MODULE 4

SYLLABUS
Curve Surveying – Elements of simple and compound curves – Method of
setting out– Elements of Reverse curve (Introduction only)– Transition curve –
length of curve – Elements of transition curve - Vertical curve (introduction only)
CURVES
Definition:
Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is to be changed, curves are provided between the
intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the vehicles and for the
comfort of passengers. The curves required may be in the horizontal planes or in the vertical planes.
Curves are provided whenever a road changes its direction from right to S (vice versa) or changes
its alignment from up to down (vice versa).
Types of Curves

There are two types of curves :

1. Horizontal Curve
2. Vertical Curve

Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves are provided to change the direction or alignment of a road. Horizontal Curve
are circular curves or circular arcs.

Types of Horizontal Curve:

1. Simple Curve:

A simple arc provided in the road to impose a curve between the two straight lines.

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 2. Compound Curve:

Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same direction.

3. Reverse Curve:

Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same direction.

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Transition or Spiral Curve:

A curve that has a varying radius. Its provided with a simple curve and between the simple curves
in a compound curve.

Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are provided to change the slope in the road and may or may not be symmetrical.
They are parabolic and not circular like horizontal curves.

Types of Vertical Curve:

Sag Curve

Sag Curves are those which change the alignment of the road from uphill to downhill.

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Crest Curve/Summit Curve

Crest Curves are those which change the alignment of the road from downhill to uphill.

DESIGNATION OF A CURVE

In Great Britain the sharpness of the curve is designated by the radius of the curve while in India
and many countries it is designated by the degree of curvature.
There are two different definitions of degree of curvature:
(i) Arc Definition
(ii) Chord Definition.
According to arc definition degree of curvature is defined as angle in degrees subtended by an arc
of standard length. The length of standard arc used in FPS was 100 ft. In SI it is taken as 30 m.
Some people take it as 20 m also.

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According to chord definition degree of curvature is defined as angle in degrees subtended by a
chord of standard length. This definition is commonly used in railways. Earlier standard chord
length used was 100 ft. Now in SI 30 m or 20 m is used as standard chord length.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIUS AND DEGREE OF CURVE
(a) Arc Definition:
Let R be the radius
s be standard length
Da be degree of the curve
Referring to Fig. 2.4(a)

(b) Chord Definition: Let Dc be degree of curve as per chord definition and s be the standard
length of chord. Then referring to Fig. 2.4(b).

When Dc is small, sin Dc/2 may be taken approximately equal to Dc/2

radians.
Hence, for small degree curves (flat curves).

Comparing equations we find for flat curves, arc definition and chord definitions give same degree
of curve. As in railways flat curves are used, chord definition is preferred.

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ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES

 Back tangent (First tangent): The tangent line before the beginning of the curve is called the
back tangent or the rear tangent. The line AT1 is the back tangent.
 Forward tangent (second tangent): The tangent line after the end of the curve is called the
forward tangent. The line T2B is the forward tangent.
 Point of Intersection (PI) (vertex): The point I where the back tangent when produce forward
and forward tangent when produced backward meet, is called the point of intersection
 . Intersection angle : The angle between the back tangent AT1 and the forward tangent T2B
at I is called the intersection angle.
 Intersection angle or external deflection angle (Δ): the angle V‟VB between the tangent AV
produced and VB
 Deflection angle: it is the angle at point of curve between the back tangent and chord from
point of curve to point on the curve
 External distance (E) : It is the distance between the point of intersection and the middle point
of the curve.
 Point of curvature (P.C.) : It is the point on the back tangent at the beginning of the curve,
where the alignment changes from a tangent to a curve. The point of curvature is also called
the point of curve. (T1)
 Point of Tangency (P.T.) : It is the point on the forward tangent at the end of the curve where
the alignment changes from a curve to a tangent. (T2)

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 Tangent distance (T) : It is the distance between the point of curvature (T1) and the point of
intersection. Distance between PC to PI or distance between PI to PT
 Length of the curve (L) : The total length of the curve from the point of curvature (T1) to the
point of tangency (T2), is called length of curve.
 Long chord (L) : The chord joining the point of the curvature (T1) and the point of tangency
(T2), is called a long chord.
 Normal chord : A chord between two successive regular pegs on the curve, is called a normal
chord.
 Sub-chord : When a chord is shorter than the normal chord, it is called a sub-chord.
 Mid-ordinate (M) : it is the distance between the middle point (C) of the curve and the middle
point (D) of the long chord.
 Right-hand curve : If the curve deflects to the right of the direction of the progress of survey, it
is called the right-hand curve.
 Left-hand curve : If the curve deflects to the left of the direction of the progress of survey, it is
called the left-hand curve.


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1. AB and BC are known as tangents to the curve.
2. B is known as the point of intersection or vertex
3. The angle Φ is known as the angle of deflection.
4. The angle I is called the angle of intersection.
5. Point T1 and T2 are known as tangent points
6. Distances BT1 and BT2 are known as tangent lengths
7. When the curve deflects to the right, it is called a right-hand curve, when it is deflects to the left, it is
called left-hand curve.
8. AB is called the rear tangent and BC is the forward tangent.
9. The straight line T1DT2 is known as the long chord
10. The curved line T1ET2 is said to be the length of the curve.
11. The midpoint E of the curve T1ET2 is known as the apex or summit of the curve.
12. The distance BE is known as the apex distance or external distance.
13. R is the radius of the curve.
14. Angle T1OT2 is equal to the deflection angle Φ
15. The point T1 is known as the beginning of the curve or the point of curve.
16. The end of the curve (T2) is known as the point of tangency.

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Setting Out simple circular curve
I. LINEAR METHODS

1. offsets from long chord.

Let T1ET2 be the curve to be laid between two intersecting straights T1B and T2B. Let R be the
radius of curve, ad Ox the offset at a point P at a distance x from the mid-point D of the long chord.

By assuming different values of x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can be determined

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 2. offsets from Tangents

Offsets form tangents may be

1. Radial
2. Perpendicular

Radial offsets from Tangent

Let us take point D on the rear tangent AB such that T1D = x

Let Ox be the radial offset at D. The point D is joined with centre O so OD is the radial line

Now from triangle T1OD

OT12 + T1D2 = OD2

OT1 = R

OD = R + Ox

T1D = x

R2 + x2 = ( R2 + Ox)2

R + Ox = (R2 + x2)1/2

R + Ox = (R2 + x2)1/2 – R

By increasing the value of x by a regular amount, a number of offset are obtained. Similarly other
half of curve can be set out from the second tangent point T2.

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The offset Oy is calculated as Oy = (R2 + y2)1/2 – R

Perpendicular offsets from Tangent

Here, a point D is taken along the rear tangent AB at a distance x from T1. Let Ox be the
perpendicular offset at D. The line EPx is drawn parallel to T1D

Here, OE = R – Ox , OPx = R, EPx = x

From OEPx , OPx2 = EPx2 + OE2

R2 = x2 + (R – Ox)2

R – Ox = (R2 – Ox)1/2

Ox = R –(R2 – x2)1/2

This calculated distance Ox is set out along the perpendicular drawn at D to get the point Px on the
curve.Similarly by progressively increasing the value of x by a regular amount, a series of offsets
are obtained. The other half of the curve is set out from T2 by calculating the offset by

Oy = R – (R2 – y2)1/2

II. ANGULAR METHOD

Angular method of setting out circular curve by Rankine’s method of deflection angle.

This method is useful for setting out a circular curve of long length and of large radius.

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In fig, T1 is the point of curve a, b, c are the points on the curve, Δ1, Δ2, Δ3 etc are the respective
deflection angles between the chords and the respective tangents at T1 , a , b, etc. Δ1 , Δ2 and Δ3 etc
are the total deflection angles to the point a, b, c etc

From property of circle that the angle subtended by a chord at the centre is twice the angle between
the tangent and the chord. Then

Angle T1Oa = 2x angle IT1a = 2Δ1

Rx2Δ1 = T1a = C1

Δ1 = C1/2R radians

Δ1 = C1x180/2Rπ degrees

Δ1 = C1x180x60/2Rπ minutes

Δ1 = 1728.9C1/R minutes

similarly, Δ2 = 1728.9C2/R minutes

Δ3 = 1728.9C3/R minutes

Arithmetic check,

Δ1+ Δ2+ Δ3+……… Δn = Δn = Φ/2

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For the first chord T1a, the deflection angle Δ1 is its tangential angle Δ1. For the second point b on
the curve the deflection angle Δ2 = angle BT1b

Let the tangential angle for chord ab = Δ2, i.e the angle between the tangent at a and chord ab.

The angle subtended by chord ab at T1 is

Angle aT1b = Δ2 so that

Δ2 = angle BT1b = angle BT1a + angle aT1b

= Δ1+ Δ2 = Δ1 + Δ2

Similarly, angle bT1c = Δ2 so that

Δ3 = angle BT1c = angle BT1b + angle bT1c

Therefore, Δn = Δ1 + Δ2 + …………….Δn

= Δn-1 + Δn

Last point of the curve is T2 so that

Δn = angle BT1T2 = Φ/2

COMPOUND CURVES
Definition:

Combination of two or more simple circular curves of different radius having their curvature in
the same direction. Also, A curve that is made up of a series of successive tangent circular arcs is
called a compound curve.

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Essentially, a compound curve consists of two curves that are joined at a point of tangency and are
located on the same side of a common tangent. Though their radii are in the same direction, they
are of different values.

A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main tangents joined at
point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1 (R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is
designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc).

Elements of a Compound Curve:

The elements of compound curve are:

 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PI = point of intersection
 PCC = point of compound curve

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 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
 Lc1 = length of first curve
 Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
 L2 = length of second chord
 L = length of long chord from PC to PT
 T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
 θ = 180° - I
 x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
 L can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT

Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC

Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2

Given the stationing of PI

Sta PT=Sta PI−x−T1+Lc1+Lc2

REVERSE CURVE
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist running at design
speed. The instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety problems. Despite this fact,
reversed curves are being used with great success on park roads, formal paths, waterway channels,
and the like.

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Elements of Reversed Curve

 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PRC = point of reversed curvature
 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 Lc1 = length of first curve
 Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
 L2 = length of second chord
 T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2

Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC

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 Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2
Given the stationing of V1
Sta PT=Sta V1−T1+Lc1+Lc2Sta PT=Sta V1−T1+Lc1+Lc2

Reversed Curve for Nonparallel Tangents

The following figure is an example reversed curves of unequal radii connecting non-parallel
tangents.

Reversed Curve for Parallel Tangents

The figure below is an example of reversed curves of unequal radii connecting two parallel
roads.

TRANSITION CURVE
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Transition curve: A curve of varying radius is known as a transition curve. The radius of such a
curve varies from infinity to a certain fixed value. A transition curve is provided on both ends of
circular curve.
Objectives of providing transition curve:

 To provide the superelevation gradually from zero at the tangent point to the specified
amount on the circular curve.
 To maintain a constant proportion between superelevation and rate of change of curvature.
 To avoid overturning of the train
 To minimize wear and tear of rail section due to unusual friction at point

Elements of transition curve(combined curve)

1. AB is the rear or back tangent

2. BC is the forward tangent
3. T1 is known as the first tangent point, the starting point of the curve, or the point of curve.
4. T2 is called the second tangent point, finishing point of curve, or point of tangency.
5. The angle Δ is known as the deflection angle
6. The angle I is called the angle of intersection
7. The angle Φ is known as the spiral angle
8. The distance T1E or T2D is the length of the transition curve.
9. The arc EPD is the length of circular curve
10. T1’E1 or T2’D1 is known as shift of curve.
11. BT1 or BT2 is the total tangent length
12. The length of arc T1EPDT2 is the length of the combined curve.
13. The angle (Δ -2Φ) is known as the central angle.

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Before calculating the elements of a transition curve it is essential to determine the length of
transition curve. Following are the method for calculating the length of transition curves.

1. By rate of superelevation: If the rate of application of superelevation is 1 in n of the

length of the curve and h is the superelevation, the length of the transition curve is given by

L =nh where h =GV2/gR

2. By time rate: Let the time rate of application of superelevation be x cm/s , length of
transition curve be L meter, superelevation be h cm and speed of the vehicle be v m/s then,

L = vh/x
L = Gv3/xgR meter

3. By rate of change of radial acceleration:

If the speed of vehicle is v on a curved path of radius R then

Radial acceleration = v2/R
Rate of change of radial acceleration = v2/Rt = α(say)
If length of transition curve is L and speed of the vehicle is v, then time taken
t = L/v
or, v2/αR = L/v
or, L = v3/αR
or, L = v3/0.3R {α = 0.3m/s}

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 4. If centrifugal ratio is given and comfort condition holds good,

Centrifugal force ratio, P/W = 1/8 = v2/gR

For Railways,
L = v3/0.3R = (gR/4)3/2x(1/0.3R)
Therefore, L = 4.5R1/2
For roads,
L = v3/0.3R = (gR/8)x(1/0.3R)
L = 12.80R1/2

Types of transition curves

 Spiral or clothoid
 Cubic parabola
 Lemniscate
IRC recommends Spiral or clothoid as the ideal transition curve due to following reasons:
1. It satisfies that rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant i.e., Ls.R = constant. Where
Ls = length of transition curve R = radius of curve.
2. The calculation and field implementation of spiral curve is simple and easy.

3. It enhances aesthetics also.

Determining length of transition curve

The length of transition curve can be calculated by 3 conditions.

 Based on rate of change of acceleration

 Based on rate of change of super elevation and extra widening
 Based in IRC empirical formula
Based on rate of change of acceleration
Radius of curve is infinity at the tangent point and hence centrifugal acceleration is zero. Similarly
at the straight end radius of curve has minimum value means centrifugal acceleration is maximum.
So, the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be adopted such that the design should not
cause any discomfort to the drivers.

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 Let Ls be the length of transition curve and a vehicle is moving with a speed of V m/s.

Force P = (mV2/R)
Since it is similar to F= ma

P = m (V2/R)
Therefore, centrifugal acceleration = V2/R
Let “C” be the coefficient of rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.

C = (V2/R). (1/t)
Where t= time taken to travel the transition curve of length Ls, with a speed of V

t = Ls/V

C = (V2/R). (V/Ls)
Ls = (V3/CR)
According to IRC, C = 80/(75+V) and C should be (0.5<C<0.8).

Based on rate of change of super elevation and extra widening

Let 1 in N is the allowable rate of introduction of super elevation and E is the raise of the outer
edge with respect to inner edge. W is the normal width of pavement in meters. We is the extra
width of pavement in meters. And e is the rate of super elevation.

E = (W+We).e

Therefore length of transition curve, Ls = (W+We).e.N

If the pavement outer edge is raised and inner edge is depressed with respect to center of pavement
then,

Ls = [(W+We).e.N]/2
Typical range of introduction of super elevation is as follows according to IRC

Type of terrain Rate of super elevation 1 in N

For plain & rolling terrains 1 in 150
For built up areas 1 in 100
For hilly and steep terrains 1 in 60

Based on IRC empirical formula

IRC given some direct formulae for finding the length of transition curve.

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 For plain and ruling terrain:
Ls = 2.7 (V2/R)
 For mountainous and steep terrains
Ls = V2/R
Hence these are the three criteria’s to determine the length of transition curve. The maximum of
above three conditions will be considered as the length of transition curve

VERTICAL CURVE
To negotiate a change in gradient smoothly and to provide vision over the crest of a hill far enough
ahead for safe driving, a curve in a vertical plane, gets introduced in the adjacent segments of
differing grades. Depending on the magnitude and sign of the gradients at the intersection points,
vertical curves fundamentally are of two types: summit or convexity upward and sag/valley or
convexity downward.

The important requirement of a vertical curve is that they should provide a constant rate of change
of grade.

Therefore if y = f (x), be the general equation of a curve, for a vertical curve it is required to have

This requirement is fulfilled by parabolic curve.

Morever, parabolic curve further fulfills the requirements of a vertical curve in the following ways:

1. It is flatter at the top and hence provides a longer sight distance. Greater the sight distance,
lesser is the possibility of any accident.
2. Rate of change of grade is uniform throughout and hence produces best riding qualities.
3. It is simple in computation and setting works.

Thus, a parabolic curve is most commonly used as a vertical curve.

Elevation of points to set out a vertical parabolic curves is computed by using (1) equation of the
parabola directly or by using, (2) geometric properties of the parabola (to calculate vertical offsets
from the tangent).

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