BRICKS, BEADS & BONES

Class 12 | History | Chapter - 1

Download Free Notes from Description

By Sudhanshu ( Alumni BHU )

 Introduction

Basic Info
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE
Geography

➢ It is named after Harappa ➢ Core areas - Afghanistan,

➢ It is also known as Indus Valley civilization The Jammu, Baluchistan,
➢ The civilization is dated between 2600 BCE Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Harappan
to 1900 BCE. UP, Haryana
➢ This was an Urban civilization
Civilization

Major Sources Famous Centre

➢ Remains of structures ➢ Pakistan - Harappa,

➢ Bricks Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro
➢ Beads, Jewellery ➢ India – Dholavira,
➢ Pottery Rakhigarhi, Lothal,
➢ Terracotta toys Kalibangan, Banawali,
➢ Remains of bones and Nageshwar
➢ Charred grains ➢ Afghanistan - Shortughai
➢ Seals and weights
 Subsistence strategies

Agriculture Pastoralism Technology

➢ Crops Grown – ➢ Animals domesticated –

▪ Wheat, Barley ▪ Goat, sheep
Plough Irrigation
▪ Lentil, Sesame ▪ Buffalo, Pig
▪ Chickpea, Millets and Agriculture Technology
Rice ➢ Ox was used
➢ Animals used for ➢ Reservoirs and canals
➢ Major Evidences – consumption – ➢ Wooden Plough was were used
▪ Remains of charred ▪ Boar, deer, ghariyal, used ➢ Major Evidences –
grains, ploughed field fish, fowl ➢ Major evidences- ▪ Ruins of
▪ Terracotta Bull reservoir in
➢ Evidence of Millet were ▪ Terracotta Dholavira
found from Gujarat model of Plough ▪ Traces of Canals
➢ Evidence of Rice was rare (Banawali) in Shortughai
▪ Ploughed field
in Kalibangan
 Lower Town
➢ Walled and Protected
➢ Had larger area than citadel
➢ Several buildings were built on mud
brick platform
➢ Used for general purposes – residence,
Mohenjodaro
trade, craft production etc.
Drainage System
➢ Drains and roads were laid down
first then houses were made
➢ Drains were connected with every
house
➢ Roads and drains were made in grid
pattern
➢ Drains had loose coverings of mud
brick for the purpose of cleaning
Citadel
➢ Walled and Protected
➢ Located on high platform but had small area
➢ Whole structure was built on mud brick platform
➢ Famous structures – warehouse, great bath,
pillared hall etc.
➢ Probably used for specific ceremony and rituals
Domestic Architecture
➢ Courtyard was used for common
activities - cooking, weaving etc
➢ Some houses had staircases
➢ Many houses had wells
➢ Every house had bathroom
➢ Courtyard was not directly
connected with entrance
➢ No windows on ground floor
 Social Differences

Analysis of Burials Analysis of Objects

➢ Normal grave unlike the huge

pyramids of Egyptian people
➢ Jewellery has been found in
graves of both men and women
➢ There was no variation in graves
Utilitarian
➢ They were daily use objects
➢ Ex- Pottery, needles, body
scrubbers
➢ They were found throughout
the Harappan settlements
Luxury
➢ They were either very rare or
made via complicated process
➢ Ex- Gold, pots of faience
➢ They were found only in big
settlements like Harappa,
Mohenjodaro etc.
 Raw Materials for craft Production

Stones Metals Other Materials

Steatite Lapis Bronze Copper Gold Burnt

Carnelian Shell Faience
Lazuli Clay

Sources – Khetri
Sources –
region (Rajasthan)
Nageshwar
and Oman Sources –
and Balakot
Quartz Jasper Procured Locally

Sources –
Sources – South
Sources – Shortughai Lothal Procured Locally
India
Southern
Rajasthan
and Northern
Gujarat
 Centres of Craft Production

Methods of Centre
Major Centres
Identification

Evidence of Raw
Lothal and Nageshwar materials
Chanhudaro
Dholavira and Balakot Evidence of Tools
➢ Bead Making ➢ Drilling ➢ Making Shell Evidence of
➢ Shell Cutting Objects Unfinished Objects
➢ Metal Working
➢ Seal Making Evidence of waste
➢ Weight Making
 Trade in Harappan Civilization

Evidences Trade Contacts

Mesopotamian
texts, seals Oman Bahrain
Mesopotamia
Harappan Jar in Oman (Magan) (Dilmun)
Harappan seals, beads,
weights, dice and beads
Depiction of boats
and ships on seals
 Seals Scripts

➢ They were used in long distance ➢ It has signs

communication
➢ They were used for two purposes –
▪ Convey the identity of sender
▪ Ensure the safety of goods
➢ Total number of signs are in between
375-400
Seals, ➢ The script is still undeciphered
Scripts and ➢ The script was written from right to
Weights left
➢ Script was used on – seals, copper
tools, rims and jars, tablets,

Weights

➢ Made up of stone called “Chert”

➢ Cubical in shape with no markings
➢ Lower weights followed binary
denominations
➢ Higher weights followed decimal
denominations
 Authority in Harappan civilization
Seals Scripts
1st Opinion 2nd Opinion
➢ They were used in long distance ➢ It has signs
➢communication
No rulers ➢➢Total number
Several of signs are in between
rulers
➢➢They were
Equal used
status tofor
all two purposes – ➢375-400
Every city had different rulers
▪ Convey the identity of sender Views of ➢ The script is still deciphered
▪ Ensure the safety of goods ➢ The script was written from right to
Historians
Views of left
Historians ➢ Script was used on – seals, copper
tools, rims and jars, tablets,

Weights
3rd Opinion
➢ Made up of stone called “Chert”
➢➢Cubical
There inwas
shapea with no authority
single markings for
➢ Lower weights followed binary
whole civilization
denominations
➢ Higher weights followed decimal
denominations
 End of Harappan Civilization
Seals Scripts

Late Harappan Civilization Reason behind Decline

➢ Period – 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE

➢ Mature Harappan sites abandoned Climate Change
➢ Pottery, weights, seals, beads started Deforestation
disappearing
➢ Expansion of Population in Haryana, Floods
Gujarat, West UP
Drying up of river

➢ Made up of stone called “Chert” Overuse of Landscape

➢ Cubical in shape with no markings
➢ Lower weights followed binary
denominations
➢ Higher weights followed decimal
denominations
 Discovering the Civilization

Alexander
Dayaram Sahni
Cunningham
➢ He became the first director general ➢ He excavated Harappa in 1921
of ASI in 1856
➢ In 1870s, Harappan seals reached
Cunningham. Key
➢ He was comparing Harappan seals
Contribution
with texts of Buddhist pilgrims

R E M Wheeler
➢ He became the DG of ASI in 1944
➢ He is known for his implementation
of stratigraphy
R D Banerjee
John Marshall
➢ He excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922
➢ He was the DG of ASI in 1920s
➢ In 1924, he officially announced the
discovery of Harappan civilization
 Problems in Interpretation

Problem in archaeological
Process of Interpretation
interpretation
➢ Confusion in reconstructing religious
Recovering Artefacts practices
➢ Script is still undeciphered

Classifying them

Analysing Function

Make Conclusion
Kings, Farmers and Towns
Class 12 | History | Chapter - 2

By Sudhanshu ( Alumni BHU )

 The Timeline The Turning Point
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE ▪ 6th century BCE is often called as turning
2600- point in the History of Sub-Continent.
1900 BCE Harappan
Civilization
Emergence of Early States
1500-600
Vedic BCE
Civilization Growing use of Iron

600 BCE- Development of Heterodox

600 CE Early Historic sects i.e. Buddhism, Jainism,
Period Ajivika

Development of Coins
 How did they
Introduction
emerge?
➢ Mahajanpadas were small kingdoms ➢ Reasons behind Emergence-
of Gangetic plains that existed
between 600 BCE to 4th Century BCE ▪ Massive Use of Iron Tools
➢ As per various texts, there were in The Era of ▪ Expansion in Agriculture
total 16 Mahajanpadas ▪ Intensive Animal Rearing
➢ Some famous mahajanpadas – Mahajanapadas
Magadha, Vajji, Kosala, Gandhara,
Avanti, Kasi, Kuru, Panchala etc.

Governance Features

➢ Two types of governance – Monarchy ➢ Each Mahajanpadas had a Capital City

and Oligarchy ➢ Most were fortified and had
Monarchy Oligarchy permanent Military and bureaucracy
➢ Tax was levied on agricultural surplus
▪ Ruled by Kings ▪ Ruled by Ganapati ➢ Tributes were extracted from traders,
▪ Position of King was ▪ Position of Ganapati craftsman and hunter
hereditary was not hereditary ➢ Raids on neighbouring states was
▪ Ex- Magadha, Kosala, ▪ Ex- Vajji,, Malla etc. considered legitimate source of
Kasi, Panchala etc. revenue
 Location Why it was so Powerful?

➢ It was located in modern Day Bihar ➢ Reasons –

▪ Productive Agriculture
▪ Availability of Iron
▪ Availability Elephants
Magadha ▪ Convenient Communication
▪ Ambitious Rulers i.e. Bimbisara, Ajatshatru,
Mahapadma Nanda

Capital

➢ Initially the Capital was Rajagaha (Modern

Day Rajgir)
➢ Later the capital shifted to Pataliputra
(Modern Day Patna) in 4th century BCE
 Introduction Major Sources

➢ Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in

321 BCE
➢ Pataliputra was the Capital Literary Archaeological
➢ Extended till Afghanistan in North to
▪ Arthashastra ▪ Edicts of Ashoka
Andhra Pradesh in South
Mauryan ▪ Indica ▪ Punch Marked coins
Empire ▪ Buddhist, Jain and ▪ Cave edicts
Puranic Texts

Importance of Administration
empire
Ashoka’s reign
➢ It was discovered in 19th century ➢ One capital and four provincial Centres
➢ It gave a sense of proud to the (Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri)
➢ 272-231 BCE
Nationalists ➢ Control was strongest around capital and
➢ Known for his expansion, spread of
➢ Nationalist saw Ashoka as an provincial centres
Buddhism and governance
Indigenous inspiring figure ➢ Various committees and sub-committees
➢ Promoted the philosophy of
for Army
Dhamma (righteous way of living)
➢ First King to install inscriptions
➢ Appointed Dhamma-Mahammata
for the spread of Dhamma
 Post Mauryan Era

Empires in North Empires in South Empires in North-west Major Sources

➢ Shunga ➢ Satavahanas ➢ Shaka ➢ Literature – Abhigyan

➢ Kanva ➢ Vakatakas ➢ Kushana Shakuntalam, Mudrarakshasa
➢ Guptas ➢ Cholas ➢ Coins
➢ Pandyas ➢ Inscriptions
➢ Prashastis
 New Notions of Kingship

Chiefdoms Divine Kings Prashastis

➢ Emerged in South India in
2nd century BCE. i.e. Cholas,
Cheras, Pandayas
➢ They were ruled by chiefs
➢ Some rulers had obscure origin i.e.
Satavahanas, Kushanas
➢ They adopted divine titles to gain
acceptance
➢ E.g. Kushanas took titles like
Devaputra (Son of God) to gain
acceptance.
➢ It was a literature composed in praise.
➢ It was written usually by court poets to
impress the Kings
➢ The factual information was not totally
correct as most things were
exaggerated.
➢ Ex- Prayag Prashasti for Samudragupta
 Major Sources Agriculture

Inscriptions ➢ Production increased because

of Various strategies –
Jatakas and Panchatantra ▪ Iron Tipped Plough
▪ Transplantation
➢ These sources give us information The Countryside ▪ Use of Irrigation through
about the peasantry and landowners (600 BCE- 600 wells, tanks and canals.
➢ Many others like Pastoralists, Hunters, CE)
fishermen were beyond the reach

Features of Land Social Differences

Grants
Land Grants ➢ In North India, usually three
➢ Differed in size and rights class existed
➢ Local people had to obey the ▪ Large Landholders
recipient (Lord) Whom Given Why Given ▪ Small Peasants
➢ Agrahara was a special land ▪ Landless Labourers
grant given to Brahmana ▪ Brahmans ▪ To extend Agriculture ➢ In South India
scholars ▪ Religious ▪ To win allies ▪ Vellalar (Large
➢ Recorded on stone and copper Institutions ▪ To show fake power Landowners)
plates ▪ Uzhavar (Ploughmen)
▪ Adimai (Slaves)
 Second Urbanization Sources

➢ Towns developed in Gangetic plains. ➢ Votive Inscriptions

➢ Famous towns – Pataliputra, Ujjayini, ➢ Artefacts
Puhar, Mathura.
Towns in Early
Historic Period

Elites and Common People

Elites Common People

➢ Lived in fortified settlements ➢ We got to know about them from

➢ They used special Northern Votive inscriptions
Black Polished Ware, ➢ They used to organize themselves
Ornaments, vessels, Figurines, into Guilds and Shrenis.
Weapons
 Routes Materials Traded

For Export For Import

Land Routes Marine Routes
➢ Salt ➢ Pearls ➢ Coin
➢ Extended to Central ➢ Connected to North ➢ Grain ➢ Ivory ➢ Topaz
Asia via Afghanistan Africa via Red Sea ➢ Cloth ➢ Diamonds ➢ Crude Glass
Trade in Early
➢ Connected to Southeast ➢ Metal Ores ➢ Sapphires ➢ Coral
➢ Bullock Carts were Historic Period
Asia via Bay of Bengal ➢ Timber ➢ Tortoise ➢ Tin
used
➢ Trade was carried ➢ Spices Shells ➢ Lead
through Ships ➢ Black Pepper ➢ Cinnamon
▪ Note- Successful merchants were called as Exchange and
Masattuvan (in Tamil) and Setthi and Coinage
Sattavaha (in Prakrit)

Punch Marked Coins Indo-Greek➢Coins

Made up of Kushana
stone called “Chert”
Coins Gupta Coins Yaudheya Coins
➢ Cubical in shape with no markings
➢ Lower weights followed binary
▪ Made of Copper and ▪ First coin to bear ▪ Issued First Gold Coins ▪ Issued Gold Coins ▪ Yaudheyas were
denominations
Silver the name and ▪ Identical in weights with ▪ Most Spectacular Gold tribal republic of
➢ Higher weights followed decimal
▪ Issued by Image of Rulers Roman and Parthians (Iran) Coins Punjab Haryana
denominations
Mahajanpads and ▪ Made of Silver and ▪ Has the largest collection ▪ Coins were known for ▪ Issued numerous
Mauryans copper of gold coins their purity Copper Coins
 Inscriptions
General features

➢ Engraved on Hard Surface ➢ Some of them carry dates

such as Stone, Metal and ➢ Others are dated on the
Pottery basis of Palaeography
➢ They are permanent Records

➢ Earliest Inscriptions were ➢ It Primarily records –

issued in Prakrit ➢ Achievements and
Orders of Kings
➢ Made up of stone called “Chert” ➢ Donations made by
➢ Cubical in shape with no markings people
➢ Lower weights followed binary
denominations
➢ Higher weights followed decimal
denominations
 Brahmi Script Kharosthi Script

➢ European Scholars with Indian ➢ It was deciphered by Comparing

Pundits started comparing Brahmi the letters with Greek letters
with contemporary Devanagari
and Bengali script
Deciphering
➢ On the basis of these comparison, the Inscriptions
the script was discovered

Limitations

➢ Made up of stone called “Chert”

➢ Cubical in shape with no markings
Technical Limitations
➢ Lower weights followed binary Fundamental Limitations
denominations
➢ Faintly engraved
➢ Higher weights followed ➢decimal
letters Not every important information are
➢ Missing and denominations
damaged Letters recorded
➢ Confusion about the exact meaning ➢ Biased as per the perspective of issuer
of inscriptions ➢ Lack of information about common people
Kinship, Caste and Class
Class 12 | History | Chapter - 3

By Sudhanshu ( Alumni BHU )

 What was in it? Insights of Research

➢ It was a project on Mahabharata led by ➢ Researched carried out for 47 years

V.S Sukthankar ➢ The team selected common elements and
➢ In this project the Sanskrit Manuscripts complied them in a text of more than 13,000
from all over India was collected and Critical Edition pages
compared ➢ They also added regional variations in footnote.
of
Mahabharata

Conclusion

➢ Various common elements were there

➢ Few regional variations present
➢ The rules written in Sanskrit versions were
not followed universally
 What is Kinship? How a Kinship is formed?

➢ Kinship is a web of social ➢ Basis of Kinship –

relationships that forms an ▪ Blood
important part of Human ▪ Marriage
existence Kinship, Caste ▪ Adoption

and Class

Concept of Family Elements of Kinship

➢ It is a part of Kinfolk
➢ Kula (Family)
➢ The familial ties are often
➢ Jnati (Kinfolk)
blooded and married
➢ Vamsa (Lineage)
➢ Each family is unique
 Patriliny in ancient
Definition
India
➢ It refers to the concept where one ➢ It was most common social feature of
traces their descent from male ancient India
progenitor/ parent.
➢ Under Patriliny, sons could claim
The Idea of ➢ All ruling dynasties of Mahajanpada
followed this system of Patriliny
share in the father’s property
when he died.
Patriliny ➢ Idea of Patriliny got prevalent after the
Mahabharata was composed (during 500
BCE to 400 CE)
➢ It was followed by ordinary people too
Exceptions of Patriliny

➢ Brother succeeded the throne

➢ Kinsman succeeded the throne
➢ Woman succeeded the throne (rarest
of the rarest) i.e. Prabhavati Gupta
 Common Notions Types of marriages

➢ Marrying outside the Kin was ➢ Endogamy- Marrying within a unit

desirable ➢ Exogamy – Marrying outside the unit
➢ It was father’s responsibility to marry ➢ Polygyny – Marrying with more than
his daughter at right age with right Rules of one girl
man. ➢ Polyandry – Marrying with more than
➢ This led to the concept of Kanyadana Marriage one husband

Where, whom and why Ashtavivah

the rules were written
➢ In Manusmriti, eight types of
➢ The rules were written in
marriages are prescribed.
Dharmashastra
➢ Out of which, first four are considered
➢ They were written for elite as was for
legitimate and rest four are
ordinary people.
prohibited.
➢ It was written because the
Brahamanas wanted to bound people
into a code of conduct.
 Gotra of Women

Origin Rules of Gotra Exception Metronymics

➢ Emerged around 1000 ➢ People of same gotra ➢ Communities in south ➢ Deriving name from the
BCE couldn’t marry India didn’t abide the gotra of mother
➢ Name of Gotra was ➢ Women had to leave rules of gotra ➢ Ex- Gotami Putta
derived after the name of gotra of father after ➢ Satvahana rulers also Satakarni, Vasithi Putta
Vedic seers marriage married in the same gotra Pulamayi
➢ All people of same gotra ➢ They had to accept the
are considered to have gotra of their husband
been of same descent
 Varna System

Intro Four Varna Ideal Occupations Methods of Implementation

➢ It is a hierarchical ➢ Brahmana ➢ Refer Divine Origin

order mentioned in ➢ Kshatriya ➢ Advise king to implement
Dharmashastra ➢ Vaishya ➢ Persuade people to accept
➢ The position was ➢ Shudra ➢ Refer story of Mahabharata
determined by birth

Brahmana Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra

➢ Study Vedas ➢ Engage in ➢ Agriculture ➢ To serve
➢ Teach Vedas Warfare ➢ Pastoralism Other Varnas
➢ Perform ➢ Protect and ➢ Trade
Sacrifices administer ➢ Study Vedas
➢ Get Sacrifices people ➢ Get Sacrifices
Performed ➢ Study Vedas Performed
➢ Give and ➢ Get sacrifices ➢ Send Gifts
Receive Gifts performed
➢ Send Gifts
 Non-Kshatriya
Marriage in same Gotra
Rulers
➢ Satavahana, Shunga, Kanva ➢ Satvahana rulers married girls
➢ Shaka, Kushana of same gotra
➢ South Indian communities
Violation of also married in their kinfolk

Dharmashastra

Inter-community
marriage
➢ Satvahana and Shaka marriage
alliance
➢ Bhima and Hidimba marriage
 Origin Duties as per Manusmriti

➢ As per Dharmashastra, all ➢ Had to live outside the

activities are divided into Pure Village
and polluted activities. ➢ Use discarded utensils
➢ Chandals (Untouchables) were
those who used to do polluted
The ➢ Could not walk in villages
and cities
activities i.e. Handling corpses,
disposing waste etc.
Untouchables ➢ Dispose bodies of strangers

Did they accept

this misery?
➢ Not always.
 Distribution of wealth b/w
men and women

Methods of Property Rights Exception

acquiring wealth
➢ For men - Inheritance, finding, ➢ Property was to be equally divided ➢ Prabhavati Gupta.
Purchase, Conquest, Investment, between sons with eldest given ➢ She reigned Vakataka Kingdom
Work, gifts special share for years and yielded power
➢ For Women - Gifts during marriage, ➢ Daughter’s could not claim anything
gifts from brother, mother, father
➢ Women were allowed to retain the
gifts without the permission of
husband
➢ But women could not hold any
inherited property without the
permission of husband
 Brahmana Kshatriya

➢ They were usually wealthy ➢ They were wealthy

➢ Sources – Gifts, land grants ➢ Sources- Conquest, taxes, tributes
Distribution of
Wealth b/w
varnas

Shudra Vaishya

➢ Extremely poor ➢ Nor much wealthy

neither too poor
➢ Source- Agriculture,
Pastoralism etc.
 Social Differences in Buddhism

➢ They consider Social Differences as

artificial and flexible

➢ As per Sutta Pitaka, initially human

beings were not fully evolved and
lived with peace

➢ But with time, they become greedy

and needed a leader to ensure
their well being

➢ Then they elected “Mahasamatta” and

hence social difference was seeded
 1. Analysis of
2. Type of content
Language
➢ Language can be of two types- ➢ Historians have to analyse whether
▪ Elite’s language – Sanskrit the text is a story or compilation of
▪ Language of Commons - Pali, mantras
Prakrit, Tamil
How a text is
analysed?

4. Date and Time of 3. Author and

Composition Target audience

➢ When and where the texts are written ➢ Who wrote and for whom
 Language and
Author
content

➢ The originally story was probably ➢ Mahabharata is written in Sanskrit

composed by charioteer bards of
who accompanied warriors
➢ As per Sanatan tales, it is said that
Sage Vyas has composed the text
Language
➢ The Sanskrit used in Mahabharat is
The text of
easier than the same used in Vedas
Mahabharata ➢ The text is divided into two type of
content- Didactic and Narrative

Written
A Dynamic Text
Compilation
➢ 500 BCE to 400 CE
➢ The epic has been written in
➢ Some didactic verses were
variety of languages
added between 200 BCE to
➢ Over the time it had been
200 CE
influenced by many regional
➢ The epic has more than
stories.
100,000 verses
 Archaeological Efforts

Introduction Key Findings

➢ In 1951-52, archaeologist ➢ Walls of mud and mud-bricks were found

B.B.Lal excavated a village ➢ that dated back to 12th to 7th century BCE
named Hastinapura near ➢ Walls of mud-bricks and burnt-brick were found
Merrut in Uttar Pradesh. with various terracotta structures that dated back
to 6th century BCE.
Thinkers Beliefs and Buildings
Class 12 | History | Chapter - 4

By Sudhanshu ( Alumni BHU )

 Introduction Discovery of Stupa

➢ Great Stupa of Sanchi was originally
Built by Ashoka : the Great in 3rd
century BCE
➢ It is the oldest stone structure in India
➢ It is surrounded by many stupa and
temples which were built later on.
➢ The great stupa at Sanchi was discovered by
General Henry Taylor in 1818
➢ Later Alexander Cunningham excavated the site
in 1851
The Sanchi ➢ Later with the help of Shahjehan Begum and
Stupa Sultan Jahan Begum the structure was restored
and preserved.

Role of rulers of
Bhopal in preservation

➢ Refused to give the original artefacts to British

and French.
➢ Her successor Sultan Jehan Begum funded the
research of John Marshall on Sanchi
➢ She Helped in publishing the research volume of
John Marshall and also funded the construction
of Museum there.
 Origin Change in Later Vedic age

➢ During Rig Vedic age from Rig Veda ➢ Sacrificial tradition became more popular and
➢ Main deities- Agni, Indra, Varuna, individualistic
Soma etc. ➢ Elaborate Sacrifices were being performed i.e.
➢ Initially, it was done collectively and Rajasuya, Ashwamedha
not much popular The Sacrificial ➢ This led to the prime dominance of Priestly class
tradition in India

Objectives of
Sacrifices
➢ Get food
➢ Get wealth
➢ Get Nourishment
➢ Get cow and sons
 Why Debates? The most debated topic

➢ With increasing popularity of ➢ Authority of Veda

Upanishads, the horizon of thinking ➢ Emphasis on Individual
got wider existence
➢ Hence people started questioning the ➢ Life after death
orthodox tradition Debates and ➢ The Certainty of God
Discussions

Where the debates

were organized?
➢ Debates took place in Kutagarashala
– a hut with a pointed roof.
➢ As per Buddhist texts, there were 64
schools of thought who used to
engage in debates
 Meaning
➢ Heterodox sects refer to the
group of people who discards the
orthodox beliefs and questions
the existing ideas
➢ Famous Heterodox sects- Jainism,
Ajivika, Lokayata, Buddhism
Lokayata
➢ Founded by Charvaka
➢ Basic Principle-
• Rejected the idea of Karma, afterlife,
rebirth, incarnations
• Promoted the sensual pleasure
• Promoted the concept of skepticism
Reason behind emergence
➢ Increase in Popularity of Sacrificial Tradition
➢ Exposure with global ideologies
➢ Rigidity of Vedic Religion
➢ Increasing dominance of Brahmanical ideas
Heterodox
Sects
Ajivika
➢ Founded by Makkhali Gosala
➢ Everything is pre-determined
➢ Belief that there is no creator or
God
➢ Six Inevitable truth-
▪ Gain & Loss
▪ Joy & Sorrow
▪ Life & Death
 Introduction Basic Principle

➢ The tradition started with 1st ➢ Extreme non-violence

Tirthankara Rishabhanatha
➢ The religion was earlier known as
Nirgrantha.
➢ After the Mahavira (24th
Tirthankara), the religion came
to be known as Jain
➢ Escape misery through penance
➢ Everything has life
➢ Cycle of Birth is shaped through Karma
Jainism ➢ Egalitarianism

Life of Mahavira Five Great Vows

➢ Born in 599 BCE in Kundalgram, ➢ Not to kill or Injure anyone

Vaishali Bihar ➢ Not to steal
➢ Parents – Siddhartha, Trishala ➢ Not to lie
➢ Abandoned Royal Life at the age of 30 ➢ Celibacy
➢ Attained Omniscience (Kevala Jnana) ➢ Not to Possess Property
under a Sala tree at the age of 43

Life of Buddha
➢ Born in Shakya Clan as
Siddhartha in 563 BCE
➢ Left home at the age of 29,
Known as Mahabhinishkramana
➢ Got enlightenment at the age of
35 under a peepal tree in Bodh
Gaya
➢ Preached first sermon at Sarnath,
known as
Dhammachakrapavattana
➢ Parinirvana at the age of 80 at
Ksuhinagar
Buddhism
Teachings of Buddha
➢ World is transient and constantly
changing (anicca)
➢ It is soulless
➢ Sorrw (dukkha) is intrinsic to
human being
➢ Path of moderation can help
people to get above these
worldly troubles
➢ Individual efforts and righteous
actions are needed for the self
realisation
➢ Promoted ahimsa and equality
Tripitakas of Buddhism
➢ It is a group of three epics where
everything about Buddhism are
compiled by the disciples of Buddha
➢ Sutta Pitaka – Teaching of Buddha
➢ Vinaya Pitaka- Rules of Sangha
➢ Abhidhamma Pitaka- Philosophical
matters
➢ The tripitakas were written in Pali
 Buddhism

Rules of Sangha Reason behind Spread of

Buddhism
➢ Sangha regulated the sect of Buddhism ➢ Promotion of equality
➢ Initially only men were allowed, but after ➢ Translation of texts in various
the mediation of Ananda (a disciple of languages
Buddha), female were also allowed to ➢ Patronage by kings like Ashoka and
Join sangha Kanishka
➢ Followers were treated equally in Sangha
irrespective of their backgrounds
➢ Decisions in Sangha were taken through
deliberations and collective vote
 What are Stupas? Why are Stupas built?

➢ Stupas are mound like structure where
the relics (material and Physical) of
Buddha is stored.
➢ Earliest stupas were built since 3rd
century BCE
Stupas
➢ To store the relics of Buddha
➢ Emperor Ashoka distributed the
relics of Buddha across the India in
each important towns.

Structure of How they were built?

Stupa
➢ For the construction of stupas
➢ Various architectural elements-
Donations were given.
▪ Anda
▪ Harmika
➢ Donations from-
▪ Yashti
• Kings
▪ Chatri
• Guilds
▪ Toran Dwar
• Men & Women
• Bhikkhus & Bhikkhunis
etc.
 Timeline Reason behind
devastation
➢ 1796 – Local king ordered the
➢ No leadership like Shahjehan
construction of temple with stones of
Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum
Stupa
➢ People did not understand the
➢ 1798- Colin Mackenzie visited site
Amravati historical importance of stupa.
➢ 1800-24 – Mackenzie made drawing
of stupa Stupa
➢ 1854 – Walter Eliot took marble of
Stupa to Madras
➢ 1850s – Massive loot of Stupa

The Sole Saviour

➢ H.H. Cole proposed the idea of in-

situ preservation

➢ He said plaster models should be

utilized for the installation of
artefacts on museum
 Stories Symbol of Worship

➢ Stories from Jataka tales are depicted ➢ Empty seat- Meditation of Buddha
in the gateways of Sanchi Stupa. ➢ Wheel- Sermon of Buddha
➢ Stupa – Mahaparinirvana of
Buddha
Role of
Sculpture

Non-Buddhist
Symbols
➢ Shalbhanjika- Symbol of
auspiciousness
➢ Elephant – Strength and
wisdom
➢ Gajalakshmi – Goddess of
God Fortune
 Rise of New tradition

Growth of Puranic Shaivism and

Hinayana and Mahayana Hinduism Vaishnavism
➢ It is a form of
Hinduism where
people gets devoted Shaivism Vaishnavism
Hinayana Mahayana
to their chosen deity ➢ Ultimate devotion ➢ Ultimate devotion to
➢ Some popular deities
➢ Follows the ➢ Worship the idol of to Shiva Vishnu
were – Shiva, ➢ The concept of ➢ Worship different
teachings of Buddha to get
Vishnu, Durga Linga got incarnations of
Buddha Nirvana
➢ Treats Buddha as ➢ Treats Buddha as popularized Vishnu
Human God
➢ Spread Mostly in east
➢ Spread Mostly in Asia i.e.China, Japan,
Indo-china, Sri Thailand, Tibet etc.
lanka I ➢ Believes in idol
➢ It believes in worship and mantra
meditation chanting
 Why the temples
The earliest temple
were built?
➢ With the growth of puranic ➢ Temples began to built from 4th
Hinduism, people needed an century CE
established place for the idols ➢ One of the earliest temple is
of deities temple of Deogarh
Construction ➢ Earliest temple only had garbhgriha
➢ This led to the construction of
temples of Early
temples

Cave temples

➢ The tradition of artificial cave was initiated by Ashoka in

3rd century BCE with the construction of Barabar Cave
for Ajivika monks
➢ Later Ajanta and Ellora caves were built In Mahrashtara
by various empire between 2nd century BCE to 1000 CE
➢ Kailashnath temple located inside the Ellora caves is an
example of Cave temple.
➢ It is built from single rock
 Interpretation of Sculptures

How it is done? Problems in interpretation

➢ It is done by Art-historians ➢ Sometimes text would not match

➢ They find the evidence of with image
sculptures in texts to understand ➢ Sometime we get different
them information about image from
➢ They even compare them with different texts
Greek sculptures