Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

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Composites Part C: Open Access

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/composites-part-c-open-access

A review on manufacturing defects and their detection of fiber reinforced

resin matrix composites
Yutong Fu a, Xuefeng Yao b, *
a
School of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, China
b
Department of Engineering Mechanics, Applied Mechanics Lab, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P.R.China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fiber reinforced resin matrix composites are more and more widely used in aerospace and automobile
Fiber reinforced composites manufacturing industries. However, the probability of manufacturing defects in composites is very high due to
Manufacturing defect the complex physical and chemical properties of component materials and molding processes. Therefore, the
Non-contact detection
research on the manufacturing defects and their detection of composites becomes important in evaluating the
Mechanism
Mechanical property
quality of composites. First, the formation mechanism of residual stresses, void defects and resin-rich defects in
the matrix of composites are summarized. Especially, the curing of thermosetting resin and thermoplastic resin,
the resin infiltration process in hot pressing, resin transfer molding and 3D printing, and resin-rich defects in
molding process are described in this article. Second, the forming mechanism of fiber reinforcement defects such
as fiber wrinkle and waviness in composites is introduced, and the influence of such defects on the bending and
compression properties of composites is analyzed, which shows that fiber misalignment defects will seriously
reduce the modulus, strength and stability of the supporting structures. Third, formation mechanism, damage
causes and optimization methods of interfacial defects such as delamination and debonding in the interface
between reinforcements and matrix are elaborated. Fourth, machining defects such as drilling and cutting defects
are revealed. The main manifestations are delamination, tearing, and burrs, which will seriously affect the
strength and reliability of the connection between components. Finally, the non-contact detection of defects in
composites are shown in the article. Different detection methods can be used to measure defects of different
scales to predict composite damage and life in advance. This review analyzes manufacturing defects in lami­
nated, woven, braided, and additive manufactured composites, and summarizes common defect detection
methods, also presents an outlook for composite manufacturing.

1. Introduction complex structural shapes [3]. In the preparation of composite material,

Because of the excellent comprehensive properties such as high
specific stiffness, high specific strength, strong designability and corro­
sion resistance, fiber reinforced resin matrix composites have been
widely used in aerospace engineering, shipbuilding engineering, and
automobile manufacturing. According to the geometry of the rein­
forcement, continuous fiber reinforced resin matrix composites can be
divided into composite laminates, braided composites, woven compos­
ites, nanocomposites, sandwich composites and composite structural
components, etc. Based on the different internal structures, there have
been many types of molding methods for composites such as hot
pressing for laminates [1], resin transfer molding for braided and fabric
composites [2] and additive manufacturing for composites with
different molding methods will produce different types of internal de­
fects, which will ultimately affect the performance of the material, as
shown in Fig. 1. The fiber reinforcements in composites may have
breakage, wrinkling and waviness during manufacturing; the common
defect types in resin matrix are void, impurity and resin-rich; in addi­
tion, delamination and un-infiltration will occur at the resin-fiber
interface. These defects will occur in all kinds of composites. Howev­
er, due to manufacturing process characteristics, laminates are more
prone to delamination defects; braided and fabric composites often
suffer from void defects; un-infiltration areas are often present in 3D
printed composites.
The probability of defects in fiber reinforced resin matrix composites
is very high during the manufacturing process. In recent years, product

* Telephone/ Fax: +86-10-62771546; Email: yxf@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn

E-mail address: yxf@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (X. Yao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100276
Received 27 December 2021; Received in revised form 22 April 2022; Accepted 2 May 2022
Available online 6 May 2022
2666-6820/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Y. Fu and X. Yao
quality problems and safety accidents caused by defects in composites
have occurred frequently, and damage incidents have become increas­
ingly common [4]. In 1977, Dan Air’s Boeing 707 crashed due to defects
in the composite airframe [5]. In 2020, a batch of Boeing 787 passenger
plane was recalled due to the fact that there were tiny cracks on the
surface of the aircraft’s carbon fiber composite fuselage, which caused
significant economic losses [6]. It can be seen that the intensive study of
manufacturing defects for carbon fiber reinforced resin matrix com­
posites is very important for the strength and the reliability of complex
composite structures, such as the effective analysis of composite
manufacturing technology., the corresponding defects and residual
stress distributions, the influence of defects on the mechanical proper­
ties of composites, optimization of manufacturing and molding pro­
cesses, improvement of the internal structures of composites, and
modification of the interface between the fiber and the resin
In this article, as shown in Fig. 2, starting from the research on the
matrix, fiber reinforcement and the interface between the fiber and the
resin of composites, the generation mechanism of the residual stresses
and common defects in composites is discussed. The manufacturing
defects of laminated, braided, woven, and additive manufactured com­
posites are summarized, and the detection technologies of common
defect in composites are given. Finally, the future development direction
of the composites manufacturing is prospected.
2. Resin matrix defects of composites
The defects of resin matrix in composites have various scales such as
macro-, meso- and micro-, which are difficult to control, and will reduce
mechanical properties of composites dominated by resin matrix such as
the compressive strength, interlaminar shear performance and impact
resistance. Moreover, the solidification or crystallization of the resin
matrix will generate residual stresses and curing deformation, which
Fig. 1. Scale and type of defects in composites and the detection methods
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
will affect the accuracy and safe usage of engineering composite struc­
tures, leading to the premature failure of composites. Therefore, the
study of resin matrix in this section is expounded from the following
three aspects: residual stress, voids and resin-rich.
2.1. Residual stress
The solidification or crystallization process of resin involves changes
in its physical and chemical properties, which will cause curing defor­
mation and residual stresses in the resin matrix composites. Curing
deformation means that there is a certain degree of inconsistency be­
tween the actual shape of the structure after curing and the ideal shape
of the design. Such dimensional differences may cause huge losses to the
engineering use of composites [7]. Curing residual stresses refer to the
internal stresses remaining in the composites after curing. Their exis­
tence will affect the contact between the resin and the fiber, and reduce
the strength and life of composites. Therefore, the deformation and re­
sidual stresses caused by resin solidification or crystallization are
important scientific problems in the manufacturing technology of
composites. The lack of the research will affect the engineering appli­
cation of composites. Composite curing process and corresponding re­
sidual stresses are discussed in Section 2.1.
2.1.1. Residual stresses of thermosetting resin matrix
The thermosetting resin and curing agent agglomerate in a high-
temperature fluid state, and the volume of resin matrix decreases with
the formation of cross-linked molecules and the decrease in tempera­
ture, as shown in Fig. 3. As a result, the residual stresses are generated.
Residual stresses in thermosetting resin matrix composites can be
divided into micro-scale and macro-scale [8]. The micro-scale residual
stresses are mainly caused by: (i) the mismatch of thermal expansion
between the fiber and the resin; (ii) the chemical shrinkage of resin
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 2. Common defects in composites
during the polymerization process; (iii) the hygroscopicity. Residual
stresses of this scale will cause cracks in the matrix. The macro-scale
residual stresses are the main source of large-dimensional curing
deformation, which are mainly caused by the anisotropic behavior of
fiber, constraints between ingredients, and tooling constraints. The
non-thermoelastic residual stresses are irreversible, and the formation
mechanism includes: (i) the part interaction, (ii) chemical shrinkage
during polymerization, (iii) consolidation, (iv) degree of cure or crys­
tallinity gradients through thickness, and (v) fiber volume fraction dis­
tribution [9].
The problem of thermosetting resin curing has been extensively
studied by scholars. In order to simulate the actual curing process of the
resin, three aspects need to be deeply understood, namely the resin
curing reaction kinetics, the thermal conduction and the thermal
behavior.
The heat transfer equation is shown in Eq. (1) which can be used to
predict the temperature changing history for the fiber reinforced resin
matrix composites [11]:
∂T
ρC = ∇(K∇T) + qgen (1)
∂t
where T is the temperature; ρ is the density; C is the specific heat; k is the
thermal conductivity tensor and ∇ is the differential operator. The
source term qgen is related to the internal heat generation due to the
exothermic reaction of resin.
The cross-linking reaction that can be described by kinetic model
occurs during the curing of thermosetting resin. The curing reaction rate
is defined as dα/dt [12]. The commonly used curing reaction kinetic
equations of thermosetting resin are divided into three categories:
n-order equations, autocatalytic equations, n-order and autocatalytic
combined equations. In the n-order curing reaction kinetic equation, it is
believed that the curing rate is proportional to the concentration of
unreacted substances. The autocatalytic curing reaction kinetic equation
assumes that the cured product also affects the curing rate. As the
concentration of the cured product increases, the curing rate of the resin
gradually increases [13]. When a certain degree of curing is reached
(usually 0.2-0.4 [14]), the chemical reaction rate reaches its maximum.
Other complex curing reaction processes can be decomposed into the
sum of n-order reaction and autocatalytic reaction [15]. Commonly used
curing reaction kinetic equations are given in Table 1.
In Table 1, α is the curing degree, t is time. dH/dt is the heat flow,
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
ΔHRxn is the total heat that evolved during the curing reaction. k1, k2, k
and k′ are the specific rate constant. m and n are the reaction orders. C is
the diffusion coefficient and αc is the critical conversion depending on
the curing temperature.
On the other hand, in order to reflect the changes in the mechanical
state of the resin during the curing process, some scholars have proposed
the viscoelastic constitutive models of the resin related to temperature
and curing degree. Kim and White [22] introduced the degree of curing
into the time transfer factor (aT) of the viscoelastic constitutive equa­
tions. Simon et al. [23] introduced the glass transition temperature (Tg)
associated with curing as the reference temperature into the constitutive
equation. Courtois et al. [24] realized the description of the viscoelastic
mechanical properties of epoxy resin by introducing stiffness parameters
related to the degree of curing.
Based on the curing reaction kinetic and thermodynamic constitutive
equations of thermosetting resin, scholars simulated the curing process
[25], residual stresses, and curing deformation of complex composite
structures from different scales [26]. In micro-scale, Zhao et al. [27]
obtained residual stresses in the composite materials using
micro-mechanic method, and analyzed the interface between the fiber
and the resin. Jin et al. [28] analyzed the residual stresses of the
microscopic representative volume element of composites with the
randomly fiber distributed, and studied its mechanical response be­
haviors. Form mesoscopic perspective, Heinrich et al. [29] modelled the
curing process of woven composites using meso-representative volume
element as shown in Fig. 4(a), and performed damage analysis on the
cured model. Bayraktar et al. [30] predicted the initial cracks in
three-dimensional woven composites induced by curing using
meso-representative volume element, as shown in Fig. 4(b), and it was
found that the rapid cooling after solidification was the main reason for
these micro-cracks. Fu et al. [31] calculated the curing deformation and
residual stresses of 3D braided composites from the perspective of
mesoscopic, and found that the volume changing rate of the represen­
tative volume element was about 1.25%. In macro-scale, Courtois et al.
[32] improved the numerical representative model of solidification
using the tomography of woven composites, and analyzed the effect of
fiber volume fraction on the residual stresses of composites. Pan et al.
[33] analyzed the thermodynamic behavior after curing of the
three-dimensional rectangular braided composites, and found that the
resin close to the fiber would withstand greater thermal stresses, as
shown in Fig. 4(c).
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 3. Mechanism of curing deformation [10]
2.1.2. Residual stresses of thermoplastic resin matrix
When the thermoplastic resin is cooled from the molten state, the
random liquid structure may partially transform to an ordered periodic
crystalline one [8]. This process is called crystallization. Here, the
overall crystallinity is usually used as the macroscopic representation of
internal structure, which is defined as the ratio Xmc of the mass of the
crystalline phase (mc) to the total mass (mt) or as the ratio Xvc of the
crystalline volume (Vc) to the total volume (Vt).
The crystallization kinetic equation can describe the nucleation and
crystallization of thermoplastic resin. The thermoplastic resin will
shrink in volume after crystallization. The shrinkage strain of the resin
can be directly calculated from the degree of crystallinity. In addition,
the mechanical properties are determined by the properties of the
amorphous and crystalline phases, and the instantaneous volume
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
fraction of crystallinity [34]. According to the standard linear solid
kinetic-viscoelastic model, the dynamic mechanical storage flexural
compliance S′ and the loss flexural compliance S′′ consisting of amor­
phous (S′ am,S′ am′ ) and crystalline (S′ cr,S′ cr′ ) contribution are expressed as
the function of crystallinity. The theoretical model for thermoplastic
resin crystallization are summarized in Table 2.
[ ( )]
In Table 2, Ki (T) = − C1i Texp − T− TCg +51.6 2i
+ T(T C3i− T)2 , Xvc
∞
is the
mi
equilibrium volume fraction crystallinity. Tmi is the crystal melt tem­
perature; ni is the Avrami exponent; C1i, C2i and C3i are the model con­
stants. KPEEK(T) is the crystallization rate constant; n is the Avrami
exponent. ε̇cr is the isotropic crystallization shrinkage strain. The amor­
phous contribution undergoes the viscoelastic relaxation according to
the following relationship [8]:
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Table 1 developed the diffusion model for resin voids in composites, which
Commonly used curing reaction kinetic equations of thermosetting resin could predict the collapse of entrapped voids in resin with the ac­
Reference Equation Classification counting for surface tension.
The role of pressure in hot pressing and autoclave molding of com­
Mathot et al. dα dH/dt Definition
dt
=
ΔHRxn posites is crucial in suppressing the void formation. Moreover, curing
[16] parameters such as temperature and vacuum, residual solvent content
ΔHRxn − ΔHr Definition
αt =
ΔHRxn and humidity will also influence the void formation in hot pressing. The
Turi et al. dα n-order
= k(1 − α)n above factors should be considered comprehensively for reducing void
[17] dt
Stevens et al. 1 n-order defect content.
− ln(1 − α) = ln[1 + (n − 1)kt]
n− 1
[18]
2.2.2. Void defect formation in resin transfer molding
Kamal et al. dα autocatalytic
= k αm (1 − α)n Resin transfer molding (RTM) can often be used to manufacture
′

[19] dt
Horie et al. dα autocatalytic composites with complex internal shapes. The infiltration of liquid resin
= (k1 + k2 αm )(1 − α)n
[20] dt into the preform is required in resin transfer molding. In this process, the
Gao et al. dα 1 Diffusion effected resin flow is not uniform, so the air is always trapped and the bubbles are
= (k1 + k2 αm )(1 − α)n
[21] 1 + exp[C(α − αc )] autocatalytic
generated at the flow front [47]. These bubbles will deform, migrate,
dt
Li et al. [7] ⎧ dα autocatalytic
⎨ = (k1 + k2 α)(1 − α)(0.47 − α) α ≤ 0.3
⎪ and merge during RTM. The void defects in the composite materials
dt
⎪
⎩ dα affect the mechanical properties dominated by the resin matrix such as
= k3 (1 − α) α > 0.3
dt compressive strength, impact resistance and shear strength. Therefore,
Lee et al. dα n-order +
[15] dt
l
= ka (1 − α) + kb αm (1 − α) n
autocatalytic
the research on the generation mechanism of void defects in RTM is a
Lee et al. ( dα
)
n-order + scientific problem that needs to be solved in composite manufacturing
technology.
d
[15] dt autocatalytic
= kαm− 1 (1 − α)n− 1 [m(1 − α) − nα]
dα In RTM, void defects are caused by multiple mechanisms such as air
entrapment, nucleation, cavitation, and uneven resin curing [48]. The
′ air entrapment is the decisive factor of void content. According to the
S am = Sua + (Sra − Sua )[cos(ϕ)]a cos(ϕa)
S′′ am = (Sra − Sua )[cos(ϕ)]a sin(ϕa) (2) size and position of the trapped air, the void defects can be divided into
ϕ = arctan(wτam ) three categories: macroscopic voids, mesoscopic voids and microscopic
voids. When the fiber bundle is not completely filled, dry macroscopic
Based on the above equations, the molding process of thermoplastic voids are formed. Both premature resin gelation and uneven penetration
resin matrix composites can also be simulated. It is found that no matter will form such macroscopic voids. If the resin flow rate between fiber
what kind of resin is used, there will be residual stresses in the com­ bundles is less than that inside the bundles, there will be air retention
posites after resin curing, and these stresses will affect the internal between bundles, forming mesoscopic voids [49]; on the contrary,
interface strength of the composite material. microscopic voids are formed between individual filaments in the fiber
bundle [50]. The mesoscopic voids are spherical; the microscopic voids
2.2. Void defects are needle-shaped or cylindrical, as shown in Fig. 7.
For the analysis of air retention at the resin flow front in composites,
Void defects are widely found in composites, as shown in Fig. 5. The the governing equations of flow need to be introduced as shown in
formation of voids can be controlled by manufacturing process param­ Fig. 8. According to the mechanism analysis, scholars claimed that the
eters such as vacuum pressure, resin velocity, cure temperature and vent have obvious effect on reducing macroscopic voids by avoiding the
consolidation pressure [37]. In this section, the formation mechanism of merging of multiple flows and optimizing the resin injection port [51].
void defects in composites manufactured by hot pressing, autoclave, For meso-micro voids, the resin flow satisfies Darcy’s law between
resin transfer molding and 3D printing are discussed in the following fiber tows, and the capillary should be introduced to describe the resin
chapters. flow inside tows [52]. Brinkman et al. [53] synthesized the resin flow
speed between and inside fiber tows into one equation, which can
2.2.1. Void defect formation in hot pressing and autoclave characterize Stokes flow and Darcy flow with capillary force simulta­
The void defects in hot pressing and autoclave are mainly formed neously. Scholars have found that the flow velocity and internal pressure
during laying up and curing stages [38]. The main sources of voids are of resin will affect the position and size of voids [54]. Conversely, the
air entrapment either during impregnation [39] or during laying up generation of voids in composites will also affect the resin flow velocity
[40], which causes the intra-laminar void defects and inter-laminar void and pressure [55]. Therefore, after the void defects are generated at the
defects. In addition, volatiles arising from resin during its cure [39] and resin flow front, they will deform and migrate as the resin flows forward
moisture dissolved in the resin will also cause void defects [41]. and the pressure changes. Lundström et al. [56] proposed the method for
From the global perspective, Campbell et al. [42] mentioned that estimating the void volume considering capillary pressure. Shih et al.
some factors such as surface roughness, laying up environment, laminate [57] derived the pressure change of the bubble during the resin injection
thickness, ply orientation, internal ply, drop-offs and tooling played a process based on the force balance between the resistance and adhesion
role in void formation during hot pressing processing of composites. of the bubble.
Then, Olivier et al. [43] found that the size, shape, and distribution of Combining the generation, compression and migration mechanisms
voids altered with cure cycle parameters, which also determined optimal of void defects, scholars have simulated their distributions in composites
curing pressure conditions to minimize void content based on the test as follow. Tan et al. [55] established an unsaturated isothermal flow
results of thermogravimetry and mechanical spectrometry. Loos et al. model of resin in multi-scale flow channels during RTM. Kang et al. [58]
[44] studied the void formation during curing which claimed that the simulated the mold filling process during RTM by using the improved
size of voids might change during thermal expansion and diffusion. controlled variable finite element method and the fixed element
Kardos et al. [41] reported the dissolution and growth of moisture-based method. Gao et al. [59] studied the void content in 3D braided com­
voids during resin curing, as shown in Fig. 6. Li et al. [45] showed that a posites and obtained the probability density formula for void distribu­
considerable number of large voids were formed at ply interfaces at low tion. Schell et al. [54] and Lawrence et al. [50] numerically predicted
curing pressure, and the number and size of these voids decreased the meso-/micro-scale voids in RTM, and determined the relationship
significantly when the pressure was increased. Wood et al. [46] between the void content and capillary number. In the composite

5
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Fig. 4. Curing analysis of composites: (a) Residual stress distribution after curing in woven composites [29]; (b) Meso-cracks caused by curing in woven composites
[30]; (c) Thermodynamic analysis of braided composites after curing [33].

internal resin is cured, which will cause the nucleation of the internal
Table 2
components in composites, resulting in void pressure changes. Jadhav
Theoretical model for thermoplastic resin crystallization
et al. [60] obtained the discrete equations for numerical simulation by
Purpose of model Equation Reference introducing the temperature changes of RTM process into the governing
Crystallization kinetic Xvc = X∞
vc [w1 Fvc1 + (1 − w1 )Fvc2 ] equation. Ledru et al. [61] introduced the viscoelastic constitutive
[35]
equation equation of the resin curing process into the numerical model of RTM,
Isothermal Fvci = 1 − exp( − Ki(T) • tn − 1
) [35]
and predicted the deformation of void defects. The results showed that
crystallization process
Non-isothermal
∫t the increase in temperature would promote the diffusion of void defects
Fvci = 1 − exp[ − Ki (T)ni ⋅tni − 1 dt]
0 [35] in the composite material, and the curing process would increase the
crystallization process
Crystallization of PEEK Xvc = X∞ n
vc (1 − exp( − KPEEK (T)⋅t ))
[36]
pressure in the model and reduce the size of void defects. Fu et al. [62]
Crystallization shrinkage ε̇cr =
derived the basic governing equations considering resin flow, temper­
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ [8] ature change and resin curing during RTM, and analyzed the generation
strain √ [ρ(X )n+1 − ρ(X )n
]
√
− 1 + √1 + (4/3)
vc
n
vc
mechanism of void defects in 3D braided composites.
ρ(Xvc )
c
2
linear solid kinetic- S = S am (1 − Xvc ) + S cr (Xvc )
′ ′ ′ 2.2.3. Void defect formation in 3D printing
[34] 3D printing of composites receives more and more attention due to
viscoelastic S = S am (1 − Xvc ) + S′′ cr (Xvc )
′′ ′′

its advantages such as customizability and suitability in constructing

complex shapes. There will be manufacturing defects in 3D printed
molding process, the ambient temperature keeps changing and the

6
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 5. Microscopic images of voids [37]
Fig. 6. Void formation during curing of resin matrix in composites [41]
composites due to the manufacturing characteristics of layer-by-layer
coating. Fig. 9 shows the cross-sectional photomicrograph of the short
fiber reinforced composites formed by additive manufacturing, and the
internal defects of the composites can be clearly observed [63]. The
multi-scale inter-bead voids in 3D printed continuous fiber reinforced
composites are given in Fig. 10 [64].
Fig. 7. Void defects in composites [48].
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
The nozzle traveling path, stacking method and distance between
beads will improve the defect content of 3D printed composites, as
shown in Fig. 11 [65]. Moreover, the interfacial contact will directly
affect the interlayer shear strength of 3D printed composites. Tian et al.
[66] systematically analyzed the interfacial properties of 3D printed
continuous carbon fiber reinforced polylactic acid composites, focusing
on the effects of temperature and pressure on the adhesion of beads. It
was found that it could not only realize the infiltration of the thermo­
plastic resin into fiber bundles but also ensure the adhesion between
layers when the temperature of the nozzle was 200-230◦ C. Caminero
et al. [67] also analyzed the interlayer bonding performance of 3D
printed composites, and found that the increase in interlayer thickness
would cause the weakness of interlayer performance. In addition,
scholars found that unidirectional composites had higher tensile
strength and less internal defects compared with non-unidirectional
composite materials from experiment results [68].
Some scholars have proposed the theoretical systems and numerical
simulation methods for analyzing of 3D printing void defects. Fu et al.
[69] have developed the theoretical model for the analysis of the
melting-deposition-solidification process of 3D printed composites, and
realized the void defect simulation of 3D printed composites, as shown
in Fig. 12. Also, they found that the nozzle geometry was the most
important factor affecting defect distribution of 3D printed composites
[70].
In this section, the void formation mechanism in composites manu­
factured by hot pressing, resin transfer molding and 3D printing are
discussed. Such defects will cause the weakening of the composite ma­
trix and interface. In addition, the void defects will lead to the stress
concentration when the composite material is subjected to external
force, which make the local area to reach the stress limit in advance,
thereby affecting the overall strength of the composite material.
2.3. Resin-rich defects
Resin-rich areas refer to the areas of the matrix material that are
locally rich, or in other words, fibers are locally deficient, as shown in
Fig. 13, which are a common phenomenon in composites [71]. During
the manufacturing of composites, localized fiber breakage and staggered
fiber bundles can form resin-rich areas. And resin-rich defects are
difficult to control during the composite molding.
Some scholars have studied the location, distribution and causes of
resin-rich defects. Holmberg et al. [73] studied the manufacturing and
performance of RTM U-beams. As the mold closed, the reinforcement
tended to pull tight around corners and left the resin-rich area at these
locations. Dong [74] analyzed the resin-rich area of 0◦ unidirectional
and cross-ply composites, and derived the functional relationship be­
tween gap thickness and radius, enclosed angle and fiber stiffness.
In particular, resin-rich defects are more prevalent in braided or
woven composites. Idrees [75] and Mahmood et al. [76] investigated the
resin-rich defect distribution in woven fiber-reinforced composites, and
there would be micro-scale resin-rich defects and meso-scale resin-rich
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Fig. 8. Size and classification of voids in composites formed by resin transfer molding

defects in these kinds of composites, as shown in Fig. 14. King et al. [77]
claimed that the resin-rich defects were decreased when the fiber count
binder was small. Besides, high crimp within the through thickness
binders reduced the number and size of resin-rich volume.
The presence of resin-rich defects will have an impact on mechanical
properties of composites. Huang et al. [78] investigated the tensile and
compressive properties of fiber-reinforced resin matrix composites
containing resin-rich defects, and found that there was a large dispersion
in the strength of composite samples due to the random generation of
resin-rich defects. Ghayoor et al. [79] prefabricated resin-rich defects in

8
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 9. Cross-section photomicrographs of 3D printed short-fiber composites [63]
Fig. 10. Multi-scale inter-bead void defects [64]
carbon fiber/epoxy composites, and found that resin-rich defects would
reduce the onset strain of composite failure. Ahmadian [80] showed that
micro-sized resin-rich defects had little effect on the shear strength and
toughness of composites. Al-Shawk et al. [81] claimed that macro-sized
resin-rich defects would cause stress concentrations that led to prema­
ture material failure. Therefore, resin-rich, as the main defect of com­
posites, will have a great impact on the performance of composites and
affect the service life of materials.
3. Fiber wrinkle and waviness defects of composites
Fiber, as a kind of reinforcement, is the key factor for the high spe­
cific strength and specific stiffness of composites. It acts as the skeleton
in composites and can support the matrix structure. Therefore, the
manufacturing defects of the fiber will make the scaffold of the whole
composite material unstable, which will greatly reduce the strength,
modulus, stability and longevity [82].
Because the fiber shrinks with the curing of the resin matrix during
the molding process of composites, it is easy to produce fiber curling,
which leads to the misalignment defects such as wrinkle and waviness in
composites. Buckling of fibers, tows, and plies has proved to be the main
driving mechanism for fiber wrinkle and waviness defects [83].
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
However, considering many manufacturing methods and composite
structures, multiple parameters at different steps of the manufacturing
process may contribute to fiber misalignment formation. For example, in
RTM, fiber misalignment might happen during the deposition of dry
fabrics. Subsequently, resin infiltration may further contribute to this
misalignment during the injection step [84]. Therefore, drape and shear
locking angle of dry textile fabrics have effects on fiber wrinkling [85].
Larberg et al. [86] studied the effect of material system on inter-layer
friction. They discovered that the combination of several factors
including thermoplastic modifier type, fiber volume fraction and
molding temperature significantly influenced the interlayer friction
coefficient, which would affect wrinkle formation consequently. Hal­
lander et al. [87] revealed the effect of lay-up sequence during
manufacturing process, which showed that buckling resistance of layers
could be increased and wrinkle formation could be avoided by building
co-stacking critical layers. In addition to geometry, ply sequence and
intra-layer properties, inter-ply shear properties and inter-ply slip have
been shown to affect the formation of wrinkling and in-plane waviness
of fibers, which confirms that manufacturing parameters such as tem­
perature, forming rate and forming pressure are important for fiber
defect reduction [88].
Fiber misalignment defects are particularly important due to their
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Fig. 11. Discussion of the nozzle travel path, stacking method and distance between beads of additive manufacturing [65]

Fig. 12. Void defect simulation of 3D printed composites [69]

impact on mechanical properties and composite dimensions. This often
results in disturbances during assembly, leading to the costly trimming
and shimming operations or part rejection [90]. Xie et al. [89] studied
the effect of wrinkle defect geometries such as 0◦ , 90◦ and single
interface wrinkle on compressive strength. As shown in Fig. 15, it is
found that the compressive strength of the composites decreases with
the increasing of local wrinkles of fiber. Potter et al. [91] investigated
the flexural strength of carbon-epoxy unidirectional laminates with fiber
wrinkle defects. It was found that under the four-point bending load, the
specimen strength decreased to 70% of the original strength value when
the wrinkles were located on the tensile side surface. The whole failure
process of composites with slight fiber flexure is shown in Fig. 16.
Wrinkle defects often appear in multiple adjacent layers and lead to
premature failure of the structure, severely degrading the mechanical
properties of composite structures [92]. These fiber misalignment poses
an additional risk and it is difficult to detect [83], which leads to the
direct impact on economic efficiency, quality and safety.
4. Interface defects in composites
Interface is a unique structural form of composites, there are many
kinds of interfaces in composites, such as interface between layers in

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Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 13. Resin-rich defects in composites [72]
composite laminates and interface between reinforced fiber and resin
matrix. There might be interfacial defects due to the problems such as
uneven curing and uneven wetting. These defects will make two parts
that make up the interface subject to external forces independently,
thereby reducing the overall mechanical characteristics of the compos­
ites. In this section, the delamination in composite laminates and
interfacial problem between fiber and resin are analyzed.
4.1. Delamination in composite laminates
Delamination is one of the most important life limiting failure modes
in composite laminates. Advanced composite laminates are highly sus­
ceptible to delamination due to their low inter-ply shear and tensile
strengths [93]. The initiation of delamination damage in composite
laminates is related to the critical strain energy release rate or fracture
toughness, which is the external energy required to induce fracture.
Delamination damage will seriously affect the compression, shear and
impact resistance properties of composites, resulting in the premature
Fig. 14. Resin-rich defects in micro-scale and meso-scale [76]
Fig. 15. Gaussian-governed wrinkle [89]
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
failure under working conditions.
Due to imperfections during the manufacturing process or the effects
of external factors during the working life of composite laminates such
as the impact of foreign items, the phenomenon of delamination may
occur [94]. The inadequate curing methods form irregular pressure on
the different areas, which generates delamination defects. The initiation
and growth of delamination usually precedes and triggers matrix
cracking [95]. Delamination failure also occurs due to inter-laminate
stresses typically associated with the lowest through-thickness
strengths. This is because that the laminate has no fiber-reinforced
thickness in the middle of two adjacent layers, so the structure must
rely the fragile matrix to transmit loads in this direction. Moreover, the
drilling-induced delamination usually occurs at the hole entry and hole
exit of the drilled hole periphery. According to the formation mecha­
nism, the hole entry delamination is usually named as peel-up delami­
nation, while the hole exit delamination is called push-out delamination,
as shown in Fig. 17 [96]. The propagation of peel-up delamination is
related to both mode I and mode III fractures, and the fracture of the
bottom surface plies in push-out delamination should consider mode I
and mode II fractures [97].
Delamination of composite laminates is related to strain energy
release rate and fracture toughness [93]. The variation of the critical
strain energy release rate along the delamination front is non-uniform
and fluctuates due to local differences in the fiber-to-resin bond
strength, fracture surface morphology, and porosity [98]. Both the
critical strain energy release rate and the fracture toughness is highly
influenced by the ply orientation and specimen width [99]. The
delamination propagation criteria is shown in Table 3.
Where, GiC is the critical energy release rate in mode I, II or III. α and
β are the experimental fitted data. Λ and ξ are the segments in modes I
and II. γ is the constant chosen to model various material response. N =
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 + GGIII EE11 . m is the parameter determined by curve fitting of
22
experiment data.
Delamination defects can impact the mechanical behavior and load-
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

structure is macroscopic. It reduces load-bearing capacity and structural

integrity. Second, the extension of delamination can be triggered easily
by many causes in various time periods of the composite life, like the
manufacturing process, transportation, and within service life. Third,
delamination is hard to inspect in most cases [112].

4.2. Interfacial problem between fiber and resin

Fig. 16. Fatigue failure involving waviness fiber defects [90]
After the resin is cured, the continuous fiber and the resin matrix will
be combined by the interface layer as a link. The interface can transmit
load, and the structure of the interface may cause impact on the strength
of the fiber reinforced resin matrix composites. The chemical reaction on
the interface can efficiently improve the adhesion between fiber and
resin, and amplify the reinforcing effect of the fiber. When the composite
material is subjected to the external load, there will be certain disad­
vantages if the interaction force between the reinforcing material and
the matrix is too small, which means the interface bonding strength is
poor. Therefore, it is very important to modify the interface between the
reinforcement material and the matrix to form an effective stress
transfer. The interface modification of composites includes the

carrying capacity of composite structures in various ways [105]. When Table 3

studying the mechanical response behaviors of partially delaminated Delamination propagation criteria
composites, the most important question is the likelihood and extent of Delamination Equation Application
the evolution of the existing delamination. In laminates containing
Pure mode Gi ≥ GiC [100]
delamination, the appearance of instabilities depends on the geometry, Power law ( G )α ( G )β
I II
≥1 [101]
the properties, the stacking order of composites, as well as the size and GIC
+
GIIC
location of the delamination in laminates. A laminate with a Bilinear law 1
GI − ξGII (G GIC + GIIC ) [102]
near-surface delamination is expected to experience a local buckling ≥1
II
<Λ
GIC GI GIC + ξGIIC
followed by a mixed buckling mode, whereas, laminates with delami­ 1
GIC + GIIC )
nation closer to their middle plane generally experience either global or − GI + ΛGII
≥1
(G
II
>Λ
mixed buckling mode shapes [106], as shown in Fig. 18. Moreover, ΛGIIC GI GIC + ξGIIC
Exponential Haeckel law GI + GII ≥ GIIC + (GIC − GIIC)eγ(1 − N) [103]
Chang et al. [107] analyzed the delamination effects on composite GT
B-K law
shells, and it was found that delamination could significantly affect the (G )m ≥ 1 [104]
II
GIC + (GIIC − GIC )
buckling load and response of cylindrical composite shells subjected to GT
externally pressurized loadings, depending upon the initial length and
location of the delamination, ply orientation and laminate curvature.
Brito-Santana et al. [108] studied on the delamination influence on
elastic properties of laminated composites, they reported that the
effective coefficient values decreased as the damage extension increased
due to the fact that the delamination area increased. Fu et al. [109]
claimed that the delamination damage which was more likely to occur
along the fiber direction would cause obvious unevenness on the
displacement of the surface, and the delamination defects with the same
shape had similar damage modes [110].
Therefore, the delamination defects have the following characteris­
Fig. 18. Buckling modes of delaminated composite laminates [111]
tics. First, the damage caused by delamination to the entire composite

Fig. 17. Mechanism of delamination in composite laminate drilling: (a) peel-up delamination; (b) push-out delamination [96]

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Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

improvement of the chemical and physical forces, so that the interface
layer can transfer the load in a balanced manner.
Because carbon fiber has fewer active groups at the edge, its surface
energy is inert, its bonding interface with resin is a cylindrical surface,
with small specific surface area, large contact angle, and poor contact,
resulting in the low wetting performance and poor bonding ability be­
tween carbon fiber and resin. Thus, the forming composite material has
low interfacial bonding strength and low interlayer shear strength. In
order to reduce the strength loss of carbon fiber during the molding
process, some scholars have modified the surface of carbon fiber [113].
Many methods such as oxidation [114], plasma [115], surface coating
[116], electrochemical modification [117] and chemical grafting [118]
are commonly used to modify the surface of carbon fibers. These
methods are introduced and compared in Table 4.
In general, there might be some interfacial problems in composites,
including the defects between layers and between reinforcement and
resin matrix. This type of failure will cause instability and premature
failure of composites. In this paper, the influence of interfacial problems
on the mechanical properties of composites is reviewed, which is
important for preventing premature failure of composites.
5. Machining defects
After molding the composites, it is unavoidable to machine them to
meet dimensional standards for engineering applications. As the typical
anisotropic and non-uniform material, composites are prone to generate
delamination, burrs, tearing and other manufacturing defects during
machining process, resulting in many engineering application problems
such as premature delamination and shortened life in composite struc­
tures. Therefore, many researchers paid more consideration on the
machining defects of fiber reinforced composites.
5.1. Drilling defects
Parts of fiber-reinforced composites in engineering are usually
assembled using mechanical connections such as bolts and rivets.
Therefore, drilling has become a common and important process in the
machining of composites. However, the damage defects caused by
drilling will seriously affect the strength and reliability of the connection
between components.
The main manifestations of defects produced by drilling of carbon
fiber reinforced composites are: delamination; tearing; microcracks;
burrs; dimensional errors [134]. Delamination refers to the phenomenon
of debonding and separation of adjacent plies due to the drilling axial
load exceeding the bond strength between the composite layers during
the drilling process. Tearing is the defect formed by the cutting edge
being affected by the drilling force and tearing the surface material
around the hole away from the base material during the drilling process.
Burr is the defect caused by the connections that still exist when the end
of the drilling edge leaves the surface of the workpiece during the dril­
ling process.
During the drilling process, burr and tearing are always concentrated
on the surface layer on the exit side of the hole. The tearing defects that
extend on the direction of the outermost fiber are larger than the burr
defects, as shown in Fig. 19 [135]. The formation of drilling exit tearing
defects includes two stages: chisel edge stage and main cutting edge
stage. The chisel edge stage is the dominant stage, which can make the
tearing size reach more than 60% of the final tearing size [136]. The size
of tearing defects is related to the feed speed and the spindle speed.
When the feed speed increases, the tearing at the hole outlet increases,
and when the spindle speed increases, the tearing decreases.
Among the drilling machining defects of composites, delamination is
the most important and common. According to the location of the
delamination defect, it can be divided into entrance delamination and
outlet delamination [134]. The delamination mechanism theories are
shown in Table 5. The delamination at the entrance is also called peeling
delamination, and the delamination at the outlet is also called push out
delamination, as shown in Fig. 17. During the drilling process, delami­
nation defects are prone to occur at the entrance and exit due to the lack
of material support [215]. Axial cutting force is closely related to
delamination defects. When the axial cutting force reaches the certain
critical value, delamination defects will occur, and the delamination at
the outlet is more serious than that at the inlet. The formation mecha­
nism of the inlet delamination defect is that when the cutting edge just
touches the upper surface fiber of the composite laminate, a circum­
ferential cutting force will be generated in the layer. This

Table 4
Carbon fiber surface modification methods
Modification Definition Method Advantage Shortage Research

Gas phase Use oxidizing gas to oxidize the carbon Air oxidation [119]; Ozone Industrializable Loss of carbon fiber [120] ozone oxidation;
oxidation fiber surface to increase the polar oxidation [120]; strength; hard to [121] O2/(O2+N2).
functional groups and appropriately Mixed gas oxidation [121] control
increase the roughness of the carbon
fiber surface
Liquid phase Use liquid oxidizer to oxidize and etch Potassium permanganate; Prevent over etching; more Time consuming [122] [123] [124]
oxidation the surface of carbon fiber hydrogen peroxide; active groups
concentrated nitric acid; mixed
oxidant.
Plasma method Hit the surface of carbon fiber by High, low temperature plasma; Low temperatures; reduce Complex equipment; [125] plasma
plasma to bring about etching and and mixed plasma carbon fiber damage; high cumbersome oxidation
increase the surface roughness of the modification efficiency operation; high cost;
carbon fiber unstable.
Surface coating Coat other materials onto the surface of Electrochemical deposition; Reduce the damage of Difficult to prepare [127] electropolymer
modification carbon fiber to change its surface surface point polymerization carbon fiber and ensure the coating;
method morphology modification; chemical vapor strength [126] [128] flexible
deposition polyimide
nano-coating;
[129] chemical vapor
deposition.
Chemical Incorporate reactive groups on the Inorganic small molecule Designability; controllable Some grafting [131]
grafting surface of carbon fibers by chemical grafting; organic reaction conditions; clean methods have few graded-reinforced
methods [130] macromolecule grafting; and environmentally reactive sites grafting;
organic/inorganic mixture friendly [132] autohydrolysis
grafting condensation reaction;
[133] nitric acid
surface treatment.

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Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Fig. 19. A schematic illustration of the quantification of drilling-induced defects for CFRP composites [135]

Table 5
Delamination mechanism theories
Critical thrust force
Type Equation Reference

Twist drill bit ]

[ 8G Eh3 1/2
FCT =π
IC [138]
3(1 − ν2 )
Slot drill bit 1
FCSL = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅FCT [138]
1 − 2S2 + S4
Brad point drill bit 1+α
FCBP = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅FCT [139]
1 + α2 (1 − 2S2 + S4 )
Core drill bit β(2 − β)
FCC = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅FCT [140]
[1 − (1 − β)4 ] − (1/2)S2 [1 − (1 − β)6 ]

Empirical models of thrust force

Type Equation Reference

Laminates FT1 = (0.003S + 1.0467) × [76.56(fd) + 1.047d ] 0.39 2

[141]
FT2 = (0.0036S + 1.2128) × [76.56(fd)0.39 + 1.047d2 ]
0.39
FT3 = (0.0035S + 1.5159) × [76.56(fd) + 1.047d2 ]
Woven-ply FT = − 23.03 + 54Wt + 0.181G − 224f + 9.575 × 10− 2S [142]
Unidirectional-composites FT = 1.4365θ + 402.8315f − 98.0319 [143]
Woven-ply FT = − 161 + 3.71VC + 977.781f + 12.793W [144]

circumferential cutting force produces an upward axial component
when it encounters the helix angle of the drilling tool. When the axial
component force exceeds the interlaminar bonding strength of the
composite laminate, the upper surface layer will peel off the matrix,
forming an entrance delamination defect [137]. The formation mecha­
nism of the outlet delamination defect is that with the drilling of the drill
bit, the uncut part of the composite laminate gradually becomes thinner,
which leads to the deterioration of the ability to resist the axial cutting
force. Outlet push out delamination occurs when the axial cutting force
exceeds the inter-ply bonding strength between adjacent plies [138].
In the Table, FCT, FCSL, FCBP and FCC are the critical thrust force for
twist drill bit, slot drill bit, brad point drill bit and core drill bit. E is the
elastic modulus; ν is the Poisson ratio; GIC is the critical strain energy
release rate in mode I fracture; h is the uncut plies thickness under drill
bit. S = Rt /Rdl , Rt is the radius of drill bit; Rdl is the radius of delami­
nation. α is the ratio between concentrated load and peripheral circular
load. β is the ratio between thickness of core drill bit and outer radius of
core drill bit. FT is the thrust force. d is the diameter; G is the grit size; θ is
the point angle; W is the tool pre-wear.
In general, the most interesting aspect of drilling defects in com­
posites is delamination. To avoid delamination caused by drilling, the
thrust applied to the workpiece should not exceed the critical thrust.
Therefore, the optimization of drilling defects in composites needs to
consider from two aspects, that is to increase the critical thrust or reduce
the thrust during the drilling process.
5.2. Cutting defects
Cutting machining process changes the surface topography of com­
posites, thereby creating defects on the machined surface. Koplev et al.
[145] conducted orthogonal cutting tests on composite laminates with
different orientations first, and found that the fiber in the 90◦ orientation
were bent and fractured during the cutting edge moving forward. At the
same time, the unbroken part of the fiber was subjected to the bending
moment and formed cracks on the surface. Fibers in 0◦ direction were
bent and formed chips independently, which would not cause cracks on
the re-machined surface. Therefore, the surface quality of the fibers in
the 0◦ direction was better than that of the fibers in the 90◦ direction. On

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Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

this basis, Wang et al. [146] extended the fiber direction to 0◦ ~180◦ , defects in composite materials. Due to the complexity of the internal
and conducted similar orthogonal cutting experiments, and established structure of composite materials, non-contact testing has attracted more
the detailed orthogonal cutting model based on fiber orientation. and more attention. The more mature non-contact testing technologies
El-Hofy et al. [147] systematically summarized the cutting defects and for composites include visual inspection, acoustic wave-based tech­
morphologies of composites with different fiber orientations, as shown niques, optical techniques, imaging techniques and electromagnetic
in Fig. 20. fields, as shown in Table 6. Based on the working principles and pa­
However, among the machining defects of composites (such as fiber rameters of these methods, nanoscale, microscale, mesoscale and
pullout, resin coating, edge chipping, burr, tearing, delamination, etc.), macroscale defects can be detected [148].
delamination is the most serious cutting defect. Hintze et al. [148]
correlated fiber cutting angles with delamination defects. The study
found that no matter what direction the fiber was, the delamination 6.1. Visual inspection
defects were easy to occur when the fiber cutting angle was in the range
of 90◦ ~180◦ . In further research, the fiber bending fracture model Visual inspection is the main method of routine inspection for
showed that the fiber would bend perpendicular to the workpiece plane different composite structures in aircraft, wind turbine blades, and many
when the cutting angle was within the range of 0◦ ~90◦ [149], while other sectors. It is considered the quickest, cheapest, and most common
bending fracture would occur when the angle was within 90◦ ~180◦ method to find cracks or surface dents, and it can reduce the need for a
[150]. Colligan et al. [151] attributed the delamination defect of the full scan by other expensive and complicated techniques, as shown in
composite surface to the lack of support from the upper and lower layers. Fig. 21 [163]. For example, more than 80% of inspections of large
Sheikh-Ahmad [152] et al. classified the delamination defects on the aircraft are visual inspections, and visual inspection of composite wind
surface of composites after cutting into four categories according to turbine blades is also the most common inspection practice [164].
different forms. In type I delamination, the superficial fibers are broken; Visual inspection methods include visual, optical testing, and liquid
in type II delamination, the fibers are not cut, but the cracks do not penetrant testing. These methods are particularly effective in detecting
propagate; in type I/II delamination, the fiber and resin matrix cracks macroscopic defects, which are usually used in conjunction with devices
have extended to the inside of the cutting side, and the fiber bundles are that are easy to operate such as miniature cameras or endoscopes. There
lifted; type III delamination is the fiber residue on the surface layer, are many factors that affect the reliability and detection probability of
which generally occurs on the surface of the fiber in the 0◦ direction. The
main delamination forms are type I and type I/II. The depth of delam­ Table 6
ination increases with the increase of feeding speed and decreases with Non-contact detection of defects in composites
the increase of cutting speed. Non-contact testing Detection Capabilities Application
In addition to the anisotropy and heterogeneity of the composite methods
material itself leading to various defects during machining processing, Visual inspection Visual and optical Macroscopic surface [155]
Azmi et al. [153] studied the effect of the sharpness of the tool on the testing defects
cutting delamination defects of composites. Faraz et al. [154] proposed Dye penetrate Surface defects [155]
the model of the cutting edge radius and correlated it with the cutting Acoustic wave-based Acoustic emission Analyzing entire [156]
techniques structure
force and machining delamination in composite machining. It is Ultrasonic testing Subsurface defects [157]
considered that the edge radius was the main factor affecting the Infrared Surface heat related [109]
machining cutting force and delamination defects. Hintze [148] et al. thermography defects
analyzed the machining process of composite material groove milling Optical techniques Terahertz testing Internal defects such [158]
as delamination
and obtained similar conclusions: using a tool with a larger cutting edge
Shearography Depth of defects [159]
radius could significantly increase the surface burr, delamination and Digital image Surface deformation [110]
other defects. correlation related defects [160]
Imaging techniques X-ray Subsurface defects [161]
6. Non-contact detection of defects in composites radiography
Electromagnetic Eddy-current Surface/near surface [162]
fields testing defects
According to the previous introduction, it is inevitable that there are

Fig. 20. Surface machining defects of composites with different fiber orientations [147]

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Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Fig. 21. Visual inspection of composites [163]

visual inspection, such as lighting, inspection time, inspector fatigue and

experience, environmental conditions. With the increasing use of deep
learning methods, Fotouhi et al. [165] established the experimental
system, which could realize the function of autonomous damage
recognition in visual inspection of laminated composite structures using
deep learning.
In general, visual inspection methods are widely used, easy to
operate, inexpensive and no complicated equipment required. However,
it can only be used to detect macroscopic defects, and is helpless for
nanoscopic and microscopic defects; and it can only detect surface de­
fects of composites, but cannot obtain the internal defect information.

6.2. Acoustic emission

The acoustic emission (AE) technique is a nondestructive testing

method that is used to detect stress waves that result from the release of
elastic energy due to local rapid unloading [166]. AE technology is also
used to obtain dynamic information during the process of damage
initiation and evolution, providing a basis for the safety evaluation of
composite materials or construction. In recent years, AE technology has
been widely used to identify and distinguish different damage modes in
the field of composite laminates [167]. Some researchers have classified Fig. 22. AE signals of different damage in composites [168]
the damage of composite laminates during the loading process into
several modes, such as matrix fracture, fiber breakage, fiber-matrix technique, which can test the real-time damage of composites and can
interface debonding, and delamination, as shown in Fig. 22 [168]. detect the crack propagation process. However, acoustic emission
Based on the working principle of AE technique, Hamam et al. [169] technology will be affected by various external factors. If the external
detected the transverse cracking in composite laminates. Liu et al. [170] environment is complex, the signal of composite material defects will be
analyzed the failure mode of composite laminates by AE signals. Zhou disturbed.
et al. [171] performed fracture characterization of composite slabs with
different connections based on AE parameters. Kong et al. [172] carried
out damage identification in fiber reinforced titanium matrix composites 6.3. Ultrasonic testing
using AE method. Xu et al. [173] and Muir et al. [168] reported the
damage identification mechanism of composites via machine learning Ultrasonic testing is widely expected because of its advantages such
and AE technique. as the simple equipment, simple operation, the large detection area, and
In summary, acoustic emission is a passive non-destructive testing high sensitivity to defects [174]. Ultrasonic testing is an acoustic

16
Y. Fu and X. Yao
inspection technique, which operates through surface wave testing, bulk
wave propagation and guided wave propagation [175]. For
non-destructive testing of composites, elastic waves or Lamb waves
propagate in selective directions due to their anisotropic nature, which
makes the technique effective, as shown in Fig. 23. Ultrasonic testing
operates in three detection modes, that is, reflection, transmission and
backscattering of pulsed elastic waves in the material system [148]. It
introduces guided high-frequency sound waves to effectively detect
defect size, crack location, delamination location, fiber waviness,
meso-scale ply fiber orientation and layup stacking sequence [176].
In recent years, with the comprehensive development of technology,
the use of ultrasonic methods to detect defects in composites has become
more and more intelligent. Li et al. [174] proposed a new
self-interference cancellation algorithm based on the matching pursuit
algorithm, which could eliminate the waveform generated by multiple
reflections in the echoed signal. The algorithm can be applied to the
defect location of multilayer composites. He et al. [177] proposed the
1D-YOLO network to realize the intelligent recognition of aircraft
composite material damage, in which intelligent fusion recognized both
the ultrasonic C-scan image and ultrasonic A-scan signal of composite
material damage. Bahonar et al. [178] presented a new technique to
investigate the delamination in composite structures using air-coupled
ultrasonic testing, which could produce a thin air gap for measuring
realistic ultrasonic responses.
Generally speaking, ultrasonic testing has the following advantages:
strong penetrating power, light equipment, low testing cost and high
efficiency. And it can automate real-time detection. However, this
method is greatly affected by some subjective factors such as the oper­
ator, and the quantitative and positioning accuracy is relatively poor.
6.4. Digital image correlation
Digital image correlation (DIC) is a technique that captures images of
an object of interest and delivers full-field measurements on the object of
interest using image analysis [179]. 2D DIC can be used to measure
deformation and strain on planar objects. 3D DIC, consisting of two or
more cameras, is used to capture digital images from two or more angles
[216]. Devivier et al. [180] detected the strain singularity caused by
artificial delamination and process defect of composites through DIC
monitoring. Many investigations of damage development using DIC in
composites have been reported in the literature [217]. DIC method has
been proven beneficial to the investigation of fracture mechanics in
composites [181], and DIC data can be used to extract stress intensity
Fig. 23. Typical ultrasonic equipment [177]
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Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
factors.
Laurin et al. [182] used full-field measurements of DIC to analyze the
damaged composite structures subjected to tensile loading. Caminero
et al. [183] used DIC to monitor composite laminates with an open hole,
and then investigated damage and performance of adhesively bonded
patch repairs under tensile loading. Fu et al. [109] focused on the
compressive delamination and its corresponding surface deformation by
using DIC methods, as shown in Fig. 24. Koohbor et al. [184] used 3D
DIC technology to study fracture of braided composites.
In summary, DIC is a real-time full-field measurement that can
monitor composite deformation to obtain defect distribution. However,
the calculation process of this method is more complicated, and the
accuracy of its deformation results is limited, which is greatly affected
by the accuracy of image monitoring equipment.
6.5. Infrared thermography
Infrared thermography is a non-contact technology with wide mea­
surement range, fast measurement speed, and high acquisition fre­
quency, which can record the temperature fields of composites [185].
Infrared energy is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer
than visible light [148]. A typical infrared thermography system con­
tains an infrared radiometer, with or without energy source, synchro­
nizing and control panel, display software [186]. The use of infrared
thermography technique can be classified into passive thermography
and active thermography. In passive thermography, thermal radiation is
directly emitted from surfaces of the test body [187]; in active ther­
mography, the heating or cooling flow is generated and propagated into
the test object, and thermal responses are detected according to the
Stefan-Bolzmann law [188].
Infrared thermography can be used to detect the damage and defects
in composites by analyzing energy dissipation, as shown in Fig. 25.
Table 7 summarizes the energy dissipation equations related to damage
which can be detected by infrared thermography.
All in all, infrared thermography is a full-field real-time detection
technology, which has unique advantages in composite damage detec­
tion. However, the temperature change of composite damage is not
large, so the ability to distinguish details of defects is weak, and the
detection accuracy is limited.
6.6. Terahertz testing
Terahertz testing method is based on terahertz waves which lie
within the electromagnetic spectrum from 100GHz to 30THz [195].
Terahertz waves have good penetrating power for non-metallic,
non-polar materials, including foams, ceramics, glass, resin, paint,
rubber and composites [196]. And terahertz-based non-destructive
testing techniques use the wave characterizes to detect, analysis and
evaluate material systems, which has attracted wide interest in various
fields [197]. The terahertz testing technique includes the terahertz
time-domain spectroscopy system and the continuous wave system.
In defect detection of composites, Ryu et al. [198] devised a terahertz
time-domain spectroscopy to detect hidden multi-delamination in a
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite laminates, and hidden
multi-delamination in the GFRP composite laminate was successfully
detected and imaged using the Terahertz testing imaging system [199].
Oh et al. [158] used the terahertz time-domain spectroscopy imaging
technique to detect the weld line defect of an injection-molded short
glass fiber-reinforced composite.
Terahertz testing is an ultrafast testing technique in composite defect
detection. However, the testing method has disadvantages such as
expensive, bulky and inflexible, which limit its wide application.
6.7. Shearography
Shearography testing is a laser-based technique, which uses the full-
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 24. Displacement of composites with delamination defects by DIC [177]
Fig. 25. Energy dissipation tested by infrared thermography
field speckle shearing interferometric method to overcome the limita­
tions of holography testing [148]. The typical shearography setup is
using the laser beam to illuminate the sample first, and the resulting
speckle pattern is imaged through the shearing device, and the
controlled stressing process is subjected to the sample, then using the
charge-coupled device camera to capture and record the interferometric
pattern, so that the fringe pattern that contains structural information is
produced [200]. Fig. 26 shows two shearography systems: first, speckle
shearography is based on the speckle pattern that appears as a fluctu­
ating intensity distribution; second, grating shearography is based on
the use of a diffraction grating fixed on the specimen.
In the inspection of defects in composites, Macedo et al. [200] pre­
sented the special shearography system with radial sensitivity and
explored its applicability for detecting adhesion defects on internal
surfaces of flanged joints of composite material pipes. Gu et al. [202]
used the shearography imaging results to identify the internal defect
location, shape, and boundary qualitatively for the preparation of sub­
sequent depth characterization. Oliveira et al. [203] trained stacked
models for impact energy estimation in composites with images from
both shearography and thermography, which provided more possibil­
ities for the development of technology.
18
Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
6.8. Micro-CT
Microfocus X-ray computed tomography (micro-CT), is a high-
resolution three-dimensional (3D) imaging technique that has been
broadly accepted in research on composites. Micro-CT is capable to
provide not only the external features of high-resolution parts, but also
their internal structure information [204]. Na et al. [205] studied the
initiation and propagation of fiber fracture of composite laminate in the
static tension test by X-ray micro-CT. Wang et al. [206] identified the
fiber breakage, longitudinal splitting and matrix micro-cracks in the
fiber kink zone in the static compression test using micro-CT method.
Tan et al. [207] employed micro-CT testing to characterize impact
damage in stitched composites. Sket et al. [208] studied the onset and
evolution of 3D damage in notched glass fiber/epoxy laminates under
three-point bending by X-ray micro-CT. Liu et al. [209] investigated the
flexural behavior of composites with the artificially embedded delami­
nation (pre-delamination) by using micro-CT to detect the internal
morphology of composites before and after delamination damage. Senck
et al. [210] quantified micro-cracks in specimens tested for beam
bending after low velocity impacts by micro-CT testing the specimens
after the experiment. Fu et al. [109] investigated prefabricated delam­
ination in composite laminates by micro-CT, as shown in Fig. 27. There
is no doubt that micro-CT has high superiority in nondestructive char­
acterization of composites.
Y. Fu and X. Yao Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276

Table 7 In composite defect detection, Micro-CT method can obtain internal

Damage energy dissipation of composites with defects detected by infrared defect information more accurately. Its resolution can reach microme­
thermography ters, and it has strong penetration. However, it cannot obtain real-time
References Equations Usage information during composite defect propagation, and this testing
Cholewa et al. ∂T
H = ρC + Ediss + Edamage
Energy method is relatively expensive.
∂t transformation in In general, each non-contact detection method has its own unique
[189] Asurf
Ediss = [h(Ts − Ta ) + eβ(Ts 4 − Ta 4 )] dynamic process
V advantages in composite defect detection. However, the use of each
Guimard et al. Ediss = Eintrinsic + Ejammed + Efiber Irreversible technique alone does not provide a comprehensive assessment of dam­
dissipation of age detection, localization, classification, and quantification. For
[190]
composites
Chrysochoos ∂T Local heat source
example, acoustic emission provides damage detection, localization and
ρC + div(− k⋅gradT) = d1 + sthe + sint + rext classification, but no damage severity; digital image correlation pro­
et al. [191] ∂t equation
d1 = (σ − σe ) : ε̇ − ρ
∂ψ
V̇ s = ρT
∂2 ψ
: ε̇
vides damage localization, and severity quantification, but cannot
∂Vi i the ∂T∂ε classify damage patterns. Therefore, it is necessary to develop multi-
2
sint = ρT
∂ ψ
: V̇ technology fusion new detection methods to achieve complementary
∂T ∂V i i
Valès et al. ( θ
)
Local heat source advantages and improve detection efficiency and reliability in the
ρC θ̇ + + div( − k⋅gradθ) = st = d1 + sthe
future.
[192] τ equation for
quasi-static
process 7. Prospection
1 Thermoelastic
ρψ (ε, T) = ε : Λ : ε − θα : Λ : ε −
2 source equation
1 ρC Defects are widespread in composites. Their sizes extend from
(T − T0 )2 + ρψ 0
2 T0 nanoscale to macroscale, and their locations may exist in the matrix,
High strain rate-
∂θ
ρC − kΔθ = s fibers, and interfaces, due to the wide variety of composites and their
∂t local heat source
equation high degree of heterogeneity. Thus, it is difficult for defect studies to
Boulanger ( ∂θ θ
)
( ∂2 θ ∂2 θ ) Two-dimensional cover all variability, such as fiber properties, resin molding, stress his­
et al.[193] ρC + − k + =s heat dissipation tory. So, it is necessary to investigate the molding process of composites
∂t τ1D
th
∂x2 ∂y2
problem and the behavior of the material combination. Each factor, such as
)
( ∂θ ( ∂2 θ ) One-dimensional
ρC
θ
− k =s reinforcement type (fabric, number of layers, direction), process type
∂t
+
τ2D ∂x2 heat dissipation
th
problem (molding, hot pressing, additive manufacturing), setup (speed, temper­
Naderi et al. du ∂T Local heat source ature, pressure), and geometry affects the quality of the prepared
ρ = qt + estored = ρC + estored
[194] dt ∂t equation for composites.
fatigue
Existing research has revealed the formation mechanism of defects
and suggested solutions to avoid them. However, studies are always
Micro-CT is also widely used in characterization of internal geometry aimed at the single defect type, and there is no comprehensive study of
of braided and woven composites [211]. Pazmino et al. [212] charac­ multiple defects and multiple factors. Besides, there are no molding
terized the internal geometry changing 3D orthogonal woven glass fiber specifications or guidelines to regulate the forming process of compos­
fabric subjected to external shear force by micro-CT. Melenka et al. ites. These need to be addressed and expanded in future research. Based
[213] identified the porosity and strand geometry of 2D tubular braided on the existing experimental research, combined with data processing
composites and bio-based braided composite structures by methods such as machine learning and neural networks, the research on
high-resolution Micro-CT, as shown in Fig. 28. Ya et al. [214] built the quantifying defects in various molding methods and various types will
yarn geometry and voids in Software Mimicx, and then characterized the be of great significance for future composite engineering applications.
yarn and porosity from the reconstructed 3D model by Micro-CT. Additionally, in today’s situation, intelligent manufacturing has

Fig. 26. Optical setups [201]: (a) speckle shearography and (b) grating shearography

19
Y. Fu and X. Yao
Fig. 27. Prefabricated delamination in composite laminates detected by micro-CT
Fig. 28. Identification of individual braid voids using Micro-CT. [213]
become the future development direction of the world’s manufacturing
industry. The manufacturing process of composite materials will
develop in the direction of intelligence and low defects, which not only
requires the deeper understanding of the forming mechanism, the causes
of defects, and the causes of interface delamination in composites, but
also improves of the accuracy of testing experiments. Also, the combi­
nation of the cutting-edge technology can gradually improve the per­
formance and manufacturing accuracy of composite materials, so that
the manufacturing industry of composite materials can get faster
development.
In defect detection technology, the development should be mainly
reflected in the following four points: advanced detection and evalua­
tion methods with higher detection efficiency, automation, and better
visualization of detection results are required; explore new structural
defect characterization, evaluation and detection techniques; damage
assessment and service life prediction of composite structures will face
very realistic application requirements; the intelligent detection and
evaluation technology of composite defects has become a research
hotspot.
8. Conclusion
This paper is an overview on manufacturing defects of fiber rein­
forced resin matrix composites, including: resin defects, fiber defects,
interface defects and machining defects. To characterize composite de­
fects, the authors summarize non-contact detection of defects in com­
posites, and prospect the development on defects of composites in the
future.
1) The manufacturing defects of composite materials are divided into
matrix defects, fiber defects and interface defects in this article. Matrix
20
Composites Part C: Open Access 8 (2022) 100276
defects are reviewed from the following three aspects, namely, residual
stresses, void defects and resin-rich defects; fiber defects are detailed
from fiber wrinkle and waviness in composites; and interfaces can carry
defects as un-bonded regions on fiber surfaces and between layers such
as delamination. This article analyzes and discusses the generation
mechanism, distribution and optimization methods of manufacturing
defects in hot press molding, resin transfer molding and additive
manufacturing molding.
2) For the engineering applications of composites, this paper sum­
marizes machining defects such as drilling defects and cutting defects.
The main manifestations of defects produced by machining process in
carbon fiber reinforced composites are: delamination; tearing; burrs.
Delamination is the most serious machining defect, resulting in many
engineering application problems such as decreased strength and
shortened life in composite structures.
3) This article summarizes the commonly used defect detection
methods for composite materials, including visual inspection, acoustic
emission, ultrasonic testing, digital image correlation, infrared ther­
mography, terahertz testing, shearography and micro-CT. Based on the
working principles and parameters of various methods, they can detect
nano-scale defects, micro-scale defects, meso-scale defects and macro-
scale defects in composite materials, respectively.
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