength of the magnetic flux through
the core that is a condition referred to as saturation. The elasticity of the above is evidenced by the fact
that when the magnetizing force is removed, the alignment will be lost to some measure, and the flux
density will drop to BR (residual flux density). In other words, the removal of the magnetizing force will
result in the return of a number of misaligned domains within the core. The continued alignment of a
number of the domains, however, accounts for our ability to create permanent magnets.
At a point just before saturation, the opposing unaligned domains are reduced to small cylinders of
various shapes referred to as bubbles. These bubbles can be moved within the magnetic sample through
the application of a controlling magnetic field. These magnetic bubbles form the basis of the recently
designed bubble memory system for computers.
❖ Write short note on: Flux Density, Permeability, Reluctance, Magnetomotive Force, Magnetizing
Force.
Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area is called the flux density ( B).

B=
A
B=Teslas(T), Ф =Webers (Wb), A=Square meters (m2) and 1T=1Wb/m2
Fig. Flux density
Permeability: The permeability (μ) of a material is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines
can be established in the material. Materials in which flux lines can readily be set up are said to be
magnetic and to have high permeability. The permeability of free space (vacuum) is, μ 0=4πx10-7(Wb/Am)
Practically speaking, the permeability of all nonmagnetic materials, such as copper, aluminum, wood,
glass, and air, is the same as that for free space. Materials that have permeabilities slightly less than that
of free space are said to be diamagnetic, and those with permeabilities slightly greater than that of free
space are said to be paramagnetic. Magnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, steel, cobalt, and alloys of
these metals, have permeabilities hundreds and even thousands of times that of free space. Materials with
these very high permeabilities are referred to as ferromagnetic.
The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of free space is called its relative permeability (μr)
May 2023 Page 199 of 298 (AZ)

μr=μ/μ0
In general, for ferromagnetic materials, μr ≥ 100, and for nonmagnetic materials, μr= 1. Since μr is a
variable, dependent on other quantities of the magnetic circuit, values of μr are not tabulated.
Reluctance: The opposition to the setting up of magnetic flux lines in the material is the reluctance (R).
The reluctance is inversely proportional to the permeability. The larger the permeability the smaller the
reluctance. The materials with high permeability, such as the ferromagnetics, have very small reluctances
and will result in an increased measure of flux through the core.
Magnetomotive Force (mmf): It is the external force or pressure required to set up the magnetic flux
lines within the magnetic material. The magnetomotive force,
F=NI
The unit is At(Ampere-turn).
Fig: Defining the components of a magnetomotive force.
Magnetizing Force: The magnetomotive force (F) per unit length is called the magnetizing force (H).
F
H= ( At / m)
L
Fig: Defining the magnetizing force of a magnetic circuit

5.7 Eddy Current Loss and Hysteresis Loss
A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic material with a high permeability used to confine and guide
magnetic fields in electrical, electromechanical and magnetic devices such as electromagnets,
transformers, electric motors, generators, inductors, magnetic recording heads, and magnetic assemblies.
It is made of ferromagnetic metal such as iron, or ferrimagnetic compounds such as ferrites.
May 2023 Page 200 of 298 (AZ)

When the core is subjected to a changing magnetic field, as it is in devices that use AC current such as
transformers, inductors, and AC motors and alternators, some of the power that would ideally be
transferred through the device is lost in the core, dissipated as heat and sometimes noise.
Eddy Currents: If the core is electrically conductive, the changing magnetic field induces circulating loops
of current in it, called eddy currents, due to electromagnetic induction. The loops flow perpendicular to
the magnetic field axis. The energy of the currents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of the core
material.
Fig(1): Defining the eddy current losses of a (i) ferromagnetic core (ii) transformer
Derivation of Expression for Eddy Current Loss:

With a use of thin laminated sheets, the area of the eddy current path reduces and thus the resistance of
the path gets increased. With an increased resistance the potential developed at two points of the
lamination gets lowered and as a result the magnitude of eddy current gets reduced and eddy current loss
gets reduced.
Let the length, height and thickness of the laminated sheet is L, h and 𝞃 respectively. The thickness of the
sheet 𝞃 is very very less than the length (L) and height (h) of the sheet. Let the sinusoidal time varying
magnetic field is there perpendicular to the area formed by 𝞃 and h.
The varying magnetic field perpendicular to area formed by 𝞃 and h is;
B= BmaxSinωt
May 2023 Page 201 of 298 (AZ)

Let us consider a small elemental closed loop path PQRSP of thickness dx and distance of the small
element from origin is x. The voltage will be induced in this close loop similar to as induce in a single turn
coil.
Area of the PQRS loop, A = 2hx ——-(1)
The flux density, B = Φ/A
The flux crossing the loop PQRSP
Φ= BA
Φ= BmaxSinωt2hx ——————-(2)
RMS voltage induced in the loop,
E= 4.44 f Φmax
E= √2Π f Φmax [√2Π=4.44]
E=√2 Π f Bmax A
E= √2Π f Bmax2 hx ——————-(3)
Resistance of the eddy current path
R = ρ * (2h+4x)/ L dx ————–(4)
The eddy current loss(dP) in a small elemental loop dx
dP = E2/R
dP = E2 Ldx/[ρ * ( 2h+4x)] ——–(5)
Since thickness of the sheet is very less compared to height of the sheet and x dimension can be ignored.
dP = E2 Ldx/(ρ*2h)
dP = [√2ΠfBmax2hx]2 Ldx/(ρ*2h)]
dP = [4ΠfBmax2hx]2 Ldx/(ρ*2h)]
dP = 4Π2Bmax2f2 hL/ρ ———-(6)
Total eddy current loss =
The volume of sheet, V=hL𝞃

Eddy current loss per unit volume
Peddy = Π2Bmax2f 2𝞃2/ 6ρ——–(7)
Peddy= Ke f2 Bmax2𝞃2 —————(8)
Where,
Ke = Π2/6ρ
Ke is called the eddy current coefficient.
Thus the eddy current loss per unit volume is;
• Proportional to the square of the frequency
• Proportional to the square of the flux density
• Proportional to the square of the thickness of the laminated sheet
• Inversely proportional to the resistivity of the material
May 2023 Page 202 of 298 (AZ)

Eddy Current Reduction: Eddy current losses can be reduced if the core is constructed of thin, laminated
sheets of ferromagnetic material insulated from one another and aligned parallel to the magnetic flux.
Such construction reduces the magnitude of the eddy currents by placing more resistance in their path.
Figure: Using thin laminations (right) rather than a solid core (left) reduces the magnitude of eddy
currents in a motor.
❖ Applications of Eddy Current
The eddy current is undesired in the motor, transformer as it causes heat loss which is wastage of energy.
However, the eddy current can be usefully used in the following applications.
• Damping: The coil of the measuring instrument is mounted in the light metal frame. When the
coil and the pointer rotate in the permanent magnetic field, the eddy current induces in the
metal frame which produce the damping torque.
• Electric Brakes: When a stationary magnetic field is applied to a rotating drum, the eddy current
set up in the drum produce the braking torque. The brakes are known as eddy current brakes.
• Induction Furnace: In induction furnace, the metal which is to be heated up is placed in the
rapidly changing magnetic field produced by high frequency current. The eddy current is set up
in the metal piece and thus the metal gets heated up. The induction bearing heater also functions
on the same principle.
• The effect of eddy current is used for providing braking torque in induction type energy meters.
• Eddy current instruments are used for detecting cracks in the metal parts.
Hysteresis: When the magnetic field through the core changes, the magnetization of the core material
changes by expansion and contraction of the tiny magnetic domains it is composed of, due to movement
of the domain walls. This process causes losses, because the domain walls get "snagged" on defects in the
crystal structure and then "snap" past them, dissipating energy as heat. This is called hysteresis loss. It
can be seen in the graph of the B field versus the H field for the material, which has the form of a closed
loop. The amount of energy lost in the material in one cycle of the applied field is proportional to the area
inside the hysteresis loop. Since the energy lost in each cycle is constant, hysteresis power losses increase
proportionally with frequency.
Hysteresis losses in terms of the frequency of the applied signal and the magnetic field strength produced,
the hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency to the 1st power times the magnetic field strength to
the nth power: Phys ∞ f1Bn where n can vary from 1.4 to 2.6, depending on the material under
consideration.
Hysteresis Loss Reduction: Hysteresis losses can be effectively reduced by the injection of small
amounts of silicon into the magnetic core, constituting some 2% or 3% of the total composition of the
May 2023 Page 203 of 298 (AZ)

core. This must be done carefully, however, because too much silicon makes the core brittle and difficult
to machine into the shape desired.
❖ Major difference between hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
Property Hysteresis Loss Eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss is caused due to

Eddy current loss us caused due to the
molecular friction in a ferromagnetic
Phenomenon induction of eddy current in the core
material, under alternating magnetic
and conductors held in magnetic field.
field.
Formula
Eddy current loss occurs in the core,

Hysteresis loss occurs in the core of
Occurs in conductor and body of an electric
an electric machine.
machine.
❖ A power transformer has a core made up of a magnetic material for which hysteresis
coefficient is 120 J/m3. Its volume is 9000 cm3 and the maximum flux density is 1.45 Wb/m 3.
What is the hysteresis loss in watts if the frequency of magnetization is 50 Hz?
Solution:
❖ The flux in a magnetic core is sinusoidally alternating at 50Hz. The maximum flux density is
1.8 Wb/m2. The eddy current loss then amounts to 180W. Determine the eddy current loss in
the core when the frequency is 60 Hz and the flux density is 1.3 Wb/m 2.
Solution:
May 2023 Page 204 of 298 (AZ)

❖ A circuit has 1000 turns enclosing a magnetic circuit 20cm 2 in section. With 4A, the flux density
is 1.0Wb/m2 and with 9A, it is 1.4Wb/m2. Find the mean value of the inductance between these
current limits and the induced e.m.f. if the current falls from 9A to 4A in 0.05 seconds.
Solution: The mean value of inductance,
d
L=N
dI
d ( BA)
=N
dI
dB
= NA
dI
(1.4 − 1)
= 1000 20  10− 4 
(9 − 4)
= 0.16H
The induced e.m.f.

dI
eL = L
dt
(9 − 4)
= 0.16 
0.05
= 16V
May 2023 Page 205 of 298 (AZ)

6.7 B-H Curve
A curve of the flux density B versus the magnetizing force H of a material is called B-H curve.
Fig(1): Series magnetic circuit used to define the hysteresis curve.
Fig(2): B-H curve
A typical B-H curve for a ferromagnetic material such as steel can be derived using the setup of Fig.(1).
The core is initially unmagnetized and the current I=0. If the current I is increased to some value above
zero, the magnetizing force H (=NI/l) will increase. The flux Ф and the flux density B (=Ф/A) will also
increase with the current I (or H). If the material has no residual magnetism, and the magnetizing force H
is increased from zero to some value Ha, the B-H curve will follow the path shown in Fig.(2) between o
and a. If the path is shown in Fig.2 between o and a. If the magnetizing force H is increased until
saturation (Hs) occurs, the curve will continue as shown in the Fig.2 to point b. When saturation occurs,
the flux density has, for all practical purposes, reached its maximum value Bmax. Any further increase in
current through the coil increasing H =NI/l will result in a very small increase in flux density B. If the
magnetizing force is reduced to zero by letting I decrease to zero, the curve will follow the path of the
curve between b and c. The flux density BR, which remains when the magnetizing force is zero, is called
the residual flux density. It is this residual flux density that makes it possible to create permanent
magnets. If the coil is now removed from the core of Fig.1, the core will still have the magnetic properties
determined by the residual flux density, a measure of its retentivity. If the current I is reversed,
May 2023 Page 206 of 298 (AZ)

developing a magnetizing force, -H, the flux density B will decrease with an increase in I. Eventually, the
flux density will be zero when -Hd (the portion of curve from c to d) is reached. The magnetizing force -Hd
required to “coerce” the flux density to reduce its level to zero is called the coercive force, a measure of
the coercivity of the magnetic sample. As the force -H is increased until saturation again occurs and is
then reversed and brought back to zero, the path def will result. If the magnetizing force is increased in
the positive direction (+H), the curve will trace the path shown from f to b. The entire curve represented
by bcdefb is called the hysteresis curve for the ferromagnetic material, from the Greek hysterein, meaning
“to lag behind.” The flux density B lagged behind the magnetizing force H during the entire plotting of the
curve. When H was zero at c, B was not zero but had only begun to decline. Long after H had passed
through zero and had become equal to -Hd did the flux density B finally become equal to zero.
7.7 Textile Magnetic Coils

A textile coil may be constructed from a woven fabric consisting the reel. The winding may be realized by
the use of copper coil wire or conductive yarn. One of the essential advantages of textile coils is the
possibility that the reel can change its form, starting from linear up to toroidal. The electro-conductive
yarns, when used, should be characterised by high electrical conductivity, in order to obtain a low
internal resistance of the coil windings. Inside the coil magnetic fibres are inserted, which fulfil the
function of an elastic textile magnetic core. The design of a linear textile magnetic coil with magnetic
fibres as the magnetic core, and metallic wires or electroconductive yarn as the winding, is presented in
Figures 16.1 and 16.2.
Fig.16.1: Textile magnetic coil with textile magnetic core
May 2023 Page 207 of 298 (AZ)

Fig.16.2: Schematic view of the design of a textile magnetic coil with textile magnetic core
An elementary magnetic toroidal coil with a core of a singular magnetic fibre and a coil with a multi-fibre
magnetic core are presented in Figure 16.3. Toroidal shaped coil in which the bundle of fibers formed
toroidal is shown in Figure 16.4.
(a) (b)
Fig.16.3 Textile magnetic coils; a) toroidal coil with a core of a singular magnetic fibre, b) coil with multi-
fibre magnetic core;
Fig.16.4: Textile toroidal coil
May 2023 Page 208 of 298 (AZ)

8.7 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in it. Or
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
Explanation: Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of Φ 1 webers to
the final value of Φ2 webers in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by flux-linkages mean the product
of number of turns and the flux linked with the coil.
Initial flux linkages = NΦ1
Final flux linkages = NΦ2
Induced e.m.f., e=(NΦ1- NΦ2)/t=N(Φ1- Φ2)/t
Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get
e=N(dΦ/dt)
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact that the induced e.m.f.
sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing
it.
e=-N(dΦ/dt)
9.7 Magnetic Field Strength of a Long Solenoid
Fig.1: Magnetic field around a coil carrying electric current Fig.2
Let the magnetic field strength along the axis of the solenoid be H. Let us assume that (i) the value of H
remains constant throughout the length l of the solenoid and (ii) the volume of H outside the solenoid is
negligible. Suppose, a unit N-pole is placed at point A outside the solenoid and is taken once round the
completed path (shown dotted in Fig.2) in a direction opposite to that of H. Remembering that the force
of H newtons acts on the N-pole only over the length l (it being negligible elsewhere), the work done in
one round is = H × l joules = Amperes
The ‘ampere-turns’ linked with this path are NI where N is the number of turns of the solenoid and I the
current in amperes passing through it. According to Work Law, H×l=NI or H = NI/l A/m. Also, B =µNI/l
Wb/m2 .
May 2023 Page 209 of 298 (AZ)

10.7 Alternating Voltage and Current Generation
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in Fig. (a) or by
rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil as shown in Fig. (b).
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in the coil, strength
of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates. Alternating voltage may be
generated in either of the two ways shown above, but rotating field method is the one which is mostly
used in practice.
❖ Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Current

Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field, with an angular
velocity of ω radian/second, as shown in Fig.(a).
Fig.(a)
Let time be measured from the X-axis. Maximum flux Φm is linked with the coil, when its plane
coincides with the X-axis. In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ=ωt. In this deflected
position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, is Φ = Φ mCosωt. Hence,
flux linkages of the coil at any time are, NΦ = NΦmCosωt. According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. Hence,
May 2023 Page 210 of 298 (AZ)

the value of the induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when θ=ωt) or the instantaneous value of the induced
e.m.f. is
d
e(t ) = − ( N )
dt
d
= −N ( mCost )
dt
= − N m (− sin t )
= N m Sint
= N m Sin .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( i )
When the coil has turned through 90º i.e. when θ = 90º, then sin θ = 1, hence e has maximum value, say
Em. Therefore, from Eq. (i) we get
Em=ωNΦm=ωNBmA=2πfNBmA ………………………..(ii)
Where, Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2 , A = area of the coil in m2, f = frequency of rotation of the
coil in rev/second, Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (i), we get
e(t)=Em Sinθ=EmSinωt …………………......................(iii)
Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is i(t)=ImSinωt ………….(iv)
provided the coil circuit has been closed through a resistive load.
Fig.(b)
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle ω t and when e.m.f. is plotted
against time, a curve similar to the one shown in Fig.(b) is obtained. This curve is known as sine curve
and the e.m.f. which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f.
May 2023 Page 211 of 298 (AZ)

11.7 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
When an electrical wire is exposed to a magnet, the current in that wire will be affected by a magnetic
field. The effect comes in the form of a force. The expression for magnetic force on current can be found
by summing the magnetic force on each of the many individual charges that comprise the current. Since
they all run in the same direction, the forces can be added.
I
L θ
B
F directed into the paper
The force (F) of a magnetic field (B) exerts on an individual charge (q) traveling at drift velocity v d is:
F=N q vd B Sinθ
Given that N=nV, where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume and V is volume of the wire,
and that this volume is calculated as the product of the circular cross-sectional area (A) and length (L)
yields the equation:
F=n Vq vd B Sinθ
F=n A L q vd B Sinθ
F=(n q A vd) L B Sinθ
The terms in parentheses are equal to current (I= n q A v d), and thus the equation can be rewritten as:
F=ILB Sinθ
→ → →
In vector form, F = L I  B
May 2023 Page 212 of 298 (AZ)

SECTION 1
DC GENERATOR
12.7 Generator Principle
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy
(or power). The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or
motionally) induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is
produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to
flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Fig.1 DC generator
Two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are

(i) a magnetic field and
(ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.
13.7 Direction of Induced EMF –Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

Extend the thumb, index finger and middle finger of the right hand so that they are right angles to each
other. With the index finger pointing in the direction of the lines of flux (from north to south) and thumb
pointing in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction that
current will flow in the conductor. This is known as Fleming’s right-hand rule.
Fig. 2 Right-hand rule
14.7 Lenz’s Law

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field a voltage is induced in the conductor. If the circuit
is closed, the induced voltage will cause a current flow. The magnetic field produced by the current will
always oppose the motion of the conductor. This is known as Lenz’s law.
May 2023 Page 213 of 298 (AZ)

In all cases of electromagnetic induction, whenever a change in flux linkage occurs, a voltage is induced.
The induced voltage will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit. The direction of current is such that
the magnetic field produced by the current opposes the change in flux linking the turns of the circuit. If
viewed in this manner, a concept of Lenz’s law will emerge that satisfies all cases of induced EMF,
including transformer and induction motor actions well as induced EMF in DC motors and generators.
So the law implies both (1) cause and (2) an effect opposing the cause. The implied cause is not
necessarily conductor motion resulting from a mechanical force, but a change in flux linkages. The
implied effect is a current due to induced voltage whose field opposes the cause (i.e. a change in flux
linkages).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 Illustration of Lenz’s law (a) direction of induced EMF (b) field produced by induced current (c)
resultant distortion of magnetic field
Consider the conductor shown in Fig. 1(a) as an elementary generator that is being moved by some
prime mover in the upward direction as shown. If some electric field is connected to this elementary
generator, current will tend to flow in the conductor in the same direction as the EMF, producing a
magnetic field around the conductor as shown in Fig.1(b). The counterclockwise magnetic field
surrounding the conductor repels the magnetic field above it and attracts the magnetic field below it, i.e.,
the induced current produces a field that opposes the motion that caused it. The tendency of the magnetic
field is, therefore, of such a nature, by Lenz’s law, as to oppose the upward motion of the conductor.
15.7 DC Dynamo Construction

General information about dynamo:
1. The dynamo is a rotating electric machine.
2. The dynamo is capable of convening electrical energy into mechanical energy; it is then operating in
the motor mode.
3. The dynamo is also capable of convening mechanical energy into electrical energy; it is then
operating in the generator mode.
4. For the generator, rotary motion is supplied by a prime mover (a source of mechanical energy) to
produce relative motion between the conductors of the armature and the magnetic field of the
dynamo in order to generate electrical energy.
5. For the motor, electrical energy is supplied to the conductors and the magnetic field winding of the
dynamo as well in order to produce an electromagnetic (EM) force between them and thus produce
mechanical energy.
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The preceding generalizations gives rise to a number of interesting possibilities and choices in
determining which shall be the rotor (the part of the dynamo that rotates) and which shall be the stator
(the part of the dynamo that is stationary).
Specific and sound engineering reasons dictate these chokes and possibilities. The various types of
dynamo possibilities considered here are:
1. The direct current (dc) dynamo, which has a routing armature and a stationary field.
2. The synchronous (ac) dynamo with a rotating armature and a stationary field.
3. The synchronous (ac) dynamo with a routing field and a stationary armature.
4. The asynchronous (ac) dynamo, which has both stationary and rotating armature windings.
Fig.1 shows the cross section of a typical commercial DC dynamo, simplified for emphasis of the major
portions.
Fig.1 Dynamo cross section
The rotor of the dynamo consists of

1. A yoke or cylindrical frame of cast or rolled steel. Not only does the yoke serve as a support for
the portions described next, but also it provides a flux return path for the magnetic circuit
created by
2. The field winding, consisting of a few turns of wire for a series field or many turns of line wire
for a shunt field. Essentially. the field coils are electromagnets whose ampere-tuns provide a
magnetomotive force adequate to produce. in the air gap, the flux needed to generate an EMF or
electromotive force. The field windings are supported on
3. The field poles, constructed of laminated steel and bolted or welded to the yoke after the
assembly of field windings has been inserted on them. The pole shoe is curved, and it is wider
than the pole core to spread the flux more uniformly.
4. The Interpoles and its winding are also mounted on the yoke of the dynamo. These are looted in
the interpolar region between the main poles and are generally smaller in size. The interpole
May 2023 Page 215 of 298 (AZ)

winding is composed of a few turns of heavy wire since it is connected in series with the
armature circuit so that its magnetomotive force (MMF) is proportional to the armature current.
5. Compensating winding (not shown) are optional. They are connected in the same manner as the
interpole windings but are located in axial slots of the field pole shoe.
6. Brushes and brush rigging, like interpoles and compensating windings. are part of the armature
circuit. The brushes are composed of carbon and graphite, supported from the stator structure by
a rigging, and held in brush holders by means of springs so that the brushes will maintain firm
contact with the commutator segments. The brushes are always instantaneously connected to a
segment in contact with a coil located in the interpolar tone.
7. Mechanical details, mechanically connected to the yoke are ad bras containing bearings in which
the armature shaft is supported, as well as the brush rigging on some machines.
1. Yoke
2. Pole cores and pole shoes
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3. Pole coils
4. Armature core
5. Commutator
6. Brushes and bearings

16.7 Classification of DC Motor
(i) On The Basis of Magnet
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A. Permanent Magnet
B. Electromagnet Or Winding Field Magnet: On the Basis of Their Field Excitation
i. Separately Excited
ii. Self-Excited
(a) Series Wound
(b) Shunt Wound
(c) Compound Wound (Cumulative And Differential)
▪ Short Shunt
▪ Long Shunt
(ii) On The Basis of Brush
(i) Brushes
(ii) Brushless
17.7 DC Generator Excitations

DC Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Generators
may be divided into
1. Separately-excited generators
2. Self-excited generators
1. Separately-excited generator: Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are
energized from an independent external source of d.c. current. It is shown diagrammatically in Fig.1.
Fig.1 Separately-excited generator

2. Self-excited generator: Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the
current produced by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present
some flux in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced current is
produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole
flux. There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their field
coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and
have the full voltage of the generator applied across them (Fig. 2).
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Fig.2 Shunt wound
Series Wound: In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors (Fig.3).
As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators
are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc.
Fig.3 Series Wound

Compound Wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be either short-
shunt or long-shunt as shown in Fig.4(a) and(b) respectively. In a compound generator, the shunt field is
stronger than the series field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be
commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is
said to be differentially compounded.
Fig.4(a) Short-shunt Fig.4(b) Long-shunt

18.7 Applications of DC Generator
1. Shunt generator: Shunt generators with field regulators are used for ordinary lighting and power
supply purposes. They are also used for charging batteries because their terminal voltages are
almost constant or can be kept constant.
2. Series generator: Series generators are not used for power supply because of their rising
characteristics. However, their rising characteristic makes them suitable for being used as boosters
in certain types of distribution systems particularly in railway service.
3. Compound generators: The cumulatively-compound generator is the most widely used d.c.
generator because its external characteristic can be adjusted for compensating the voltage drop in
the line resistance. Hence, such generators are used for motor driving which require d.c. supply at
constant voltage, for lamp loads and for heavy power service such as electric railways. The
differential-compound generator has an external characteristic similar to that of a shunt generator
but with large demagnetization armature reaction. Hence, it is widely used in arc welding where
larger voltage drop is desirable with increase in current.
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SECTION 2
AC GENERATOR
19.7 Alternator
Construction: AC generators or alternators consists of armature winding mounted on a stationary
element called stator and field windings on a rotating element called rotor. The details of construction are
shown in Fig.1. The stator consists of a cast-iron frame, which supports the armature core, having slots on
its inner periphery for housing the armature conductors. The rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N
and S poles fixed to its outer rim. The magnetic poles are excited (or magnetised) from direct current
supplied by a DC source at 125 to 600 volts. In most cases, necessary exciting (or magnetising) current is
obtained from a small DC shunt generator which is belted or mounted on the shaft of the alternator itself.
Because the field magnets are rotating, this current is supplied through two slip rings. As the exciting
voltage is relatively small, the slip-rings and brush gear are of light construction. Recently, brushless
excitation systems have been developed in which a 3-phase AC exciter and a group of rectifiers supply DC
to the alternator. Hence, brushes, slip-rings and commutator are eliminated.
Fig.1 Alternator
Operating Principle: AC generators or alternators operate on the fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction. When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors (being stationary) are cut by the
magnetic flux, hence they have induced e.m.f. produced in them. Because the magnetic poles are
alternately N and S, they induce an e.m.f. and hence current in armature conductors, which first flows in
one direction and then in the other. Hence, an alternating e.m.f. is produced in the stator conductors (i)
whose frequency depends on the number of N and S poles moving past a conductor in one second and
(ii) whose direction is given by Fleming's Right-hand rule.
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20.7 Alternator Charging System Troubleshooting
Charging system trouble is indicated by an illuminated alternator warning light on the instrument panel,
or by an under-or overcharged battery.
The alternator generates electrical current by electrical induction. That is, a magnetic field is placed in
motion to induce a current in a stationary coil. When the engine is running and the alternator is spinning,
part of the current it produces is used to energize its electromagnetic field. When starting, some other
current must be provided to initially energize the field and begin the current generating process. This
current is provided by the battery.
The battery current to the alternator rotor is routed through the alternator warning light in the
instrument cluster. As soon as the alternator's output equals the battery's voltage, the light goes out.
Normally, the warning light should be off when the ignition is off and the engine is stopped. The light
should only come on when the ignition is turned on (current to the rotor) and go out again when the
engine is started and the battery is being charged. Table f describes symptoms of trouble indicated by the
warning light, lists tests and probable causes for the problem, and suggests corrective actions. The bold
numbers in the corrective action column refer to the numbered headings in this section where the
suggested repairs can be found.
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SECTION 3
DC MOTOR
21.7 Motor Principle

An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its action is based
on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and whose magnitude is given by F
= BIL Newton.
Fig.1 Principle of motor
Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a DC generator and a DC motor. In fact, the same
DC machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor as shown in Fig.2, by reversing the
terminal connections.
(a) (b)
Fig.2 Reversibility of a DC machine (a) motor action and (b) generator action
DC motors are also like DC generators, shunt-wound or series-wound or compound-wound. The Fig. 3
shows the connection diagram of shunt motor. The armature and field winding are connected in parallel.
The armature voltage and field voltage are the same.
Fig. 3 DC shunt motor

Where V=Applied voltage, I=Total current, Ia=Armature current, If=Field current, Lf=Field inductance,
Rf=Field resistance, Ra=Armature resistance, Eb=Back emf or counter-emf, T=Torque
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22.7 Characteristics and Applications of DC Motor
(i) Shunt motor
Characteristics: Approximately constant speed, Adjustable speed, Medium starting torque (Up to 1.5
times of full load torque).
Applications: For driving constant speed line shafting, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers
and fans, reciprocating pumps.
(ii) Series motor
Characteristics: Variable speed, Adjustable variying speed, High starting torque.
Applications: For traction work (i.e. Electric locomotives, Rapid transit systems, Trolley, Cars etc.), Cranes
and hoists, Conveyors.
(iii) Cumulative Compound
Characteristics: Variable speed, Adjustable varying speed, High starting torque
Applications: For intermittent high torque loads, For shears and punches, Elevators, Conveyors, Heavy
planers, Rolling mills, Ice machines, Printing presses, Air compressors.
23.7 Electric Braking

A motor and its load may be brought to rest quickly by using either (i) Friction Braking or (ii) Electric
Braking. Mechanical brake is difficult to achieve a smooth stop because it depends on the condition of the
braking surface as well as on the skill of the operator. The excellent electric braking methods are available
which eliminate the need of brake lining levers and other mechanical gadgets. Obviously, friction brake is
necessary for holding the motor even after it has been brought to rest. Electric braking of DC motor can
be done by three methods
• Regenerative braking: This method allows the mechanical energy stored in the rotor to be fed back to
the battery by converting the kinetic energy into electrical energy.
• Dynamic Braking or Rheostatic Braking: In this braking method armature terminal disconnect from
supply & connect to high value of resistance. When it is disconnected from the supply with field supply
is remains on, the DC machine will acts as a generator and converts kinetic energy stored in its moving
parts to electrical energy, which is dissipated as heat in the dynamic brake resistance and armature
resistance.
• Plugging or Reverse Current Braking: This method is commonly used in controlling elevators, rolling
mills, printing presses and machine tools etc. In this method, connections to the armature terminals are
reversed so that motor tends to run in the opposite direction and wastes both energy drawn from the
power supply as well as the kinetic energy stored in the rotor.
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24.7 DC Motor Question-Answer
(i) Whenever, motor action occurs, the generator action is simultaneously developed-prove the
statement.
Fig.1(a) shows motor action and its associated figure. For the direction of the field and armature current
shown, the force developed on the conductor is an upward direction. But the force developed on the
conductor causes the conductor to move through the magnetic field, resulting in a change of flux linkage
about this conductor. An EMF is induced in the motor conductor of Fig.1(a). The direction of this EMF is
shown in Fig.1(b), for the same motion and field direction. Applying this induced EMF to the conductor of
Fig.1(a), observe that it opposes or is developed counter to the direction of current flow (and EMF) that
created the force or motion; hence, it is termed counter EMF. Note that the development of a counter
EMF, as shown of Fig.1(a), is an application of and in accordance with Lenz’s law in that direction of
induced voltage opposes the applied EMF that created it. Thus, whenever, motor action occurs, the
generator action is simultaneously developed as shown in Fig.1(a).
(a) (b)
Fig.1 Comparison of motor and generator action (a) left-hand motor rule (b) right-hand generator rule
(ii) Why starter is required for DC motors?

When power is first applied to a motor, the armature is not rotating and counter-emf will be zero. Under
this condition the current through the armature would be very large because the armature resistance of a
motor is very small (generally less than 1Ω). Hence the starter (additional resistance) must be connected
in series with armature to limit the current until the motor rotation can build up the counter-emf. In DC
motor three-point starter or four-point starter is used.
Another Explanation: The starting current is many times larger than the normal full-load rated current.
Because the armature resistance of DC motors is very low, this starting current is dangerously large and
can damage the motor windings and other parts of the motor. In order to avoid this, a DC motor must
have a starter, which is nothing more than a variable resistance in series with the armature circuit. As the
speed of the armature increases, the starter resistance is gradually reduced, so that the motor can attain
full speed without the added starter resistance. To illustrate the importance of the starter, let's look at an
example. Suppose you have a DC motor rated at 10 hp, 220 V and full load rated current of 25 A. The
armature resistance is 0.5 Ω. Without a starter, when the power is applied to the motor, the initial current
will be 220/0.5=440 A. This is 17.5 times the full-load current! So, the need of a starter is imperative.
May 2023 Page 224 of 298 (AZ)

(iii) How can the speed of a DC motor be controlled?
Many applications require the speed of a motor to be varied over a wide range. In general, the speed of DC
motor can be controlled by varying
(i) flux/pole (Flux Control)
(ii) armature circuit resistance (Rheostatic Control)
(iii) applied voltage (Voltage Control)
(iv) Explain what happens when a DC motor is connected across an AC supply?

Answer:
(i) Since on AC supply, reactance will come into the picture, the AC supply will be offered impedance
(not resistance) by the armature winding. Consequently, with AC supply, current will be much
less. The motor will run but it would not carry the same load as it would on DC supply.
(ii) There would be more sparking at the brushes.
(iii) Though motor armature is laminated as a rule, the field poles are not. Consequently, eddy currents
will cause the motor to heat up and eventually burn on AC supply.
(v) A DC motor fails to start when switched on. What could be the possible reasons and remedies?
Any one of the following reasons could be responsible:
(i) Open-circuit in controller–should be checked for open starting resistance or open switch or
open fuse.
(ii) Low terminal voltage–should be adjusted to name-plate value.
(iii) Overload–should be reduced if possible otherwise larger motor should be installed.
(iv) Excessive friction–bearing lubrication should be checked.
(vi) A DC motor is found to stop running after a short period of time. What do you think could be
the reasons? How would you remedy each?
Possible causes are as under:
(i) Motor not getting enough power–check voltage at motor terminals as well as fuses, clups
and overload relay.
(ii) Weak or no field in the case of adjustable-speed motors, check if rheostat is correctly set.
Also, check field winding for any ‘open’. Additionally, look for any loose winding or broken
connection.
(iii) Motor torque insufficient for driving the given load–check line voltage with name-plate
voltage. If necessary, use larger motor to match the load.
(vii) Why does a DC motor sometime run too fast when under load? Give different possible causes
and their remedies.
Different possible causes are as under :
(i) Weak field–remove any extra resistance in shunt field circuit. Also, check for ‘grounds’.
(ii) Line voltage too high–reduce it to name-plate value.
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(iii) Brushes back of neutral–set them on neutral.
(viii) Under what conditions is sparking produced at the brushes of a DC motor? How would you
remedy it?
Answer:
(i) Commutator in bad condition–clean and reset brushes.
(ii) Commutator either eccentric or rough–grind and true the commutator. Also, undercut mica.
(iii) Excessive vibration–balance armature. Make sure that brushes ride freely in holders.
(iv) Brush-holding spring broken or sluggish–replace spring and adjust pressure to recommended
value.
(v) Motor overloaded–reduce load or install motor of proper rating.
(vi) Short-circuit in armature circuit–remove any metallic particles between commutator
segments and check for short between adjacent commutator risers. Locate and repair
internal armature short if any.
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SECTION 4
SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
25.7 AC Motor Classification
1. As Regards Their Principle Of Operation:
A. Synchronous Motors
(i) Plain And
(ii) Super
B. Asynchronous Motors
(i) Induction Motors
▪ Squirrel Cage (Single and Double)
▪ Slip-Ring (External Resistance)
(ii) Commutator Motors
▪ Series (Single Phase and Universal)
▪ Compensated (Conductively and Inductively)
▪ Shunt (Simple and Compensated)
▪ Repulsion (Straight and Compensated)
▪ Repulsion-Start Induction
▪ Repulsion Induction
2. As Regards the Type of Current:
A. Single Phase
B. Three Phase
3. As Regards Their Speed:
A. Constant Speed
B. Variable Speed
C. Adjustable Speed
4. As Regards Their Structural Features:
A. Open
B. Enclosed
C. Semi-Enclosed
D. Ventilated
E. Pipe-Ventilated
F. Riverted Frame Eye Etc.
26.7 Single Phase Induction Motor

Constructionally, this motor is, more or less, similar to a polyphase induction motor, except that (i) its
stator is provided with a single-phase winding and (ii) a centrifugal switch is used in some types of
motors, in order to cut out a winding, used only for starting purposes. It has distributed stator winding
and a squirrel-cage rotor. When fed from a single-phase supply, its stator winding produces a flux (or
field) which is only alternating i.e. one which alternates along one space axis only. It is not a
May 2023 Page 227 of 298 (AZ)

synchronously revolving (or rotating) flux, as in the case of a two- or a three-phase stator winding, fed
from a 2-or 3-phase supply. Now, an alternating or pulsating flux acting on a stationary squirrel cage
rotor cannot produce rotation (only a revolving flux can). That is why a single-phase motor is not self-
starting. However, if the rotor of such a machine is given an initial start by hand (or small motor) or
otherwise, in either direction, then immediately a torque arises and the motor accelerates to its final
speed (unless the applied torque is too high).
Fig.1 Single Phase induction motor

27.7 Single Phase Motor Classification
Such motors, which are designed to operate from a single-phase supply, are manufactured in a large
number of types to perform a wide variety of useful services in home, offices, factories, workshops and in
business establishments etc. Small motors, particularly in the fractional kilo watt sizes are better known
than any other. In fact, most of the new products of the manufacturers of space vehicles, aircrafts,
business machines and power tools etc. have been possible due to the advances made in the design of
fractional-kilowatt motors. Since the performance requirements of the various applications differ so
widely, the motor-manufacturing industry has developed many different types of such motors, each being
designed to meet specific demands. Single-phase motors may be classified as under, depending on their
construction and method of starting:
1. Induction motors (split-phase, capacitor and shaded-pole etc.)
2. Repulsion motors (sometime called inductive-series motors)
3. AC Series motor
4. Un-excited synchronous motors
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SECTION 5
THREE-PHASE MOTOR
28.7 Induction Motor

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of
an electric motor. In DC motors, the electric power is conducted directly to the armature (i.e. rotating
part) through brushes and commutator. Hence, in this sense, a DC motor can be called a conduction
motor. However, in AC motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by induction
in exactly the same way as the secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its power from the primary.
That is why such motors are known as induction motors. In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a
rotating transformer i.e. one in which primary winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate. Of
all the AC motors, the polyphase induction motor is the one which is extensively used for various kinds of
industrial drives.
Construction: An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts:
1. Stator and
2. Rotor
Fig.1. Induction motor
Fig.2 Induction motor parts
Fig.3 Rotor of induction motor
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1. Stator: The stator is made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings. The
stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound for a definite number of
poles, the exact number of poles being determined by the requirements of speed. Greater the number
of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents,
produce a magnetic flux, which is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at
synchronous. This revolving magnetic flux induces an EMF in the rotor by mutual induction.
2. Rotor: There are two types of rotors of induction motor:
(i) Squirrel cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction motors.
(ii) Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are variously known as ‘phase-
wound’ motors or ‘wound’ motors or as ‘slip-ring’ motors.
Operating Principle: When the 3-phase stator windings, are fed by a 3-phase supply then, as seen from
above, a magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at synchronous speed, is set up. The flux passes
through the air-gap, sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet, are
stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, an EMF is
induced in the latter, according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction. The frequency of the
induced EMF is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity
between the flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since the
rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced whose direction, as given by
Lenz’s law, is such as to oppose the very cause producing it. In this case, the cause which produces the
rotor current is the relative velocity between the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor
conductors. Hence, to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of
the flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux.
Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
Fig.1 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
29.7 Synchronous Motor

A synchronous motor is electrically identical with an alternator or AC generator. In fact, a given
synchronous machine may be used, at least theoretically, as an alternator, when driven mechanically or as
a motor, when driven electrically, just as in the case of DC machines. Most synchronous motors are rated
between 150kW and 15MW and run at speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.
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Fig.1 Synchronous motor
Fig.2 The rotor and the stator parts of motor
Some characteristic features of a synchronous motor are worth noting :

1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all i.e. while running it maintains a constant speed. The
only way to change its speed is to vary the supply frequency (because N s=120f /P).
2. It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous (or near synchronous) speed by
some means, before it can be synchronized to the supply.
3. It is capable of being operated under a wide range of power factors, both lagging and leading. Hence, it
can be used for power correction purposes, in addition to supplying torque to drive loads.
30.7 Operating Principle of Synchronous Motor

The operation of a synchronous motor is due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of the stator and
the rotor. Two electrical inputs are provided to synchronous motor. Its stator winding which consists of a
3-phase winding is provided with 3-phase supply and rotor is provided with DC supply. When a 3-φ
winding is fed by a 3-φ supply, then a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous
speed, is produced. The rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. Once the
rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization.
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31.7 Motor Maintenance and Troubleshooting
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May 2023 Page 233 of 298 (AZ)
32.7 Three-Phase Motor Question-Answer
(i) Enumerate the Possible Reasons if A 3-Φ Induction Motor Fails to Start.
Any one of the following reasons could be responsible:
1. One or more fuses may be blown.
2. Voltage may be too low.
3. The starting load may be too heavy.
4. Worn bearings due to which the armature may be touching field laminae, thus introducing
excessive friction.
(ii) How Can the Direction of Rotation of the 3-Φ Induction Motor be Reversed?
Answer: By transposing or changing over any two-line leads, as shown in Fig.3.
Fig.3
(iii) Can an induction motor work as a synchronous motor? In which case?

A synchronous motor works according the attraction of two magnetic fields one rotating from a static
three phase circuit (stator) the other one fixed and continuous (DC) on a rotating circuit (rotor). The
induction machine works according to reaction of a movable closed electrical circuit to a rotating
magnetic field. In the induction machine, to get a torque so to get rotation, a slip is mandatory. It is not
possible for the induction machine to work at synchronism by only reaction law (except at no load, where
the torque is so small that the slip is quite 0). But it should be possible to the induction machine to work
as synchronous machine if in the rotor we can create a fixed dc field.
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SECTION 6
MOTOR ISSUES
33.7 Fractional Horsepower Motor
A fractional horsepower motor is one which produces less than 1 horse power i.e. 746 watts during
operation; it is a motor whose total output does not quite meet the 1 horsepower standard. It is so named
because an engine producing so little power cannot be rated by the conventional horsepower scheme.
There is no minimum power rating to be considered a fractional horsepower motor; because of this, it is
the bottom floor in power ratings, with no real classification beneath it. A substantial advantage to
running a fractional horsepower motor is that it is exempt from some laws which govern more powerful
motors, such as the United States Energy Power Act of 2005, along with similar directives in the European
Union.
The primary use for fractional horsepower motors is powering small electronic and consumer devices
such as vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, and washing machines. Additionally, these motors are seen in
auxiliary devices on cars, such as in electric windows, power seats, moon and sunroofs, and windshield
wipers; roughly 35% of all fractional horsepower motor sales can be attributed to automobiles. Such
motors make the devices they power wholly independent of the actual engine in the motor vehicle; even if
the primary engine in the car stops running, the fractional horsepower motors in the vehicle can still
function, so long as the car still has a working electrical system.
Alongside their use in general consumer goods, fractional horsepower motors are used in business and
commercial applications for jobs which require a high degree of precision. A fractional horsepower motor
does not produce as much vibration as conventional high-powered motors. This allows for more
controlled use in high-precision tasks.
Stepper and servo motors are the specific types of fractional horsepower motors used in these
instances; both are specialist motors that allow for a sensitive level of inputs. Due to their sensitive nature
and high degree of accuracy — when paired with a planetary gearbox, these types of motors can be
accurate up to 2/15ths of a degree — stepper and servo motors often come at a price premium over the
conventional fractional horsepower motors seen in most consumer goods. Due to this, their use is limited
to more exclusive fields. Robotics is one of the primary ways in which these high-quality types of motors
are used.
34.7 Ingress Protection Ratings (IP Ratings)

A critical factor to consider when developing specifications for electrical equipment is the range of
environments in which the equipment will be operating in. Not only is this understanding important in
maximizing the performance, reliability, and life of the equipment but even more essential in ensuring the
safety of those handling, manufacturing, operating, or maintaining the equipment.
Ingress Protection (IP) Ratings provide standards on the levels of protection against the ingress of
external solid and liquid contaminants for electrical enclosures. With an understanding of the IP rating
required for a specific application, Power Electric ensures that our motor or gear motor solution meets
the specified IP standard.
May 2023 Page 235 of 298 (AZ)

The first digit in the IP rating refers to the level of protection against ingress of a solid object. The second
digit refers to the level of protection against liquid ingress. The table below summarizes the levels of both
solid and liquid ingress protection. For example: A motor or gear motor with an IP54 rating means it is
dust proof and provides protection against water splashed from all directions (for 5 minutes @ 10 liters
per minute flow rate at a pressure of 80-100 kPA).
How To Read Ingress Protection Ratings?
An IP rating is a combination of two numbers that indicate how well protected the enclosure is against
water and foreign objects. Use the table below to see how well protected your motor is.
Table 1: Ingress Protection Ratings
Solid Foreign Objects Water
0 – No protection 0 – No protection
1 – Protected against solid foreign objects of 50

1 – Protected against vertically falling drops
mm and greater
2 – Protected against solid foreign objects of 12,5 2 – Protected against vertically falling water drops
mm and greater when enclosure tilted up to 15°
3 – Protected against solid foreign objects of 2,5

3 – Protected against spraying water
mm and greater
4 – Protected against solid foreign objects of 1,0

4 – Protected against splashing water
mm and greater
5 – Dust-protected 5 – Protected against water jets
6 – Dust-tight 6 – Protected against powerful jets
7 – Protected against the effects of temporary

immersion in water
8 – Protected against the effects of continuous

immersion in water
9 – Protected against high pressure and

temperature water jets
An IP rating is a combination of two numbers that indicate how well protected the enclosure is against
water and foreign objects. Use the table below to see how well protected your motor is. In the example
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below, IP55 would indicate that the motor is protected against dust whilst also being protected against
water jets.
35.7 AC Drive Fundamentals

The speed of an AC motor is largely dependent upon two factors:
• Frequency of the incoming AC power
• Number of poles
The rotation speed, or RPM, of a three-phase AC induction motor is represented by the following
equation, which indicates that the RPM is inversely proportional to the number of poles (P) and
proportional to frequency (f). Motors have a fixed number of poles, which is a multiple of 2 such as 2, 4,
and 6. Since an inverter is capable of dynamically changing the DC frequency, it is most suitable for
variable-speed motor control applications.
120f
N=
P
N = speed (RPM)
f = frequency
P = number of pole pairs
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36.7 Inverter
An inverter or power inverter is a circuit or device contains this circuit that changes direct current (DC)
to alternating current (AC). Inverter circuits are used to change DC from solar power generation or
batteries to AC power and to control motors driven by AC. Inverters in solar power generation are also
called solar inverters, hybrid inverters, or DC-to-AC inverters. Inverters for motors are also called
inverter-drive or inverter-control with variable voltage and frequency.
Generally, the AC current supplied from a power source has a constant voltage and frequency, which is
standardized by the country. In order to change the voltage and frequency of the AC current to any
desired value, it is necessary to convert the AC (alternating current) electricity to DC (direct current) and
then back to AC (alternating current). This "inverter" is also used inside the AC power source.
The semiconductor devices used in inverters are called power devices. Among the power devices, IGBTs
using SiC and MOS-FETs using GaN and GaO are the most common switching devices. These are
characterized by high withstand voltage and are suitable for use under high currents.
Inverter drive is a method of controlling machinery by changing the voltage and frequency using an
inverter. Inverter drives include the motors of air conditioners and washing machines, the drive motors
of railroad cars (trains), electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles (HVs), and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHVs).
In particular, railroad cars and hybrid vehicles can utilize regenerative energy from regenerative braking,
which is attracting attention as a highly energy-efficient drive system.
Inverters used for photovoltaic cells are called solar inverters. (In Japan, they are called power
conditioners.) Solar inverters are devices that convert DC electricity generated by solar panels into AC
electricity.
Figure: Inverter block
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37.7 Torque calculation
The torque of three motors will be calculated: DC Motor, Single-Phase AC motor and Three-Phase AC
motor. Torque is nothing but a momentary force developed at the time of force is applied to the motor.
The unit of torque is N.m (Newton-meter). In other words, Torque T (N.m) is equal to the ratio between
the electrical power P(W) in watts to the acceleration. The total power rating of the motor details can be
found from the motor’s nameplate details. Absence of the power details, the power is equal to the product
of the voltage and current for DC motor and for AC motor, the product of the voltage, current and power
factor. The speed of the motor can be found by using speed measurement devices.
Hence motor torque T = P / ω
Here omega, ω=2 × π× N (rpm)
For DC Motor torque Formula:
For Calculating, Torque for DC motor
T = V×I/(2×π×N(rpm)/60)
N(rpm) is the speed of the motor
V = Input DC Voltage
I = Input DC Current
For single-phase AC motor torque formula:
T = V×I×pf/(2×π×N(rpm)/60)
V = Input AC Voltage in volts (line to neutral voltage)
I = Input AC Current in amps
For three phase AC motor torque formula:
T = √3×V×I×pf /(2×π×N(rpm)/60)
V = Input AC Voltage in volts (line to line voltage)
I = Input AC Current in amps
Also, while reducing the motor power the torque will be reduced. i.e if you are running y% of load, then
the torque would be,
T = √3×V×I×pf ×y%/(2×π×N(rpm)/60)
V = rated voltage
I =rated current
❖ Problem 1: AC 1 HP single-phase AC motor has an input voltage of 230V, the input current of 3.8
Amps and working at 2500 rpm 0.8 pf 100% load. Calculate the torque of the motor.
Apply the formula, T (N.m) = 230×3.8×0.8×100% /(2×3.14×2500/60)=2.66 N.m
The torque produced by the motor is 2.66 Nm.
Hence, 1 HP motor can produce 2.66 N.m.
❖ Problem 2: A DC motor runs at 200 rpm speed. If the power developed by the machine is 400W,
what is the torque developed?
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38.7 Selection of a Motor
The selection of a driving motor depends primarily on the conditions under which it has to operate and
the type of load it has to handle. Main guiding factors for such a selection are as follows :
1. Electrical characteristics
(i) Starting characteristics
(ii) Running characteristics
(iii) Speed control
(iv) Braking
2. Mechanical considerations
(i) Type of enclosure
(ii) Type of bearings
(iii) Method of power transmission
(iv) Type of cooling
(v) Noise level
3. Size and rating of motors
(i) Requirement for continuous, intermittent or variable load cycle
(ii) Overload capacity
4. Cost
(i) Capital cost
(ii) Running cost
In addition to the above factors, one has to take into consideration the type of current available
whether alternating or direct. However, the basic problem is one of matching the mechanical output of
the motor with the load requirement i.e. to select a motor with the correct speed/torque characteristics
as demanded by the load. In fact, the complete selection process requires the analysis and synthesis of not
only the load and the proposed motor but the complete drive assembly and the control equipment which
may include rectification or frequency changing.
39.7 Motors for Different Industrial Drives
1. DC series motor: Since it has high starting torque and variable speed, it is used for heavy duty
applications such as electric locomotives, steel rolling mills, hoists, lifts and cranes.
2. DC shunt motor: It has medium starting torque and a nearly constant speed. Hence, it is used for
driving constant-speed line shafts, lathes, vacuum cleaners, wood-working machines, laundry
washing machines, elevators, conveyors, grinders and small printing presses etc.
3. Cumulative compound motor: It is a varying-speed motor with high starting torque and is used for
driving compressors, variable-head centifugal pumps, rotary presses, circular saws, shearing
machines, elevators and continuous conveyors etc.
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4. Three phase synchronous motor: Because its speed remains constant under varying loads, it is used
for driving continuously operating equipment at constant speed such as ammonia and air
compressors, motor-generator sets, continuous rolling mills, paper and cement industries.
5. Squirrel cage induction motor: This motor is quite simple but rugged and possesses high over-load
capacity. It has a nearly constant speed and poor starting torque. Hence, it is used for low and
medium power drives where speed control is not required as for water pumps, tube wells, lathes,
drills, grinders, polishers, wood planers, fans, blowers, laundary washing machines and
compressors etc.
6. Double Squirrel Cage Motor: It has high starting torque, large overload capacity and a nearly
constant speed. Hence, it is used for driving loads which require high starting torque such as
compressor pumps, reciprocating pumps, large refrigerators, crushers, boring mills, textile
machinery, cranes, punches and lathes etc.
7. Slip ring induction motor: It has high starting torque and large overload capacity. Its speed can be
changed upto 50% of its normal speed. Hence, it is used for those industrial drives which require
high starting torque and speed control such as lifts, pumps, winding machines, printing presses, line
shafts, elevators and compressors etc.
8. Single phase synchronous motor: Because of its constant speed, it is used in teleprinters, clocks, all
kinds of timing devices, recording instruments, sound recording and reproducing systems.
9. Single phase series motor: It possesses high starting torque and its speed can be controlled over a
wide range. It is used for driving small domestic appliances like refrigerators and vacuum cleaners
etc.
10. Repulsion motor: It has high starting torque and is capable of wide speed control. Moreover, it has
high speed at high loads. Hence, it is used for drives which require large starting torque and
adjustable but constant speed as in coil winding machines.
11. Capacitor start induction run motor: It has fairly constant speed and moderately high starting
torque. Speed control is not possible. It is used for compressors, refrigerators and small portable
hoists.
12. Capacitor start and run motor. Its operating characteristics are similar to the above motor except
that it has better power factor and higher efficiency. Hence, it is used for drives requiring quiet
operations.
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40.7 Motors Used for Textile Processes
All machines used in accomplishing the different processes described above require electric motors as
their drives. Special environmental, operating and drive conditions demand specially designed motors for
textile industry.
1. Spinning Frame or Ring Frame Motors: These are required to make threads i.e. the final drawing,
twisting and winding of cotton. A normal acceleration time of 5-10 seconds is recommended. For good
quality spinning, it is essential that the starting torque of spinning motors should be moderate and
such motors must possess very smooth acceleration to eliminate breakage of threads. Low starting
torque and slower acceleration may cause snarls and knots in the yarn as a result of insufficient
tension. If the starting torque is high, the faster acceleration may cause more breakages in the yarn.
In general, three types of drives are used for spinning frame operation: single speed motor, two-speed
motor and two motor drive. Normally, a 4 pole or 6 pole squirrel cage induction motor is used as single
speed drive. In order to maximize production with minimum breakage, two speed motors (4/6 or 6/8
poles) are used. Although these motors would be larger in size and costlier, the increased production
may compensate for the additional initial outlay.
In case of two motor drive, two separate motors are used to drive the common pulley of the ring frame.
Although this drive is costlier and requires more space, it has the following advantages:
(i) Any desired speed differential can be got by adjusting the speed ratios
(ii) The tension of the yarn can be adjusted independently.
(iii) Production can be continued even when one of the motors fails. Totally enclosed fan cooled
motors ranging from 5-30kW are used a spinning motor.
2. Loom Motors: In order to accomplish the 'pick up' process in a short time, the starting torque of the
loom motor should be high being essentially a reciprocating mechanism causes both torque and
current pulsations. Also, loom motors are subjected to frequent starts and stops, these results in a
higher temperature rise and is taken care by having good thermal dissipation capacity of the motor.
(a)Surface cooled loom motor without fins (cradle mounted) (b)Loom motor with circular ribs
(cradle mounted)
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Loom motors are either totally enclosed or totally enclosed fan cooled, three phase high torque
squirrel cage induction motors. Presence of lot of fluff in the atmosphere requires a smooth surface
finish of the housing and end shields so that the fluff does not get collected on the surface of the motor.
The insulation of the motor must be able to withstand high moisture content. The ratings of the motors
used for driving looms for light fabrics such as cotton, silk, rayon, nylon etc. are 0.37 kW, 0.55 kW, 0.75
kW, 1.1 kW and 1.5 kW, while those of the motors used for making heavy fabrics (wool and canvas) are
2.2 kW and 3.7 kW. They are usually of 6 or 8 poles.
3. Card Motors: Card motors are required to have a very high starting torque and must be able to
withstand a prolonged starting period. Both the above requirements for the card motor are due to the
very high inertia of the card drum. Once the drum is started, the operation is continuous and
uninterrupting, unlike that of a loom, where frequent starts and stops are involved. The commonly
used drives for card motors are again totally enclosed and totally enclosed fan cooled three phase high
torque squirrel cage induction motors. The usual ratings of motors for cards of light fabrics are 1.1 kW
and 1.5 kW and those for cards of heavy fabrics are 2.2 kW, 3 kW, 3.7 kW and 5.5 kW. Here again, the
preferred synchronous speeds are 750 rpm and 1000 rpm.
41.7 Textile Motor Question-Answer

(ii) What is the use of induction motors in a textile mill?
In the textile mills, they use a group drive or a mixed drive. so, it is efficient and effective to control the
drive with an AC supply than DC and hence they use 3-phase induction motors.
(iii) Why is an induction motor used in textile mill drives? Why not DC drives?
In DC Motors Speed and Torque control is pretty easy. Speed is proportional to Armature Voltage and
Torque is proportional to Field Current. But DC Motor require lots of maintenance and usually they are
quite bulky.
In AC Induction Motors speed and torque control is somewhat difficult. Speed is directly proportional
to input frequency. But by using Variable Frequency Drives (VFD), Speed and torque control can be
achieved easily in AC Motors. AC Motors are easier to maintain, they are quite cheap when compared to
DC motors. (VFD + Motor set is cheaper than DC Motor).
VFD's have become popular recently (past 2 decades). Prior to that, Industries relied on DC Motors.
Nowadays, it is very rare to spot DC Motors in industries. In most applications, one can find AC Induction
Motors (With a VFD of course) due to their flexibility, ease of maintenance and cheaper installation costs.
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SECTION 7
TRANSFORMER
42.7 Working Principle of a Transformer
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit
is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the
voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a
transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest
form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a
path of low reluctance as shown in Fig.1.
Fig.1 Transformer
The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage,
an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it
produces mutually induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e = MdI/dt).
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely
magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the
a.c. supply mains, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called
secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
43.7 Transformer Question -Answer
(i) Why transformer rating in KVA?
As seen, Cu loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence, total
transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between voltage and current
i.e. it is independent of load power factor. That is why rating of transformers is in kVA and not in kW.
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(ii) What effects are produced by change in voltage?
Answer:
• Iron loss: Iron varies approximately as V 2.
• Cu loss: It also varies as V2 but decreases with an increase in voltage if constant kVA output is
assumed.
• Efficiency: For distribution transformers, efficiency at fractional loads decreases with increase in
voltage while at full load or overload it increases with increase in voltage and vice versa.
• Regulation: It varies as V2 but decreases with increase in voltage if constant kVA output is
assumed.
• Heating: For constant kVA output, iron temperatures increase whereas Cu temperatures decrease
with increase in voltages and vice-versa.
(iii) How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
Answer:
• Iron loss: It increases with a decrease in frequency. A 60Hz transformer will have nearly 11%
higher losses when worked on 50Hz instead of 60 Hz. However, when a 25Hz transformer is
worked on 60Hz, iron losses are reduced by 25%.
• Cu loss: In distribution transformers, it is independent of frequency.
• Efficiency: Since Cu loss is unaffected by change in frequency, a given transformer efficiency is less
at a lower frequency than at a higher one.
• Regulation: Regulation at unity power factor is not affected because IR drop is independent of
frequency. Since reactive drop is affected, regulation at low power factors decreases with a
decrease in frequency and vice-versa. For example, the regulation of a 25Hz transformer when
operated at 50-Hz and low power factor is much poorer.
• Heating: Since total loss is greater at a lower frequency, the temperature is increased with
decrease in frequency.
******Best of Luck******
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EEE-8
 POWER SYSTEM
 SUB-STATION
Md. Asaduz-Zaman
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208
May 2023 Page 246 of 298 (AZ)

1) Principles of Power System- By V.K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta.
2) Electric Power Systems- B. M. Weedy, B. J. Cory, N. Jenkins, Janaka B. Ekanayake, Goran Strbac.

[1] What are the advantages and disadvantages of DC transmission over AC transmission?
[2] Draw and explain the single line diagram of (i) typical power system (ii) Bangladesh power system
(iii)transformer sub-station (iv) your home/a garments factory
[3] Describe the operation of circuit breaker.
[4] Describe the working principle of a relay operated circuit breaker with proper illustration.
[5] What are the differences between fuse and circuit breaker?
[6] How to connect an MCCB with the load?
[7] Write short note on: MCB and MCCB
[8] What is sub-station? Discuss the different ways of classifying the sub-station.
[9] List the various substation equipment’s with their basic functions.
[10] What is the function of sub-station? Give the comparison of outdoor and indoor sub-stations.
[11] What is electric shock?
[12] What do you mean by grounding? Illustrate the need of equipment grounding.
[13] With a neat Sketch explain pipe and plate earthing.
[14] List the different types of switches with their applications.
[15] What are the different types of lamps available in the market? Give the specifications of a typical
lamp. What are the advantages of LED lamps?
[16] How to use lightening arrester is residential area?
[17] Explain the principles of protection of transformer and motors.
[18] What is earth fault? Explain any one method of earth fault protection.
[19] A proposed station has the following daily load cycle:
Time in hours 6-8 8-11 11-16 16-19 19-22 22-24 24-6
Load in MW 20 40 50 35 70 40 20
Draw the load curve and select suitable generator units from the 10,000, 20,000, 25,000, 30,000 kVA.
Prepare the operation schedule for the machines selected and determine the load factor from the
curve.
[20] What is power quality (P-Q)? Why maintaining power quality is important for garment production
process?
[21] What are the major causes of falling PQ? What is the current market solution available to maintain
PQ?
[22] Draw and explain the single-line diagram of an 11kV/400V indoor substation.
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CHAPTER 8
POWER SYSTEM AND SUB-STATION
If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and vibration—
Nikola Tesla
1.8 Importance of Electrical Energy

Energy may be needed as heat, as light, as motive power etc. The present-day advancement in science and
technology has made it possible to convert electrical energy into any desired form. This has given
electrical energy a place of pride in the modern world. The survival of industrial undertakings and our
social structures depends primarily upon low cost and uninterrupted supply of electrical energy. In fact,
the advancement of a country is measured in terms of per capita consumption of electrical energy.
Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons:
Convenient Form: Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily converted into
other forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy into heat, the only thing to be
done is to pass electrical current through a wire of high resistance e.g., a heater. Similarly, electrical
energy can be converted into light (e.g. electric bulb), mechanical energy (e.g. electric motors) etc.
Easy Control: The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting, control and
operation. For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on or off a switch.
Similarly, with simple arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily varied over the desired
range.
Greater Flexibility: One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility that it offers. It
can be easily transported from one place to another with the help of conductors.
Cheapness: Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus, it is overall economical
to use this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes.
Cleanliness: Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases. Therefore, its use
ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.
High Transmission Efficiency: The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated quite away
from the centers of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently
from the centers of generation to the consumers with the help of overhead conductors known as
transmission lines.
Figure 1: Significance of electricity
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2.8 Sources of Energy
Since electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature, it is desirable to look
into the various sources of energy. These sources of energy are: (i) The Sun (ii) The Wind (iii) Water (iv)
Fuels (v) Nuclear energy. Out of these sources, the energy due to Sun and wind has not been utilized on
large scale due to a number of limitations. At present, the other three sources viz., water, fuels and nuclear
energy are primarily used for the generation of electrical energy.
❖ The Sun: The Sun is the primary source of energy. The heat energy radiated by the Sun can be
focused over a small area by means of reflectors. This heat can be used to raise steam and electrical
energy can be produced with the help of turbine-alternator combination. However, this method has
limited application because:
o it requires a large area for the generation of even a small amount of electric power
o it cannot be used in cloudy days or at night
o it is an uneconomical method.
Nevertheless, there are some locations in the world where strong solar radiation is received very
regularly and the sources of mineral fuel are scanty or lacking. Such locations offer more interest to the
solar plant builders.
❖ The Wind: This method can be used where wind flows for a considerable length of time. The wind
energy is used to run the wind mill which drives a small generator. In order to obtain the electrical
energy from a wind mill continuously, the generator is arranged to charge the batteries. These
batteries supply the energy when the wind stops. This method has the advantages that maintenance
and generation costs are negligible. However, the drawbacks of this method are (a) variable output,
(b) unreliable because of uncertainty about wind pressure and (c) power generated is quite small.
❖ Water: When water is stored at a suitable place, it possesses potential energy because of the head
created. This water energy can be converted into mechanical energy with the help of water turbines.
The water turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This
method of generation of electrical energy has become very popular because it has low production and
maintenance costs.
❖ Fuels: The main sources of energy are fuels viz., solid fuel as coal, liquid fuel as oil and gas fuel as
natural gas. The heat energy of these fuels is converted into mechanical energy by suitable prime
movers such as steam engines, steam turbines, internal combustion engines etc. The prime mover
drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although fuels
continue to enjoy the place of chief source for the generation of electrical energy, yet their reserves
are diminishing day by day. Therefore, the present trend is to harness water power which is more or
less a permanent source of power.
❖ Nuclear energy: Towards the end of Second World War, it was discovered that large amount of heat
energy is liberated by the fission of uranium and other fissionable materials. It is estimated that heat
produced by 1 kg of nuclear fuel is equal to that produced by 4500 tonnes of coal. The heat
produced due to nuclear fission can be utilised to raise steam with suitable arrangements. The steam
can run the steam turbine which in turn can drive the alternator to produce electrical energy.
However, there are some difficulties in the use of nuclear energy. The principal ones are (a) high cost
May 2023 Page 249 of 298 (AZ)

of nuclear plant (b) problem of disposal of radioactive waste and dearth of trained personnel to
handle the plant.
3.8 How Does Solar Panels Work?
Figure: Solar panel diagram
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4.8 Generation of Electrical Energy
The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into electrical energy is known as
generation of electrical energy.
Electrical energy is a manufactured commodity like clothing, furniture or tools. Just as the manufacture of
a commodity involves the conversion of raw materials available in nature into the desired form, similarly
electrical energy is produced from the forms of energy available in nature. However, electrical energy
differs in one important respect. Whereas other commodities may be produced at will and consumed as
needed, the electrical energy must be produced and transmitted to the point of use at the instant it is
needed. The entire process takes only a fraction of a second. This instantaneous production of electrical
energy introduces technical and economic considerations unique to the electrical power industry.
Fig.1.1
Energy is available in various forms from different natural sources such as pressure head of water,
chemical energy of fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances etc. All these forms of energy can be
converted into electrical energy by the use of suitable arrangements. The arrangement essentially
employs (see Fig. 1.1) an
alternator coupled to a prime mover. The prime mover is driven by the energy obtained from various
sources such as burning of fuel, pressure of water, force of wind etc. For example, chemical energy of a
fuel (e.g., coal) can be used to produce steam at high temperature and pressure. The steam is fed to a
prime mover which may be a steam engine or a steam turbine. The turbine converts heat energy of steam
into mechanical energy which is further converted into electrical energy by the alternator. Similarly,
other forms of energy can be converted into electrical energy by employing suitable machinery and
equipment.
5.8 Transporting Electricity from Power Plant to Homes

Power plants generate the electricity. Then there is a network of transformers and transmission lines that
brings it to people’s homes. This network is often called the power grid, or more simply—the grid.
Generation: After the power plant generates the electricity, it is sent through a transformer.
Transformers are critical to electrical transmission because they can change the voltage of the electrical
current, making it more efficient, economical and practical to transmit. Prior to transmission through
power lines, the transformer “steps up” the voltage, which means the generated voltage is changed to a
higher voltage. This way, lower currents can transmit the same energy, thus reducing resistive loss.
Transmission: The transmission system consists of large, high-voltage power lines. The lines are ever-
present around the country, often near roadways. Sometimes, they travel underground or under the sea.
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This system can carry electricity over long distances, sometimes greater than 400 miles. In North
America, there are three major transmission systems: The Western Interconnect, The Eastern
Interconnect and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas.
Distribution: The local distribution system consists of substations and smaller, lower-voltage
distribution lines. The transformer at the substation “steps down” the voltage to a lower voltage. Then,
the system distributes the electricity from substations and transformers to households. One final
transformer steps down the voltage to 120V which is what people use in their homes.
Figure: Electricity generation, transmission and distribution
6.8 Typical AC Power Supply Scheme

The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be broadly divided
into two parts viz., transmission system and distribution system. Each part can be further sub-divided
into two—primary transmission and secondary transmission and primary distribution and secondary
distribution. Fig.1 shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply scheme by a single line diagram. It may
be noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes include all the stages shown in the figure. For
example, in a certain power scheme, there may be no secondary transmission and in another case, the
scheme may be so small that there is only distribution and no transmission.
Fig.1 Typical A.C. Power Supply Scheme

❖ Generating Station: In Fig.1, GS represents the generating station where electric power is produced
by 3 phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. For economy in the
transmission of electric power, the generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is stepped upto 132 kV (or more) at
the generating station with the help of 3-phase transformers. The transmission of electric power at
high voltages has several advantages including the saving of conductor material and high transmission
efficiency. It may appear advisable to use the highest possible voltage for transmission of electric
power to save conductor material and have other advantages. But there is a limit to which this voltage
can be increased. It is because increase in transmission voltage introduces insulation problems as well
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as the cost of switchgear and transformer equipment is increased. Therefore, the choice of proper
transmission voltage is essentially a question of economics. Generally, the primary transmission is
carried at 66 kV, 132kV, 220 kV or 400 kV.
❖ Primary Transmission: The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead
system to the outskirts of the city. This forms the primary transmission.
❖ Secondary Transmission: The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station (RS)
which usually lies at the outskirts of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by
step-down transformers. From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire
overhead system to various sub-stations (SS) located at the strategic points in the city. This forms the
secondary transmission.
❖ Primary Distribution: The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station (SS) where
voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The 11 kV lines run along the important road
sides of the city. This forms the primary distribution. It may be noted that big consumers (having
demand more than 50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with their own
sub-stations.
❖ Secondary Distribution: The electric power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is delivered to
distribution sub-stations (DS). These sub-stations are located near the consumers’ localities and step
down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution. The voltage between any two
phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase residential lighting load
is connected between any one phase and neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor load is connected
across 3-phase lines directly.
Fig. 2
It may be worthwhile to mention here that secondary distribution system consists of feeders, distributors
and service mains. Fig.2 shows the elements of low voltage distribution system. Feeders (SC or SA)
radiating from the distribution sub-station (DS) supply power to the distributors (AB, BC, CD and AD). No
consumer is given direct connection from the feeders. Instead, the consumers are connected to the
distributors through their service mains.
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7.8 Distribution Board
A distribution board is a panel or enclosure that houses the fuses, circuit breakers, and ground leakage
protection units used to distribute electrical power to numerous individual circuits or consumer points.
Main Sub-Main
Sub-Station distribution distribution Switchboard Load
board board
Generally, the distribution sub-station (DSS) feeds power to a main distribution board (MDB), which in
turn feeds one or more sub-main distribution board (SMDB). Each SMDB feeds one or more final
distribution board (FDB) or switchboard (SB), which in turn supplies the connected equipment i.e. load.
Figure: Three-Phase Distribution Board
8.8 Electrical Switch

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. In the simplest case, a switch has
two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to
complete (make) the circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit.
❖ Single pole single throw (SPST): It is simple on-off switch. The two terminals are either connected
together or disconnected from each other. An example is a light switch.
❖ Single pole double throw (SPDT): It is a simple changeover switch. COM (Common) is connected to
L1 or to L2.
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❖ Double pole single throw (DPST): It is equivalent to two SPST switches controlled by a single
mechanism.
❖ Double pole double throw (DPDT): Equivalent to two SPDT switches controlled by a single
mechanism.
❖ Two Pole Six Throw (2P6T): Changeover switch with a (COM, Common) which can connect to L1, L2,
L3, L4, L5, or L6; with a second switch (2P, two pole) controlled by a single mechanism.
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❖ Push-Button Switch: A push-button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a
machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The
surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed
or pushed. The most common type is a "push-to-make" (or normally open or NO) switch, which makes
contact when the button is pressed and breaks when the button is released. Each key of a computer
keyboard, for example, is a normally-open "push-to-make" switch. A "push-to-break" (or normally-
closed or NC) switch, on the other hand, breaks contact when the button is pressed and makes contact
when it is released. An example of a push-to-break switch is a button used to release a door held closed
by an electromagnet. The interior lamp of a household refrigerator is controlled by a switch that is held
open when the door is closed.
The "push-button" has been utilized in calculators, push-button telephones, kitchen appliances, and
various other mechanical and electronic devices, home and commercial.
In industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be connected together by a mechanical
linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop
button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual
operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator will not push
the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or process and green
for starting the machine or process.
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❖ Rotary Switch: A rotary switch is a switch operated by rotation. Rotary switches were used as channel
selectors on television receivers until the early 1970s, as range selectors on electrical metering
equipment, as band selectors on multi-band radios and other similar purposes.
In industry, rotary switches are used for control of measuring instruments, switchgear or in control
circuits.
❖ Touch Switch: A touch switch is a type of switch that only has to be touched by an object to operate.
It is used in many lamps and wall switches that have a metal exterior as well as on public computer
terminals. A touch screen includes an array of touch switches on a display. There are three types of
switches called touch switches: (a) Capacitance touch switch (b) Resistance touch switch (c) Piezo
touch switch.
❖ Knife Switch: Knife switches consist of a flat metal blade, hinged at one end, with an insulating
handle for operation and a fixed contact. When the switch is closed, current flows through the hinged
pivot and blade and through the fixed contact. Such switches are usually not enclosed. The knife and
contacts are typically formed of copper, steel, or brass, depending on the application. Knife switches
are made in many sizes from miniature switches to large devices used to carry thousands of amperes.
In electrical transmission and distribution, gang-operated switches are used in circuits up to the
highest voltages.
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The disadvantages of the knife switch are the slow opening speed and the proximity of the operator
to exposed live parts. Metal-enclosed safety disconnect switches are used for isolation of circuits in
industrial power distribution. Sometimes spring-loaded auxiliary blades are fitted which
momentarily carry the full current during opening, then quickly part to rapidly extinguish the arc.
❖ Timer Switch: Timer switch is a timer that operates an electric switch controlled by the timing
mechanism. The switch may be connected to a circuit operating from mains power, or for lower-
voltage circuits, including battery-operated equipment in vehicles. It may be built into power circuits
(as with a central heating timer), plugged into a power point with equipment plugged into the timer
instead of directly into the power point, or built into equipment as, for example, a sleep timer that
turns off a television receiver after an interval. The mechanism may be mechanical (clockwork i.e.
rarely used nowadays), electromechanical (a slowly rotating geared motor that mechanically operates
switches) or electronic, with semiconductor timing circuitry and switching devices and no moving
parts. The timer may switch equipment on, off, or both, at a preset time or times, after a preset interval,
or cyclically. A countdown time switch switches power, usually off, after a preset time. A cyclical timer
switches equipment both on and off at preset times over a period, then repeats the cycle. The period is
usually 24 hours or 7 days. For example, a central heating timer may supply heat for a specified period
during the morning and evening every weekday, and all day on weekends. A timer for an unattended
cooker may switch on automatically at a time and for a period suitable to have food ready at mealtime.
Timers may do other processing or have sensors; for example, a timer may switch on lights only during
hours of darkness, using a seasonal algorithm or light sensor.
Time switches can be used for many purposes, including saving electric energy by consuming it only
when required, switching equipment on, off, or both at times required by some process, and security (for
example switching lights in a pattern that gives the impression that premises are attended). Among
applications are lighting (interior, exterior, and street lighting), cooking devices such as ovens, washing
machines, and heating of buildings and vehicles. Built-in automatic washing machine controllers are
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examples of very complex electromechanical and electronic timers cycles, starting and stopping many
different processes including pumps and valves to fill and empty the drum with water, heating, and
rotating at different speeds, with different combinations of settings for different fabrics.
❖ Centrifugal Switch: A centrifugal switch is an electric switch that operates using the centrifugal force
created from a rotating shaft, most commonly that of an electric motor or gasoline engine. The switch is
designed to activate or de-activate as a function of the rotational speed of the shaft. Centrifugal
switches were also used in early electric fans, particularly those made in the 1900s and early 1910s. In
aircraft, a centrifugal switch is used to control the starting and ignition circuits, the governed speed
indication circuit and the overspeed protection circuit of the auxiliary power unit. This switch is
mounted inside a rotating body. This can be set to activate or deactivate a circuit as the rpm of device
increases or decreases.
❖ Pull Switch: A pull switch is a switch that is actuated by means of a chain or string. An electric pull
switch is attached to a toggle type switch: one pull to switch on and next pull to switch off. In a damp
environment, electrical pull switches have a safety advantage because the user is separated from the
electricity by a significant distance and if the lead is made of an electrically insulating material, such
as cotton string. Most commercially available pull switches use a short length of ball chain, which may
then be connected to any number of optional leads for added length or decoration. Leads for
decoration or utility are usually made of metal or plastic. They can come in many different shapes
ranging from animals, geometric shapes, or look just like a weight.
The most common use of a pull switch is to operate a ceiling electric light. The ceiling fan is another
appliance often operated by pull switches. Pull switches may be either two-position (open or closed) or
multi-position (allowing for different fan speeds or levels of illumination). This type of switch also used in
bathroom.
❖ Key Switch: A key switch is a switch that can be activated only by a key.
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Key switches are usually used in situations where access needs to be restricted to the switch's functions.
❖ Forward and Reverse Switch: Single phase motors are normally wired to be able to run in either
forward or reverse direction, with this switch we can run in either direction at the flick of the switch.
9.8 Transfer Switch

The transfer switch is an electrical switch that switches an electrical load from one source to another
source. The basic function of a transfer switch is to connect a load with the backup source when the main
primary source falls and also keep isolate the load from the primary source. If we consider a building as a
load which is taking power supply from electricity board as a primary source and it also has a generator
as a backup source then here an electrical transfer switch required which will switch the building
electrical load from primary source to the generator when the primary source goes out. There are
different types of transfer switches available, although their function almost the same. Some different
types of electrical transfer switch are,
• Open Transition Transfer Switch
• Closed Transition Transfer Switch
• Static Transfer Switch
• Soft Loading Transfer Switch
• Manual operated transfer switch
• Automatic Transfer Switch(ATS)
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Figure: Application of ATS
Figure: Connection diagram of ATS
The electrical transfer switch is used in commercial buildings, hospitals, shopping malls, companies
having both primary and backup power sources. It is also used in electrical power transmission and
distribution systems. Of course, they are different from the domestic or industrial transfer switch. Soft
loading and static transfer switches are used in UPS, sensitive electronic devices, programmable devices,
testing devices, etc.
10.8 Current Transformer

Current transformers (CTs) are used with low range ammeters to measure currents in high voltage AC
circuits where it is not practicable to connect instruments and meters directly to the lines. In addition to
insulating the instruments and meters directly to the lines, they step down the current in a known ratio.
The current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the
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line whose current to be measured. The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is
connected across the ammeter terminals.
Supply Load
Primary coil
Core
Secondary coil
Fig.1 Current transformer

11.8 Applications of Transformers
There are four principal applications of transformers viz.
❖ Power Transformers: They are designed to operate with an almost constant load which is equal to
their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full-load. This means that full-load winding
copper losses must be equal to the core losses.
❖ Distribution transformers: These transformers have variable load which is usually considerably
less than the full-load rating. Therefore, these are designed to have their maximum efficiency at
between 1/2 and 3/4 of full-load.
❖ Autotransformers: An autotransformer has only one winding and is used in cases where the ratio of
transformation (K), either step-up or step down, differs little from 1. For the same output and voltage
ratio, an autotransformer requires less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer.
Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors (reducing applied voltage during starting)
and in boosters for raising, the voltage of feeders.
❖ Instrument transformers: Current and voltage transformers are used to extend the range of a.c.
instruments.
12.8 Protective Relays

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to
isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical
quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. The electrical quantities which may
change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through the changes in
one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays.
Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the
opening of the breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.
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Fig. 8.1: Relay
A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig.8.1. This diagram shows one phase of 3-phase system for simplicity.
The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.
o First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series with the
line to be protected.
o Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
o Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either AC or DC. It consists of a source of supply, the
trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line increases to
an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing the relay to
operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit
breaker open and
isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the
circuit equipment from damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the system.
13.8 Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can (i) make or break a circuit either manually or by
remote control under normal conditions (ii) break a circuit automatically under fault conditions (iii)
make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions. Thus, a circuit breaker
incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic control for switching functions. The latter
control employs relays and operates only under fault conditions.
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Figure: Circuit breaker
Figure: Connection of circuit breaker to a single-phase load
Operating Principle: A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called
electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open
automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can be opened manually
or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the
circuit breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening
the circuit. When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck
between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production of arc not
only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause
damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to
extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a
dangerous value.
14.8 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
MCB means Miniature Circuit Breaker. MCB is an electrical protective device that can protect the
electrical circuit or equipment from two major dangerous electrical faults - 1. Overload fault 2. Short
Circuit fault. Single pole MCBs are available in different current ratings such as - 6A, 10A, 16A, 32A, etc.
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Single Pole MCB: Single pole MCBs are used where the neutral of all individual loads are connected
together and the single pole MCB is connected with the phase wire. Although single-phase MCBs have
limited applications, but they used some small and important applications. Some applications of single-
pole MCBs are - outdoor street lights, the input of control circuits, testing boards, domestic distribution
boards, etc.
Here you can see all the individual loads are common neutral connected but each has individual single
pole MCB so when any overload or short circuit fault happens with a load, then the MCB for that load only
be tripped and other loads will work normally. You can also see, some of the loads are connected with the
same rating and some of them are connected with a different rating MCB according to their requirements.
How to Do Single Pole MCB Connection?

1. First select an MCB with a proper rating which must be appropriate with your load.
2. Check the input and output side of the MCB which may be written or printed on your MCB. If there is no
mention, it is good to connect the input down the side and connect the output upside.
3. If you have multiple loads and they are connected with common neutral then make the circuit as given
above.
Figure: Single Pole MCB Connection for loads with common neutral
❖ Multiple Single Pole MCB

The above wiring diagram is mostly seen for Distribution Board in our household wiring. After the energy
meter, this distribution board is connected from where the electrical power supply is divided or supplied
to each individual room. Here the double pole MCB is the main incoming MCB. By turning it off the power
supply of the total house will be turned off. The output of each single pole MCB goes to the different
rooms. Remember that this wiring will supply only lights, fans, and small electrical equipment. When
refrigerators, washing machines, AC (Air conditioner) are used then separate double MCBs are used for
them.
In this connection, each single pole MCB may have a different or same current rating according to the
requirement. And the most important thing is that the current rating of the double pole MCB must be
greater than the total of all single-phase MCB current ratings. Here neutral of all rooms are to be
connected to the neutral link and the phase of each room is to be connected with individual MCBs.
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Figure: Single Pole MCB connection with double pole MCB
15.8 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

MCCB means moulded case circuit breaker. MCCB is an electrical protective device. The main function of
an MCCB is to protect the electrical circuit or electrical equipment from two major electrical faults:
overcurrent fault and short circuit fault. MCCB provides almost the same function as an miniature circuit
braker (MCB) just the difference is MCCB is designed for high to extremely high current. Modern MCCB
also provides extra features like adjustable tripping current function, phase failure, etc. MCCBs are mostly
used for industrial high current applications such as motor circuit, as an incoming breaker in LT panels,
CNC machines, textile machines, elevators, electric cranes, etc. MCCBs are rarely used for a particular
electrical load. They mostly used for the main incoming of large circuits, wirings, and multiple loads.
Three Pole MCCB Wiring Connection: As you see in the above figure, the MCCB has a total of 6
terminals: three input terminals and three output terminals. Generally, most of the MCCB is designed to
connect the input supply at the bottom side and output from the top side. So, you can see all the three
phases (R, Y, B) of input power supply are connected at the bottom side of the MCCB and outgoing are
connected to the top side of the MCCB. Outgoings are connected to the Busbar. A busbar is used when
multiple loads are connected to the same circuit. In the diagram, only one load is shown. The connection
procedure is given bellows:
• First, select the MCCB with proper rating according to the load.
• Connect all the phases of the power supply at the input side. There should be no loose
connection.
• Connect all the phases of the load at the output side. There also should be no loose connection.
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Figure: Three-pole MCCB wiring connection
Four Pole MCCB Connection Diagram: Here you can see the connection diagram of four-pole MCCB in
the above figure. The four pole MCCB connection is almost the same as the three-pole MCCB just the
difference the neutral should be connected at the left side as shown in the above wiring diagram. Four
pole MCCB has a total of eight (8) terminals: four input terminals and four output terminals. Here also
same, the input should be connected at the bottom side and the output should be connected at the top
side.
Figure: Four-pole MCCB wiring connection
16.8 Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)

RCCB means Residual Current Circuit Breaker. It is also a protective device it breaks the circuit when the
leakage current occurs. As RCCB cannot give protection from short circuit and overload faults so generally
RCCB is always used with MCB. The Proper RCCB connection Diagram with MCB is given below. Mainly
the RCCB has two current rating
• Rated Current like 16A,20A, up to 125A
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• Rated I∆n Sensitivity like 10mA, 30mA, 100mA
The rated current indicates that the RCCB will be not damaged up to this rating current. For example, a
20A RCCB can withstand 20A current that means when more than 20A current flowing through it will be
damaged.
Now, suppose an RCCB has Rated I∆n Sensitivity 10mA that means when 10mA or more than 10mA
leakage current occurs the RCCB will be Trip. So always select the rated current of the RCCB more than
MCB current rating. For example, if you use 20A MCB then you must use the RCCB of more than 20A rated
current rating. If you use RCCB of current rating less than MCB current rating then the RCCB will be
damaged.
Figure: RCCB connection Diagram with MCB
17.8 Fuse
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows through
it and thus breaks the circuit.
❖ Advantages
(i) It is the cheapest form of protection available.
(ii) It requires no maintenance.
(iii) Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which requires a
elaborate equipment for automatic action.
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(iv) It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.
(v) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.
(vi) The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for overcurrent protection.
(vii) The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit breakers.
❖ Disadvantages
(i) Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
(ii) On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless there is
sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
(iii) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of the protected
apparatus.
❖ Desirable Characteristics of Fuse: The function of a fuse is to carry the normal current without
overheating but when the current exceeds its normal value, it rapidly heats up to melting point and
disconnects the circuit protected by it. In order that it may perform this function satisfactorily, the
fuse element should have the following desirable characteristics:
• Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
• High conductivity e.g., silver, copper.
• Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.
• Low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.
The above discussion reveals that no material possesses all the characteristics. For instance, lead has low
melting point but it has high specific resistance and is liable to oxidation. Similarly, copper has high
conductivity and low cost but oxidises rapidly. Therefore, a compromise is made in the selection of
material for a fuse.
18.8 Difference Between Fuse and Circuit Breaker

Particular Fuse Circuit breaker
1. Function It performs both detection and It performs interruption function
interruption functions. only. The detection of fault is made
by relay system.
2. Operation Inherently completely automatic Requires elaborate equipment (i.e.
relays) for automatic action.
3. Breaking capacity Small Very large
4. Operating time Very small (0·002 sec or so) Comparatively large (0·1 to 0·2sec)
5. Replacement Requires replacement after every No replacement after operation.
operation.
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19.8 Underground Cable
An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation
and surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to
be used will depend upon the working voltage and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfil the
following necessary requirements:
❖ The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of high conductivity.
Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more current.
❖ The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current without overheating
and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
❖ The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety and
reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
❖ The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the rough
use in laying it.
❖ The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete chemical and
physical stability throughout.
Fig.1 Underground cable
The above figure shows the general construction of a 3-conductor cable. The various parts are:
❖ Cores or Conductors: A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the
type of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown in figure is used for
3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are usually stranded in
order to provide flexibility to the cable.
❖ Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of
layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used materials for
insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral compound.
❖ Metallic Sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or
alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is provided over the
insulation as shown in figure.
❖ Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous material like
jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and
from mechanical injury due to armouring.
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❖ Armouring: Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanised steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while
laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may not be done in the case of some cables.
❖ Serving: In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material (like
jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving.
It may not be out of place to mention here that bedding, armouring and serving are only applied to the
cables for the protection of conductor insulation and to protect the metallic sheath from mechanical
injury.
20.8 Switchgear
The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is
known as switchgear. The term ‘switchgear’ is a generic term that includes a wide range of switching
devices like circuit breakers, switches, switch fuse units, off-load isolators, HRC fuses,
contactors, miniature circuit breakers, ELCBs, GFCIs etc. It also includes the combination of these
switching devices with associated control, measuring, protecting and regulating equipment. The
switchgear devices and their assemblies are used in connection with the generation, transmission,
distribution, and conversion of electrical energy. We all are familiar with low voltage switches and re-
wirable fuses in our homes. Switches are used for opening and closing an electric circuit while fuses are
used for over-current and short-circuit protection. In such a way, every electrical device wants a
switching and a protecting device. Various forms of switching and protective devices have been
developed. Thus switchgear can be taken as a general term covering a wide range of equipment
concerned with the switching, protection, and control of various electrical equipment.
❖ Function of a Switchgear
Switchgear has to perform the functions of carrying, making and breaking the normal load current like a
switch.
In addition, it has to perform the function of clearing the fault current for which sensing devices like
current transformers, potential transformers and various types of relays, depending on the application,
are employed. There also has to be provision for metering, controlling and data, wherein innumerable
devices are used for achieving the switching function. Thus switchgear can include circuit
breaker, current transformers, potential transformers, protective relays, measuring instruments,
switches, fuses, MCBs, surge arrestors, isolators, and various associated types of equipment.
❖ Components of Switchgear
Switchgear essentially consists of switching and protecting devices such as switches, fuses,
isolators, circuit breakers, protective relays, control panels, lightning arrestors, current transformers,
potential transformers, auto reclosures, and various associated equipment. Some types of equipment are
designed to operate under both normal and abnormal conditions. Some equipment is meant for switching
and not sensing the fault. During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or off generators,
transmission lines, distributors and other electrical equipment. On the other hand, when a
failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of the power system, a heavy current flows through the
equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the customers. However,
May 2023 Page 271 of 298 (AZ)

the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy section from the system. Similarly,
switching and current interrupting devices play a significant role in the modern electrical network, right
from generating stations, transmission substations at different voltages, distribution substations, and
load centers. The switching device here is called a circuit breaker. The circuit breaker, along with
associated devices for protection, metering, and control regulation, is called switchgear.
❖ Evolution of Switchgear
The switchgear equipment is essentially concerned with switching and interrupting currents either under
normal or abnormal operating conditions. The tumbler switch with ordinary fuse is the simplest form of
switchgear and was used to control and protect lights and other equipment in homes, offices, etc. For
circuits of a higher rating, a high-rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) fuse in conjunction with a switch may serve
the purpose of controlling and protecting the circuit. However, such switchgear cannot be used profitably
on a high voltage system (33 kV) for two reasons. Firstly, when a fuse blows, it takes some time to
replace it and consequently, there is an interruption of service to the customers. Secondly, the fuse cannot
successfully interrupt large fault currents that result from the faults on the high voltage system. With the
advancement of the power system, lines and other equipment operate at high voltages and carry large
currents. When a short circuit occurs on the system, a heavy current flowing through the equipment may
cause considerable damage. In order to interrupt such heavy fault currents, automatic circuit breakers (or
simply circuit breakers) are used. A circuit breaker is one switchgear which can open or close an
electrical circuit under both normal and abnormal conditions. Even in instances where a fuse is adequate,
as regards to breaking capacity, a circuit breaker may be preferable. It is because a circuit breaker can
close circuits, as well as break them without replacement and thus has a wider range of use altogether
than a fuse.
21.8 Essential Features of Switchgear

Switchgear following features: Complete Reliability, absolutely certain discrimination, quick operation
and provision for manual control.
• Complete reliability: With the continued trend of interconnection and the increasing capacity of
generating stations, the need for reliable switchgear has become of paramount importance. This is
not surprising because it is added to the power system to improve reliability. When a fault occurs on
any part of the power system, they must operate to isolate the faulty section from the remainder
circuit.
• Absolutely Certain Discrimination: When a fault occurs on any section of the power system,
the switchgear must be able to discriminate between the faulty section and the healthy section. It
should isolate the faulty section from the system without affecting the healthy section. This will
ensure continuity of supply.
• Quick Operation: When a fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear must operate
quickly so that no damage is done to generators, transformers and other equipment by the short-
circuit currents. If the fault is not cleared quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts, thus
endangering complete shutdown of the system.
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• Provision for Manual Control: Switchgear must have provision for manual control. In case the
electrical (or electronics) control fails, the necessary operation can be carried out through manual
control.
22.8 Classification of Switchgear

Based on Voltage level: Switchgear can be classified on the basis of the voltage level into the following:
Low voltage (LV) Switchgear, Medium voltage (MV) Switchgear and High voltage (HV) Switchgear.
❖ Low Voltage Switchgear: Switchgear for low voltage applications is generally rated up to 1000 V AC
and 1500V DC. The commonly used low voltage devices include oil circuit breakers(OCBs), air circuit
breakers (ACBs), switch fuse units (SFUs), off-load isolators, HRC fuses, earth leakage circuit breakers
(ELCBs), Residual Current Protective Devices (RCCB & RCBO), miniature circuit breakers
(MCB) and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV
system. The most common use of this is in LV distribution board.
❖ Medium Voltage Switchgear: Switchgear for medium voltage applications is rated from 3.3 kV to 33
kV class. Medium voltage switchgear is mainly used for the distribution of electrical energy connected
to various electrical networks. They include most of the substation equipment such as minimum oil
circuit breakers, bulk oil circuit breakers, air magnetic, SF6 gas-insulated, vacuum, and gas-insulated
switchgear. They may metal-enclosed indoor type, metal-enclosed outdoor type, outdoor type
without a metal enclosure, etc. The interruption medium maybe oil, SF6, and vacuum. The main
requirement of MV power network is to interrupt the current during faulty condition irrespective of
what type of CB is used in the system. Although it may be capable of functioning in other conditions
also. Medium voltage switchgear should be capable of,
▪ Normal ON/OFF switching operation.
▪ Short circuit current interruption.
▪ Switching of capacitive currents.
▪ Switching of inductive currents.
▪ Some special application.
❖ High Voltage Switchgear: The power system deals with the voltage above 36kV is referred to as high
voltage. As the voltage level is high the arcing produced during switching operation is also very high.
So, special care to be taken during designing of high voltage switchgear. High voltage circuit
breakers (such as SF6 Circuit breaker or Vacuum Circuit breaker) are the main component of HV
switchgear. Hence high voltage circuit breaker should have special features for safe and reliable
operation. Faulty tripping and switching operation of high voltage circuit breakers are comparatively
very rare. Most of the time these circuit breakers remain at ON condition and may be operated after a
long period of time. So, Circuit Breakers must be reliable enough to ensure safe operation, as when
required.
Based on Indoor and Outdoor: The main components of switchgear are circuit breakers, switches, bus-
bars, instruments and instrument transformers. It is necessary to house the switchgear in power stations
and substations in such a way so as to safeguard personnel during operation and maintenance and to
May 2023 Page 273 of 298 (AZ)

ensure that the effects of fault on any section of the gear are confined to a limited region. Depending upon
the voltage to be handled, switchgear may be broadly classified into:
• Outdoor type Switchgear
• Indoor type Switchgear
❖ Outdoor Switchgear: For voltages beyond 66 kV, we install outdoor switchgear equipment. It is
because, for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the space required for switches,
circuit breakers, transformers, and others equipment become so great that it is not economical to
install all such equipment indoor. The circuit breakers, isolators, transformers, bus-bars, and all
other substation equipment occupy considerable space on account of large electrical clearance
associated with high voltages.
❖ Indoor Switchgear: For voltages below 66 kV, switchgear is generally installed indoor because of
economic considerations. It is generally of metal-clad type. In this type of construction, all live parts
are completely enclosed in an earthed metal casing. The primary object of this practice is the definite
localization and restriction of any fault to its place of origin.
23.8 Switchgear Equipment
Switchgear covers a wide range of equipment concerned with switching and interrupting currents under
both normal and abnormal conditions. It includes switches, fuses, circuit breakers, relays, current
transformer, and other equipment. A brief account of these devices is given below.
❖ Switches: A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way.
It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents. When
the contacts of a switch are opened, an arc is produced in the air between the contacts. This is
particularly true for circuits of high voltage and large current capacity. The switches may be classified
into: air switches and oil switches. The contacts of the former are opened in the air and that of the
latter is opened in oil.
Air-break switch: It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load. In order to quench
the arc that occurs on opening such a switch, special arcing horns are provided. Read different types
of air brake switch.
Isolator or disconnecting switch: It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit
under no load.
Oil switches: As the name implies, the contacts of such switches are opened under
oil, usually transformer oil.
Fig: Air Brake Switch
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❖ Electrical Fuses: A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current
flows through it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. When a
short circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse element increases beyond its rated
capacity. This raises the temperature and the fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the
circuit protected by it.
Fig: Electrical Fuses Switchgear

❖ Circuit Breakers: A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all
conditions viz. no-load, full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated
manually (or by remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions.
For the latter operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.
Low Voltage Circuit Breakers: miniature circuit breaker, moulded case circuit breaker, residual
current circuit breaker, ground fault circuit interrupter.
High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Vacuum circuit breaker, sf6 circuit breaker, oil circuit breaker, air
blast circuit breaker
❖ Protective Relays: Protective relays are vital parts of the switchgear equipment. A relay is a device
which detects the fault and supplies information to the breaker for circuit interruption. The function
of a protective relay is to initiate a signal to circuit breakers for disconnecting the elements of the
power system when it develops a fault. When a fault occurs the relay contacts are closed and the trip
coil of the circuit breaker is energized to open the contacts of the circuit breaker. There have been
rapid developments in relaying technology during the last two decades. The most important
advancement has been due to the advent of computer technology which has helped in
the development of numerical relays.
❖ Instrument Transformers: Instrument transformers (current transformer and voltage transformer)
are used in switchgear installations for the measurement of electrical parameters for protection and
metering purposes. An instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially
proportional to the primary current and differs in phase from it by approximately zero degrees is
called a current transformer (CT). A voltage transformer (VT) is an instrument transformer in which
the secondary voltage is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it
by approximately zero degrees.
❖ Surge Arresters: Surge Suppressors or Surge Arrestors are very important components of
switchgear and substation installations. These are used to protect the substation equipment from
temporary over-voltages, switching impulses, and lightning impulses, and to a certain extent, very
May 2023 Page 275 of 298 (AZ)

fast transient over-voltages. Historically, spark gaps with air insulation were used as surge
suppressors. Lightning arrestors, surge capacitors, surge suppressing reactors, and thyrite resistors
with series gaps were used in the past for this purpose. Innovation in this field has resulted in the
advent of two commonly used types, viz. the metal oxide-based (ZnO) type and C-R type of surge
arrestors/ suppressors.
❖ Auto Reclosures and sectionalizes: Auto reclosures and sectionalisers are used in the distribution
networks of medium voltage switchgear up to 33 kV class. These equipment are useful for the fast
automatic restoration of supply following transient faults in the system. The faults may be due to
frequent lightning surges and in areas where power lines run through forests and trees. These types
of equipment are extensively used in the continents of America and Australia due to their distinct
advantages over conventional switchgear.
❖ Disconnect Switch/Isolator: Disconnect switches (Isolators) are devices which are generally
operated off-load to provide isolation of main plant items for maintenance, on to isolate faulted
equipment from other live equipment. Air Insulated or open terminal disconnectors are available in
several forms for different applications. At the lower voltages, single break types are usual with either
‘rocker’ type or single end rotating post types being predominant. At higher voltages, rotating center
post, double end rotating post, vertical break, and pantograph type disconnectors are more common.
Air break switches are used in lower voltage to disconnect on load.
24.8 Sub-Station
The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.)
of electric supply is called a sub-station. Sub-stations are important part of power system. The continuity
of supply depends to a considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations. It is, therefore,
essential to exercise utmost care while designing and building a sub-station.
25.8 Classification of Sub-Stations
There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most important ways of classifying
them are according to service requirement and constructional features.
According to service requirement: A sub-station may be called upon to change voltage level or improve
power factor or convert a.c. power into d.c. power etc. According to the service requirement, sub-stations
may be classified into:
o Transformer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the voltage level of electric supply are
called transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive power at some voltage and deliver it at
some other voltage. Obviously, transformer will be the main component in such sub-stations. Most of
the sub-stations in the power system are of this type.
o Switching sub-stations: These sub-stations do not change the voltage level i.e. incoming and outgoing
lines have the same voltage. However, they simply perform the switching operations of power lines.
o Power factor correction sub-stations: Those sub-stations which improve the power factor of the
system are called power factor correction sub-stations. Such sub-stations are generally located at the
receiving end of transmission lines. These sub-stations generally use synchronous condensers as the
power factor improvement equipment.
May 2023 Page 276 of 298 (AZ)

o Frequency changer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the supply frequency are known
as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change may be required for industrial utilization.
o Converting sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change a.c. power into d.c. power are called
converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive a.c. power and convert it into d.c. power with
suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for such purposes as traction, electroplating, electric
welding etc.
o Industrial sub-stations: Those sub-stations which supply power to individual industrial concerns are
known as industrial sub-stations.
According to constructional features: A sub-station has many components (e.g. circuit breakers,
switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable
service. According to constructional features, the sub-stations are classified as: Indoor sub-station,
outdoor sub-station, underground sub-station and pole-mounted sub-station.
o Indoor sub-stations: For voltages up to 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is installed indoor
because of economic considerations. However, when the atmosphere is contaminated with impurities,
these sub-stations can be erected for voltages up to 66 kV.
o Outdoor sub-stations: For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invariably installed outdoor. It is
because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the space required for switches,
circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great that it is not economical to install the
equipment indoor.
o Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building
is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the sub-station is created underground.
o Pole-mounted sub-stations: This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment installed overhead on H-
pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-station for voltages not exceeding 11kV (or 33
kV in some cases). Electric power is almost distributed in localities through such sub-stations.
26.8 Comparison Between Indoor and Outdoor Sub-Stations

The comparison between outdoor and indoor sub-stations is given below in the tabular form:
SI Particular Indoor Sub-station Outdoor Sub-station

1. Space required Less More
2. Time required for erection More Less
3. Future extension Difficult Easy
4. Fault location Difficult because the Easier because the
equipment is enclosed equipment is in full view
5. Capital cost High Low
6. Operation Easier Difficult
7. Possibility of fault escalation More Less because greater
clearances can be
provided
May 2023 Page 277 of 298 (AZ)

Fig. Indoor Sub-station
Fig. Outdoor Sub-station
27.8 Transformer Sub-station

The equipment required for a transformer sub-station depends upon the type of sub-station, service
requirement and the degree of protection desired. However, in general, a transformer sub-station has the
following main equipment:
❖ Bus-bars: When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected
electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus-bars are copper or
aluminium bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at constant voltage. The incoming
and outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the bus-bars.
❖ Insulators: The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors (or bus-bars) and
confine the current to the conductors. The most commonly used material for the manufacture of
insulators is porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension type, post
insulator etc.) and their use in the sub-station will depend upon the service requirement. For
example, post insulator is used for bus-bars. A post insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron
cap and flanged cast iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that bus-bars can be directly bolted
to the cap.
❖ Isolating Switches: In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general
maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator. An isolator is
May 2023 Page 278 of 298 (AZ)

essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load. In other words, isolator
switches are operated only when the lines in which they are connected carry no current. For example,
consider that the isolators are connected on both sides of a circuit breaker. If the isolators are to be
opened, the C.B. must be opened first.
❖ Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under normal
as well as fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control)
under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the latter operation, a relay
circuit is used with a circuit breaker. Generally, bulk oil circuit breakers are used for voltages upto
66kV while for high (>66 kV) voltages, low oil circuit breakers are used. For still higher voltages, air-
blast, vacuum or SF6 circuit breakers are used.
❖ Power Transformers: A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or step-down the
voltage. Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-stations use step-down transformers to
gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally deliver it at utilization voltage. The modern
practice is to use 3-phase transformers in sub-stations, although 3 single phase bank of transformers
can also be used. The use of 3-phase transformer (instead of 3 single phase bank of transformers)
permits two advantages. Firstly, only one 3-phase load-tap changing mechanism can be used.
Secondly, its installation is much simpler than the three single phase transformers.
The power transformer is generally installed upon lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having
foundations 1 to 1·5 m deep. For ratings upto 10 MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed transformers
are used. For higher ratings, the transformers are generally air blast cooled.
❖ Instrument Transformers: The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and carry current of
thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and protective devices are designed for low
voltages (generally 110 V) and currents (about 5 A). Therefore, they will not work satisfactorily if
mounted directly on the power lines. This difficulty is overcome by installing instrument
transformers on the power lines. The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer
voltages or currents in the power lines to values which are convenient for the operation of measuring
instruments and relays. There are two types of instrument transformers viz.
(i) Current transformer (C.T.)
(ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
(i) Current Transformer (CT): A current transformer in essentially a step-up transformer which steps
down the current to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of one or more turns of
thick wire connected in series with the line. The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine
wire and provides for the measuring instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of
the current in the line. Suppose a current transformer rated at 100/5 A is connected in the line to
measure current. If the current in the line is 100 A, then current in the secondary will be 5A.
Similarly, if current in the line is 50A, then secondary of C.T. will have a current of 2·5 A. Thus the C.T.
under consideration will step down the line current by a factor of 20.
(ii) Voltage Transformer: It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the voltage to a
known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire
connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few turns and provides for measuring
May 2023 Page 279 of 298 (AZ)

instruments and relays a voltage which is a known fraction of the line voltage. Suppose a potential
transformer rated at 66kV/110V is connected to a power line. If line voltage is 66kV, then voltage
across the secondary will be 110 V.
❖ Metering and Indicating Instruments: There are several metering and indicating instruments (e.g.
ammeters, voltmeters, energy meters etc.) installed in a sub-station to maintain watch over the
circuit quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably used with them for satisfactory
operation.
❖ Miscellaneous Equipment: In addition to above, there may be following equipment in a sub-station:
(i) fuses (ii) carrier-current equipment (iii) sub-station auxiliary supplies.
28.8 Single Line Diagram of 11kV/0.4kV Indoor Substation

Substation provides the energy supply for the local area in which the line is located. The main function of
the substation is to collect the energy transmitted at high voltage from the generating station and then
reduce the voltage to an appropriate value for local distribution and gives facilities for switching. The
substation is of two types one is the simple switching type where the different connection between
transmission line are made and the other is the converting stations which convert AC to DC or vice versa
or convert frequency from higher to lower or lower to higher. The substation has an additional function
like they provide points where safety devices may be installed to disconnect equipment or circuit in the
event of the fault. The synchronous condenser is placed at the end of the transmission line for improving
the power factor and for measuring the operation at the various part of the power system. Street lighting,
as well as the switching control for street lighting, can be installed in a substation. The single line diagram
of an 11 KV substation is shown in the figure below. The single line diagram makes the system easy and it
provides the facilitates reading of the electrical supply and connection.
May 2023 Page 280 of 298 (AZ)

Figure: Key Diagram Of 11/0.4kv Substation
The working of the electrical equipment used in the 11kV substation is explained below in details.
❖ Isolator: The isolator connects or disconnects the incoming circuit when the supply is already
interrupted. It is also used for breaking the charging current of the transmission line. The isolator is
placed on the supply side of the circuit breaker so that the circuit breaker isolated from the live parts
of the maintenance.
❖ Lightning Arrester: The lightning arrester is a protective device which protects the system from
lightning effects. It has two terminals one is high voltage and the other is the ground voltage. The high
voltage terminal is connected to the transmission line and the ground terminal passes the high
voltage surges to earth.
❖ CT Metering: The metering CT measure and records the current when their secondary terminal is
connected to the metering equipment panel.
❖ Step-down Transformer: The step-down transformer converts the high voltage current into the low
voltage current.
❖ Capacitor Bank: The capacitor bank consists series or parallel connection of the capacitor. The main
function of the capacitor bank is to improve the power factor of the line. It draws the leading current
to the line by reducing the reactive component of the circuit.
❖ Circuit Breaker: The circuit breaker interrupts the abnormal or faults current to flow through the
line. It is the type of electrical switch which open or closes the contacts when the fault occurs in the
system.
May 2023 Page 281 of 298 (AZ)

29.8 Single Line Diagram of an Electrical Substation
The single line diagram of the 33kv substation is depicted in the figure below. The connection of the
substation is divided as
▪ Incoming or power feeder connection (33kv Incoming Line)
▪ Power transformer connection via Lighting Arrestor & Busbar
▪ Voltage transformer connection for control and metering.
▪ Outgoing feeder for feeding the other subsequent substations or switchgear.
▪ Circuit Breaker & Isolator between the incoming and the outgoing lines.
Figure: Single Line Diagram of Substation
On the incoming 33kV incoming feeder line side, the transformer is connected to the bus bar and the
lightning or surge arresters are connected as a phase to the ground as the initial connection equipment. A
circuit breaker is connected between the 11kv bus-bar and each incoming and outgoing circuit with the
support of the isolator being provided on each side of the circuit breaker.
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30.8 Symbols for Equipment in Sub-Station
It is a usual practice to show the various elements (e.g. transformer, circuit breaker, isolator, instrument
transformers etc.) of a sub-station by their graphic symbols in the connection schemes. Symbols of
important equipment in sub-station are given below:
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31.8 Electric Shock
Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a
sufficient current through the skin, muscles, or hair. Typically, the expression is used to describe an
injurious exposure to electricity. Very small currents can be imperceptible. Larger current passing
through the body may make it impossible for a shock victim to let go of an energized object. Still larger
currents can cause fibrillation of the heart and damage to tissues. Death caused by an electric shock is
called electrocution.
It is generally believed that currents below 5 mA are not dangerous. Between 10 mA and 20 mA, the
current is dangerous because the victim loses muscular control. The resistance of the human body, taken
between two hands or between one hand and a leg ranges from 500 Ω to 50 kΩ. If the resistance of human
body is assumed to be 20 kΩ, then momentary contact with a 230 V line can be potentially fatal.
230V
IL = = 11.5mA
20K
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) and frequency. A person
can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10mA, AC current
passing through the arm of a 68 kg (150 lb) human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is
unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go
threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.
The current may, if it is high enough, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which leads to cardiac arrest;
more than 30 mA of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or 300 – 500 mA of DC can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric
May 2023 Page 284 of 298 (AZ)

shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it
usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away
from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that
the currents take. If the voltage is less than 200 V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum
corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock—the passing
of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however.
If the voltage is above 450–600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection offered by
the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above
the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.
If an electrical circuit is established by electrodes introduced in the body, bypassing the skin, then the
potential for lethality is much higher if a circuit through the heart is established. This is known as a
microshock. Currents of only 10 µA can be sufficient to cause fibrillation in this case. This is a concern in
modern hospital settings when the patient is connected to multiple devices. This can actually have a very
serious effect on the human body.
32.8 Grounding
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of electrical equipment or
some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing. Grounding or earthing
may be classified as:
Equipment grounding: Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current carrying metal parts
of the electrical equipment.
System grounding: The process of connecting some electrical part of the power system (e.g. neutral
point of a star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil)
is called system grounding.
33.8 Importance of Electrical Equipment Grounding

In power system, grounding or earthing means connecting frame of electrical equipment (non-current
carrying part) or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system, one
conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth i.e. soil. This connection to earth may be
through a conductor or some other circuit element (e.g. a resistor, a circuit breaker etc.) depending upon
the situation. Regardless of the method of connection to earth, grounding or earthing offers two principal
advantages.
• First, it provides protection to the power system. For example, if the neutral point of a star-connected
system is grounded through a circuit breaker and phase to earth fault occurs on any one line, a large
fault current will flow through the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker will open to isolate the faulty
line. This protects the power system from the harmful effects of the fault.
• Secondly, earthing of electrical equipment (e.g. domestic appliances, hand-held tools, industrial
motors etc.) ensures the safety of the persons handling the equipment. For example, if insulation fails,
there will be a direct contact of the live conductor with the metallic part (i.e. frame) of the equipment.
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Any person in contact with the metallic part of this equipment will be subjected to a dangerous
electrical shock which can be fatal.
We are frequently in touch with electrical equipment of all kinds, ranging from domestic appliances
and hand-held tools to industrial motors. We shall illustrate the need of effective equipment
grounding by considering a single-phase circuit composed of a 230V source connected to a motor M
as shown in Fig. 26.1. Note that neutral is solidly grounded at the service entrance. In the interest of
easy understanding, we shall divide the discussion into three heads viz.
❖ Ungrounded enclosure
❖ Enclosure connected to neutral wire
❖ Ground wire connected to enclosure.
❖ Ungrounded enclosure: Fig. 26.1 shows the case of ungrounded metal enclosure. If a person touches
the metal enclosure, nothing will happen if the equipment is functioning correctly. But if the winding
insulation becomes faulty, the resistance R e between the motor and enclosure drops to a low value(a
few hundred ohms or less). A person having a body resistance R b would complete the current path as
shown in Fig. 26.1. If Re is small (as is usually the case when insulation failure of winding occurs), the
leakage current IL through the person’s body could be dangerously high. As a result, the person would
get severe electric shock which may be fatal. Therefore, this system is unsafe.
Fig.26.1
❖ Enclosure connected to neutral wire: It may appear that the above problem can be solved by
connecting the enclosure to the grounded neutral wire as shown in Fig. 26.2. Now the leakage current
IL flows from the motor, through the enclosure and straight back to the neutral wire (Fig.26.2).
Therefore, the enclosure remains at earth potential. Consequently, the operator would not experience
any electric shock.
Fig. 26.2
The trouble with this method is that the neutral wire may become open either accidentally or due to
a faulty installation. For example, if the switch is inadvertently in series with the neutral rather than
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the live wire (Fig. 26.3), the motor can still be turned on and off. However, if someone touched the
enclosure while the motor is off, he would receive a severe electric shock (Fig. 26.3). It is because
when the motor is off, the potential of the enclosure rises to that of the live conductor.
Fig.26.3
❖ Ground wire connected to enclosure: To get rid of this problem, we install a third wire, called
ground wire, between the enclosure and the system ground as shown in Fig. 26.4. The ground wire
may be bare or insulated. If it is insulated, it is coloured green.
Fig. 26.4
34.8 Lightening Arrester

The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system against direct lightning
strokes but they fail to provide protection against travelling waves which may reach the terminal
apparatus. The Lightning Arresters or surge diverter provide protection against such surges. Thus, a
lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device which conducts the high voltage surges on the
power system to the ground. Fig. 24.8 (ii) shows the basic form of a surge diverter. It consists of a spark
gap in series with a non-linear resistor. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the
equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively grounded. The length of the gap is so set that
normal line voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap but a dangerously high voltage will break
down the air insulation and form an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its resistance
decreases as the voltage (or current) increases and vice-versa. This is clear from the *volt/amp
characteristic of the resistor shown in Fig. 24.8 (iii).
Operation: Under normal operation, the lightning arresters is off the line i.e., it conducts no current to
earth or the gap is non-conducting. On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across the gap
breaks down and an arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this
way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted through the arrester to the
ground instead of being sent back over the line. It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear
resistor in the operation of arrester. As the gap sparks over due to overvoltage, the arc would be a short-
circuit on the power system and may cause power-follow current in the arrester. Since the characteristic
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of the resistor is to offer high resistance to high voltage (or current), it prevents the effect of a short-
circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers high resistance to make the gap non-conducting.
Figure 24.8 Lightening Arrester (i) location in home (ii) form of a surge diverter (iii) non-linear
charateristics of resistor
35.8 Power Quality (P-Q)

Power quality refers to compatibility. It is the concept of powering and grounding electric equipment in a
manner that is suitable to its operation. When your equipment operates as intended and without
disruption, there is a compatible environment between the power source and the end use.
❖ What is a power quality disturbance?
A power quality disturbance is any change in the power (voltage, current or frequency), that interferes
with the normal operation of electrical equipment. There are several power quality disturbance types,
which may be manifested in many ways. These events may cause lights to flicker, circuit breakers to trip,
alarms to sound, processes to shut down, etc.
❖ Why is power quality so important?
Power quality disturbances have been present since we began using electrical energy; however,
yesterday's equipment was more forgiving of disturbances than todays. As manufacturers continue to
reduce the size of circuits and components within their equipment, they are also reducing the voltage
required to supply these components. The result is equipment that is faster and more powerful, but also
more sensitive to power fluctuations. Power quality is very important to anyone who relies on equipment
and systems that are sensitive to electrical disturbances. The impact of power quality disturbances can be
substantial even the smallest variation can have significant implications for your business in the form of
lost time, productivity and revenue.
❖ What are the causes of power quality disturbances?

Normal operation of the utility system is responsible for creating some power quality disturbances. But
only a small portion of our customers are truly impacted by these events. While extensive system
improvements could potentially limit but not eliminate these occurrences, this approach is impractical
due to the tremendous costs that would be incurred by all of our customers. The majority of power
quality disturbances originate from conditions within the business or industrial facility. Large motors, arc
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welders, fluorescent lights, variable speed drives and even copiers and fax machines can all create power
disturbances that negatively impact your operations.
❖ How do I know if my business is at risk of power quality disturbances?
If you have ever experienced any of the following, you may have a power quality concern:
o Lights dim or blink
o Personal computers shut down, lock up and/or restart
o Equipment mis-operates at the same time each day
o Circuit breakers trip without being overloaded
o Equipment fails during thunderstorms
o Automated systems stop for no apparent reason
o Electronic systems fail to operate
o The operation of one piece of equipment appears to affect the operation of another
o Transformers and other equipment overheat without being overloaded
o Alarms on individual pieces of equipment are activated
❖ What steps can I take to protect my facility and equipment from power quality disturbances?
Most problems are either internal equipment problems or customer wiring problems. Other problems
may be external to the facility. You may also have problems at one piece of equipment that is related to
the operation of other equipment in your facility. Steps for troubleshooting power quality disturbances
should be addressed in the planning stages so that you can resolve the problem both effectively and
efficiently.
❖ What are the commonly used terms that describe the parameters of electrical power that
describe or measure power quality?
Voltage
Voltage sags Interruptions Swells Brownouts
variations
Voltage
Blackouts Distortion Harmonics Harmonic resonance
imbalance
Interharmonics Notching Noise Impulse Spikes (Voltage)
Common mode Electromagnetic

Ground noise Critical load Crest factor
noise compatibility
Dropout Fault Flicker Ground Raw power
Voltage Momentary
Ground loops Transient Dirty power
fluctuations interruption
Non-linear THD Total Harmonic

Clean ground Over voltage Under voltage
load Distortion
Triplens Voltage dip Voltage Blink Oscillatory transient
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regulation
Outage Power surge Glitch Isolation Bump
Surge
❖ What are the types of power quality solutions available on the market today?
There are hundreds of manufacturers making thousands of different Power Quality solutions today.
The categories of these solutions are:
o Utility based solutions for the substation level.
o User based solution for whole facility protection.
o User load level solutions for specific loads
o Designed in solutions, built in by the equipment manufacturer to reduce the sensitivity to power
quality problems.
❖ How can power quality problems be detected?
Determining the exact problems requires sophisticated electronic test equipment. the following
symptoms are indicators of power quality problems:
▪ A piece of equipment mis-operates at the same time of day.
▪ Circuit breakers trip without being overloaded.
▪ Equipment fails during a thunderstorm.
▪ Automated systems stop for no apparent reason.
▪ Electronic systems fail or fail to operate on a frequent basis.
▪ Electronic systems work in one location but not in another location.
▪ Lights dim or blink and electronic systems mis-operate.
❖ What are all power quality measuring equipment?

o Wiring and grounding test devices
o Multi meters
o Oscilloscopes
o Disturbance analyzers
o Harmonic analyzers and spectrum analyzers
o Combination disturbance and harmonic analyzers
o Flicker meters
o Energy monitors
36.8 Uninterruptible Power Supply

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an AC battery supported power supply device intended to
provide a backup source of AC power without power interruption to the connected load.
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A UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other
electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious
business disruption or data loss.
Types of UPS system:
1. Offline UPS or Standby UPS
2. Line-interactive
3. Online / Double-conversion
Operation of a Standby UPS: In this type of UPS, the primary power source is line power from the utility,
and the secondary power source is the battery. It is called a standby UPS because the battery and inverter
are normally not supplying power to the equipment.
AC Power
Supply
Surge
Suppressor Filter
Load
Transfer
Battery
Battery Inverter Switch
Charger
Fig.1 Block schematic of a standby UPS
During normal operation, the input AC power from the line is supplied to the load via the UPS switch.
The additional devices like surge suppressor and filter may be incorporated to protect against line noise
and other problems that would not cause a switch to battery power. In this time battery is charged
through the charger. The battery charger is a rectifier circuit which converts AC voltage into DC voltage.
The battery and inverter are waiting on standby until they are needed.
When the AC input supply voltage is out of UPS preset tolerances or AC power is goes out, the transfer
switch changes his position and it is connected with the battery power line. Now inverter is activated and
converts DC voltage to AC voltage from the battery which is fed to the load. When line power is restored,
the UPS switches back.
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❖ Difference Between UPS and IPS System
SI Instant Power Supply (IPS) Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
1. Use a large number of electronic equipment Use a small number of electronic equipment
2. Provide large time backup Provide short time backup
3. Require a minimum switching time of 1 Will not allow any power drop while switching
second or more and causes user's devices to to battery in a very little fraction of second (0.1
reset or restart. This power drop and sudden or less) so that the user's computer or any
power up may harm electronic devices. devices connected with will not reset or
restarts, that means no interruption.
4. Can be operate more than one electronic Can be operate only one equipment.
equipment.
5. Must be use big size battery Small size battery
6. Backup system is so high Backup system is low
37.8 Mathematical Problem

Problem 1.8: A proposed station has the following daily load cycle:
Time in hours 6-8 8-11 11-16 16-19 19-22 22-24 24-6
Load in MW 20 40 50 35 70 40 20
Draw the load curve and select suitable generator units from the 10,000, 20,000, 25,000, 30,000 kVA.
Prepare the operation schedule for the machines selected and determine the load factor
from the curve.
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Problem 2.8 A generating station has an installed capacity of 50,000 kW and delivers 220 × 106
units per annum. If the annual fixed charges are Rs 160 per kW installed capacity and running
charges are 4 paise per kWh, determine the cost per unit generated.
Problem 3.8 A consumer has a maximum demand of 200 kW at 40% load factor. If the tariff is Rs.
100 per kW of maximum demand plus 10 paise per kWh, find the overall cost per kWh.
Problem 4.8
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Problem 5.8 A circuit breaker is rated as 1500 A, 1000 MVA, 33 kV, 3-second, 3-phase oil circuit
breaker. Find (i) rated normal current (ii) breaking capacity (iii) rated symmetrical breaking
current (iv) rated making current (v) short-time rating (vi) rated service voltage.
38.8 Power System MCQ

1. During load shedding
(a) system power factor is changed
(b) some loads are switched off
(c) system voltage is reduced
(d) system frequency is reduced
Answer: (b)
2. The cost of fuel transportation is minimum in .......plant.

(a) steam power
(b) hydro-electric,
(c) nuclear power
(d) diesel
Answer: (b)
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3. The cheapest plant in operation and maintenance is ........ plant.
(a) diesel power
(b) hydro-electric
(c) steam power
Answer: (b)
4. The major reason for low lagging power factor of supply system is due to the use of induction motors.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
5. Corona effect is less pronounced in stormy weather as compared to fair weather.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: False
Note: The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona. It is more in stormy weather.
6. The underground system is more costly than the equivalent overhead line system.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
7. A fuse is a protective device.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
8. A circuit breaker is a circuit interrupting device.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
9. Under normal operating conditions, the contacts of the circuit breaker remain -------- ,
(a) open
(b) closed
Answer: (b)
10. Under fault conditions, relay supplies information to the circuit breaker to open.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
11. When a short-circuit occurs, a .............. current flows through the system.
(a) Lower
(b) Heavy
Answer: (b)
12. A circuit breaker can remake the circuit immediately after automatic operation.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
13. Fuses are generally used in circuits where frequent operations are not expected.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
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14. The minimum time of operation of a fuse is greater than that of a circuit breaker.
(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (b)
15. A fuse element should have high melting point.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (b)
16. A fuse has low breaking capacity as compared to a circuit breaker.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
17. A fuse performs ............... functions.

(a) detection
(b) interruption
(c) both detection and interruption
Answer: (c)
18. A relay performs the function of fault detection.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
19. In equipment grounding, the enclosure is connected to ground wire.

(a) True
(b) False
Answer: (a)
***********Best of Luck***********
May 2023 Page 296 of 298 (AZ)

Assignment-1
Student ID:
Name:
Department:
Level:
Term:
Batch:
Session:
Date:
[1] Design a three-phase heater with suitable symmetric loads using wye-connected pure resistance.
Assume that the heater is supplied by a 240-V line voltage and is to give 27 kW of heat.
[2] A textile plant is supplied with 3-phase, 380 VLL 50Hz source. the loads of the plant are;
Number of quantities Output power Loads Power factor

6 50 kVAr Capacitor bank 0 pf lead
8 10 kW Heater 1 pf
Calculate the total current supplied by the source and power factor of the source.
[3] Use nodal analysis to determine the voltage across 5Ω resistance and the current in the 12V source.
***********Best of Luck***********
May 2023 Page 297 of 298 (AZ)

Assignment-2
Student ID:
Name:
Department:
Level:
Term:
Batch:
Session:
Date:
[1] Differentiate between MCB and MCCB. Draw their wiring diagram.
[2] Draw the block diagram of inverter. Why inverter is used in textile machine drives?
[3] AC 1 HP single-phase AC motor has an input voltage of 230V, the input current of 3.8 Amps and
working at 2500 rpm 0.8 pf 90% load. Calculate the torque of the motor.
[4] Draw the wiring diagram of automatic transfer switch.
[5] How can suitable proximity sensor be selected?
***********Best of Luck***********
May 2023 Page 298 of 298 (AZ)

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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF TEXTILES

B. SC. IN TEXTILE ENGINEERING

SI CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGES

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Practice Questions (EEE-1)

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1.1 Terminal Characteristics of Voltage and Current Sources

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[15] Find i1, i2 and i3 in the figure.

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The circuit is shown in Fig. 1.18. The wattage of a lamp is given by :

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(i) (ii) (iii)

Solution: [Try to solve]

[24] Find RAB in the circuit. [Answer: 22.5 ohms ]

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[30] For the multiple ladder conﬁguration of Figure:

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******** Best of Luck********

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Practice Questions (EEE-2)

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SECTION 1: METHOD OF ANALYSIS

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Answer: [Try to solve]

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Solution: [Try to solve]

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Solution: [Try to solve]

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Solution: [Try to solve]

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[14] Find vx and ix in the circuit shown in Fig.

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Solution: [Try to solve]

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Solution: [Try to solve]

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Best of Luck