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Service chatbots: A systematic review

(Sinarwati, 2021) presented comparative analysis of various chatbot systems
designed between 2011 and 2020. The research article presents literature on
technologies used in designing chatbots, dataset, and domain user and their
components and techniques. The research article listed various datasets that can be
used to evaluate chatbots such as the Twitter dataset, Airline Travel Information
Systems (ATIS), etc.
Semantic understanding
Semantic represent the meaning of sentences or words.
Ref. Description
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1 Generative and artificial intelligence chatbot falls in this category.
bi-LSTM + character embedding can be used to capture the semantics
of words.
2 Replica, Wysa, and Youper chatbots use AI for decision-making.
3 PARRY – Eliza with attitude. Accuracy 48%.
Jabberwacky – Voice-operated AI-based chatbot.
Alexa, Siri – NLP-based voice-operated chatbots.
4 NA
5 Amazon lex – Works on deep learning and natural language
understanding.
LUIS – uses NLP to understand user context.
6 NA
7 NA
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9 No specific details
10 Edwin.ai is an online English-language learning tutor power by artificial
intelligence.
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18 NA
19 Markov Chain: is used in Chatbots to build responses that are more
applicable probabilistically and, consequently, are more correct. The
idea of Markov Chains is that there is a fixed probability of occurrences
for each letter or word in the same textual data set.
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Lexical understanding
In this approach, the chatbot checks the question-answer pair stored in the
knowledge base and responds to users’ queries. These types of chatbots are not
capable of decoding the meaning of sentences. They just give the best match as an
output.
Ref. Description
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1 Chatbots like ELIZA, PARRY, and ALICE highly rely on keyword
matching techniques.
Retrieval-based approaches and rule-based approaches fall in this
category.
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3 Eliza uses string matching and pattern processing to keep the
conversation moving between computer and human.
Eliza – No contextual understanding
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5 Eliza, PARRY – Text processing-based chatbot.
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17 ELIZA - Pattern Matching and substitution processes are used to
process the input received and translate it into a suitable output.
18 NA
19 Pattern matching chatbots: Simple chatbot responds based on question-
answer pair knowledgebase.
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Understanding of stated and implied expressions
Stated expressions are expressions or queries directly understood by chatbots that
are clearly expressed. On the other hand, implied expressions are expressions or
queries which are not clearly expressed.
Ref. Description
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1 SofterMax and deep novelty detection (SMDN) can detect users'
unknown intent without any prior example.
SofterMax and deep novelty detection (SMDN) were able to present
intents that were not in the training database.
Reinforcement learning (RL) helps handle unclear user intentions.
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3 Alexa Siri – Uses NLP and question & intent pair to analyze parsed user
input.
Eliza – Not able to handle implied expressions.
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5 Dialogflow can recognize the intent and context of the user query.
Mitsuku – Ability to reason with specific object. (Ex: In – Can I eat a
house? Chatbot processing – House is made of bricks so not eatable,
Out - No)
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17 ALICE - AIML for specifying the pattern/response pairs.
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Dealing with complexity

Ref. Description
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1 Hybrid CNN and RNN capture the relationship between words and
extract the intent of words.
Gating mechanisms of RNN + GRU: fastly adapt to new unseen
domains irrespective of the size of the training dataset.
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5 Cleverbot – Uses previous user responses and accordingly prepares the
next response for the user.
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Managing conversational nesting

Ref. Description
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1 Rule-based and retrieval-based chatbots work on the decision tree
method. Chatbot generates questions according to users' previous
 responses.
Extension Hybrid Code Network (HCN) helps in avoiding repeating
questions and improves the accuracy of the response prediction system.
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5 Chatfuel – Suitable for small businesses. Rule-based chatbots – Nesting
can be done easily.
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Ability to manage vagueness

Ref. Description
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1 Early chatbots such as ELIZA, PARRY, and ALICE were designed on
pattern matching techniques and were not able to handle vagueness. It
might happen that the chatbot will respond with an irrelevant message
or is sometimes not able to understand user queries.
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5 IBM Watson – Uses machine learning to rate all possible responses and
select responses with the highest rating and respond to the user.
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