Journal of Information Technology (2005) 20, 52–63

& 2005 JIT Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. All rights reserved 0268-3962/05 $30.00
palgrave-journals.com/jit

Attitudes towards telecommuting: the

Turkish case
Omer Faruk Iscan, Atilhan Naktiyok
Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey

Correspondence: OF Iscan, Ataturk Univeristy, IIBF 25240, Erzurum, Turkey.

E-Mail: Omer_iscan@hotmail.com

Abstract
Examines the effects of demographic characteristics (gender, marital status), household
attributes (small children, largeness of home and distance of home and workplace),
support factors (supervisor, colleague and technological-bill support), and perceived
advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting to individuals, organizations and society
on individuals’ attitudes towards telecommuting. The sample comprised 664 IT
professionals working in several internet (portal) companies in Turkey. Results suggest
that women, married employees, employees who have children less than five years old,
employees whose house is big enough, employees whose house is relatively farther to the
workplace, and those who perceived more advantages accruing from telecommuting, to
themselves, to their organization or to the society, have a more favorable attitude towards
telecommuting. On the other hand, employees who perceived more disadvantages
accruing from telecommuting to themselves or their organization have a less favorable
attitude towards telecommuting. In addition, colleague support and technological-bill
support positively influence the attitudes of employees towards telecommuting.
Journal of Information Technology (2005) 20, 52–63. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jit.2000023
Published online 30 November 2004
Keywords: telecommuting; advantages; disadvantages; attitudes; technology and gender

Introduction
evelopments in telecommunications and unpredict- is possible that through the adoption of unconventional

D able, rapid changes in the business environment as a

result of global competition, have led to a new
thinking in the design and structure of business practices.
The advent of the Information Age with the increasing
availability of new computer and communication technol-
ogies, along with the internet, have transformed the ways in
which many individual work, travel and conduct their daily
activities today (Nagurney et al., 2002: 1629). As the
creation, storage, transfer and management of information
became the source of knowledge-based competitive advan-
tage, organizations no longer needed to be located at the
same place (Atkyns et al., 2002: 269).
Today because of the above developments, workforce is
able to have different arrangements from the traditional
nine-to-five day in the office settings (Mokhtarian and
Salomon, 1997: 41; Mills et al., 2001: 50). Many job and
career changes may be instituted by an organization and its
management to accommodate employees’ reduced physical
proximity (Raghuram et al., 2003: 181). Many organizations
are now aware that they need to be proactive in adapting to
the changing environment and circumstances by applying
business practices, which encourage maximal flexibility. It
work methods such as telecommuting, organizations can
become flexible (Teo and Lim, 1998: 253; Teo et al., 1998:
329; Belanger, 1999: 139; Lim and Teo, 2000: 560).
The term telecommuting is not one that is clearly
defined, and it is often used to encompass a number of
different styles of work. In other words, various terminol-
ogies for the subject have been used in the literature.
Usually, the term teleworking is used as a more general
concept. Although telecommuting is used more often,
networking, remote working, flexible working and home-
working are among those concepts that are used with
similar or same meanings (Lindstrom and Rapp, 1996;
Hobbs and Armstrong, 1998; Ward and Shabha, 2001; Obra
et al., 2002). Collectively, these phrases describe telework-
ing as a form of flexible work arrangement which entails
working remotely from an employer for a large proportion
of employees’ time (Teo and Lim, 1998: 254). Telecommut-
ing can be defined as the practice of working from home, or
a location close to home, instead of traveling to work
during the normal workday (Stanek and Mokhtarian, 1998:
53). In other words, telecommuting can be practised as
either home based or from a telecommuting center. It refers
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
to a form of work arrangement involving the use of
computers and telecommunication technologies which
allow employees to substitute telecommunication for
physical transportation thereby permitting jobs to be
performed at a remote work site (Tung and Turban, 1996:
227; McInerney, 1999: 69). Employees maintain contact
with their organizations through the use of telephones,
facsimile machines, computer modems as well as electronic
and voice mail systems (Ahmadi et al., 2000: 84). They do
not necessarily work at home every day but for one or more
complete workdays a week in lieu of working in the office.
They will spend the remaining days in the office (Lim and
Teo, 2000: 561). By using telecommuting, geographical and
organizational boundaries of the traditional, centralized
workplace are removed.
Telecommuting can be considered from the telecommu-
ter contract point of view by taking into account the
employer–employee relationship. However telecommuting
can be studied from several other perspectives: strategic,
organizational, human resource management, and econom-
ic, social, legal political and technological aspects (Obra
et al., 2002: 786). This led us to evaluate the subject by
taking into consideration many studies belonging to
different disciplines.
Much of the current research on telecommuting focuses
on employees and organizations in the Western context.
The phenomenon is very new among companies in Turkey.
Societal changes that have taken in recent years have
triggered the interest in telecommuting as a new work
arrangement. Turkey has a high potential with a young and
energetic population of 70 million, 3 million Internet users,
an amazing growth rate in information technology (Inter-
section, Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, 2002). According
to the investment bank of Salomon Smith Barney that
conducted an investigation in Turkey, e-commerce and
technologically driven sectors and companies are growing
(Sanli and Celebi, 2000: 13). A rise in the number of dual
career families and in the number of females in the
workplace are also among such changes. Although today 48
percent of women are employed in Turkey, it is expected
that this rate will have risen to 60 percent by 2010
(International Labor Organization, 2000). Telecommuting
permits a more effective balance of work demands with
responsibilities at home (Kurland and Bailey, 1999: 61).
Most organizations now accept that a satisfied employee is
a productive employee and providing flexibility for the
working parents to manage their own work hours results in
more satisfied and thus more productive staff (Sturgeon,
1996: 27). In such a situation, it is more important for
organizations to build flexibility about where and when
employees want to work and telecommuting represents a
work option, which allows for this flexibility. Telecommut-
ing is beneficial to the employee who wants more control
over his or her work life (Sturgeon, 1996: 27).
Other reasons described in the literature for individuals
to decide to telecommute include reduced commute time;
less interruptions; and, cost savings through lower or no
transportation, lunch and business clothing costs (Mokh-
tarian et al., 1995: 284; Belanger, 1999: 141; Hill et al., 2003:
2; Workman et al., 2003: 200).
In spite of these advantages the telecommuting ‘boom’
has not taken place. In the 1970s and 1980s, telecommuting
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
53
was perceived as the work arrangement of the future. But
despite the optimistic predictions about it, telecommuting
has not had the success predicted for it (Jackson and van
der Wielen, 1998). This is surprising, as recent develop-
ments in information and communication technology have
reduced the coordination and control costs associated with
the geographic decentralization of the workforce’s location
(Illegems et al., 2001: 276). This can on a large extent be
attributed to some disadvantages brought by telecommut-
ing. For example, Kurland and Bailey (1999) identify several
factors associated with telecommuting that tend to
negatively influence job motivation: negative impact on
social networks, decreased teamwork, and resentment by
those who do not telecommute. In that case it becomes
difficult for managers to create team synergy and to
overcome the absence of informal, interactive learning
(Pliskin, 1998: 73; Perez et al., 2002: 777). In addition, some
research (Kraut, 1989) has shown that job satisfaction did
not differ between telecommuters and non-telecommuters.
Negative influence on career progress (Teo and Lim, 1998),
less external structure (Workman et al., 2003), security
issues (Sturgeon, 1996), professional isolation (Kurland and
Bailey, 1999; Ward and Shabha, 2001), career anxieties
created by spending less time in the office and being passed
over for a promotion (Judiesch and Lyness, 1999) are
among such problems documented by research.
This study examined attitudes towards telecommuting
among information technology professionals in Turkey. We
selected IT professionals because it is clear that IT
personnel represent a dynamic workforce in a high growth
industry of the future. With the increased implementation
of computing and communication technologies in the
workplace, the nature and amount of white-collar employ-
ment has changed. Work processes are becoming more
complex and information intensive. Workers are becoming
more focused on specific knowledge domains, sharing
expert knowledge with peers and relying heavily on
information technology (Pliskin, 1998: 73). Telecommuting
is not suitable for every kind of worker. One of the major
characteristics that differentiate today’s telecommuters is
that more and more of them are knowledge workers
(Belanger, 1999; 139). If such a work arrangement is to be
successful, it is important that potential telecommuters
have appropriate personal qualities that allow them to work
unsupervised or supervised remotely. These include self-
motivation, self-discipline, commitment to telecommuting,
adaptability, self-organization and ability to work with little
social contact (Hobbs and Armstrong, 1998: 369). So,
characterized by variety and exception rather than routine
and performed by professional or technical workers with a
high level of skill and expertise (Davenport et al., 1996: 54)
IT sector is very suitable for telecommuting.
When we look at the working statistics, we see that
turnover rates of cities, in which IT personnel mostly work,
are very high. For example in İstanbul for 1999, turnover
rate is 14.54 per cent (Turkish Employment Organization,
2000). This rate is the highest rate in Turkey. Employee
turnover presents a wide range of problems for organiza-
tions. Frequent displacement of skilled IT personnel may
lead to a low morale among survivors. Also this situation
may escalate costs of organizations, as new employees
need to be recruited and trained.
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
54
In the context of qualitative manpower shortage and high
turnover rates, the aim of this study is to examine various
factors, which may affect IT personnel’s attitudes towards
telecommuting in Turkey. The results of this study will have
important implications for researchers and practitioners
about the feasibility of telecommuting. With this under-
standing, we believe that it will be possible to conceptualize
and implement more appropriate and effective pro-
grammes. In addition, we hope that both management
and operation staff will be encouraged for the adoption of
telecommuting.
Variables, which may potentially affect people’s attitudes
towards telecommuting, can be categorized into four
headings: demographic characteristics, household attri-
butes, support factors, and perceived advantages and
disadvantages to individuals, organizations and society.
Research hypotheses
Demographic variables
Gender
Gender is a vital social factor shaping organizational life
and focusing on gender differences in terms of the attitudes
towards telecommuting can offer a different perspective for
understanding the organizational and broader societal
context of information systems and information technology
(Wilson, 2002: 139).
Presently, only 48.6 percent of women in Turkey aged
between 15 and 64 are employed. In contrast, for a similar
age group, 81.5 percent of women in Sweden are employed
in the labor force, 77.8 percent in Denmark, 65.6 percent in
Britain, and 62 percent in France (International Labor
Organization, 2000). This may on a large scale stem from
the fact that in many Western countries the state, aiming to
tackle the problem of the double burden of women’s role in
the family, has invested a tremendous amount of money,
time and effort to provide socialized childcare. But even in
that case, focusing on strategies, which encourage flexible
work arrangements, may be considered as necessary
because of the relatively low female labor force participa-
tion rate in Turkey. But this should not be at the expense of
arguing better public childcare and challenging the existing
division of labor in the home.
Despite the significant growth in the IT profession, it is
stated that there remains a gender imbalance; there is
evidence of under-representation or a decline in the
participation of women in the IT profession (Trauth,
2002: 98; Wilson, 2002: 139). According to some, this is due
to the social construction of the IT profession as ‘men’s
work’ (e.g. Murray, 1993). Female workers are understood
to be subordinate figures to male workers because of
characteristics associated with their femaleness (Wilson,
2002: 141; Woodfield, 2002: 134). Some others (e.g. Trauth,
2002) mention that despite cultural features gained by
means of family, society and public policy shape women’s
identities and their feelings of acceptance or alienation
within the IT field, individual differences may also be
influential in terms of the attitude of men and women
towards IT. These are not the main focuses of this paper,
although they should nevertheless be addressed here.
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
When domesticity is discussed, it is usually done with a
strongly gendered interest and in conjunction with the life
of women. In other words, ‘managing the domestic’ is still
considered women’s contribution to the household’s
economy (Habib and Cornford, 2002: 160) For this reason,
women often have to assume major responsibilities for
their family and career. And most of the time such
responsibilities restrict their mobility and participation in
the labor market. In this respect, telecommuting may have
favorable effects on relations with family. Because tele-
commuting offers the flexibility for individuals to better
schedule time with their family members (Teo and Lim,
1998: 255). But even if we are not considering it in this
paper it is also stated that by means of technology women’s
work is often depicted as being of an ever-expanding nature
and technological developments such as telecommuting
have been seen as intensifying the traditional sexual
division of labor and as reinforcing the boundaries around
what are commonly regarded as masculine and feminine
roles within the household (Habib and Cornford, 2002:
161).
Investigating such theoretical considerations, some
researchers found that preference to telecommuting was
in fact related to gender and women, with a greater
proportion, favor this work alternative compared to their
male counterparts (e.g. Mokhtarian et al., 1995; Belanger,
1999). Thus, gender has often been discussed as a clear
determinant of telecommuting potential.
These thoughts are hypothesized as follows:
H1. There will be a significant difference between men
and women in terms of favorable attitude towards
telecommuting. Women will have a more favorable attitude
towards telecommuting than men.
Marital status
Some investigations showed that married employees favor
telecommuting more than their single counterparts (Teo
et al., 1998: 335). The reason of this largely is the time
flexibility that allows work to be fitted around family
commitments. Married employees who use telecommuting
do not have to travel to work daily and thus the time that is
saved can be spent with family members (Nilles, 1996: 16–
17). This situation leads to improved family relations (Hall,
1989: 25). Telecommuting may provide a solution for
married employees who need to juggle their time between
work and family responsibilities (Handy and Mokhtarian,
1996: 233).
In addition, the presence of children is also an important
factor for most mothers (Handy and Mokhtarian, 1996: 234;
Stanek and Mokhtarian, 1998: 67). Mothers of young
children tend to opt for flexi-work arrangement in order
to increase their involvement with family and nurture their
children without sacrificing their careers. For this reason,
telecommuting is a good substitute way of working for
women. More specifically, some investigations found out
that married employees are more receptive in admitting
that telecommuting will increase their work productivity
than are the unmarried employees (Abdul Azeez and
Supian, 1996).
Some studies have also suggested that telecommuting can
also be a good substitute way of working for men. By
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
telecommuting they can participate actively in caring for
the family and children (Lim and Teo, 2000: 564). In this
way, there can be a balance between their quality of work
life and quality of family activities. And in some cases,
spending more time with family members may be more
important for men than career advancement.
Thus we can propose the following hypothesis:
H2. There will be a significant difference between married
and unmarried people in terms of favorable attitude
towards telecommuting. In other words, married employees
will have a more favorable attitude towards telecommuting
than unmarried ones.
Household attributes
As the number of children in the family increases, the
household becomes more complex to manage, and
flexibility becomes more important to handle family needs
(Mokhtarian and Salomon, 1997: 41; Illegems et al., 2001:
279). In terms of Turkey, average number of children per
married woman is 3.14 (Turkish State Statistics Institute,
2001). So there will be a more positive attitude towards
telecommuting in terms of parents (Mannering and
Mokhtarian, 1995: 50; Handy and Mokhtarian, 1996: 234).
Moreover, telecommuting, by placing workers in the home
and eliminating the commute to work, serves to blur
distinctions between family life and work life. For
individuals specially those whose workplaces are far from
their home and whose houses are larger and suitable for
telecommuting, telecommuting provides time and cost
savings (Mannering and Mokhtarian, 1995: 59; Hobbs and
Armstrong, 1998: 367). Telecommuting programs can save
an estimated 5.000 dollars to 10.000 dollars per year per
telecommuting employee (Dannhauser, 1999: 53).
In the light of the above statements, followings are
hypothesized:
H3. Individuals who have children less then 5 years old,
will have a more favorable attitude towards telecommuting
than those who do not have children less than five years
old.
H4. As the physical distance of work and home increases,
the positive attitude towards telecommuting will also
increase.
H5. Individuals whose houses are larger and suitable for
telecommuting will have a more favorable attitude towards
telecommuting than those whose houses are not large
enough and suitable.
Perceived advantages of telecommuting
Existing technology allows the telecommuter to work at a
remote site without having to sacrifice the technical support
available in the corporate environment. Telecommuting
also allows workers increased flexibility in their work
schedules, rather than binding them to traditional nine-to-
five schedules (Mokhtarian and Salomon, 1997: 41; Mills
et al., 2001: 50). The increased flexibility in work schedules
allows individuals to engage in non-work activities to a
much larger extent than otherwise possible. With the help
of telecommuting, employees can balance work–family
relationship and they can get more job satisfaction (Nilles,
1996: 19; Kurland and Bailey, 1999: 57).
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
55
Some studies showed that telecommuting increases
productivity since individuals can avoid interruptions
at the office and get work done faster (Lindstrom and
Rapp, 1996; Teo and Lim, 1998). Reduced stress levels
in employees, and improved morale/motivation are
also perceived benefits of telecommuting (Lupton
and Haynes, 2000: 326). Telecommuting helps to reduce
commuting costs and time as individuals can minimize
the hassle of commuting to and from work (Teo and
Lim, 1998: 256).
In terms of organizations there are advantages resulting
form telecommuting such as reduced building costs,
reduced running costs, reaching employees with special
skills, improved staff retention and reduced office politics
(Mills et al., 2001: 52). In addition, it is beneficial in
terms of organizations in that it causes greater productivity,
lower absenteeism, better morale, greater openness,
fewer interruptions at office, reduced overhead, lower
turnover and regulation compliance (Kurland and Bailey,
1999: 56).
In addition to individual and organizational advantages,
telecommuting has also social advantages. It may decrease
traffic congestion on strained highways and reduce
automobile related air pollution. It is considered as ‘a
green activity’, primarily because of the reduction in travel,
the consequent fuel savings (Mokhtarian et al., 1995: 287;
Henderson and Mokhtarian, 1996: 34; Hobbs and Arm-
strong, 1998: 367; Mokhtarian and Bagley, 2000: 224;
Mitomo and Jitsuzumi, 1999: 742; Mills et al., 2001: 50;
Atkyns et al., 2002: 267). Moreover, by working at home
telecommuters discourage community crime that might
otherwise occur in bedroom communities. Further, because
of flexible time schedules and time savings, telecommuting
enables telecommuters to spend more time building
community ties (Kurland and Bailey, 1999: 61).
Thus it is hypothesized that:
H6a. Employees who perceive more advantages resulting
from telecommuting to themselves will have a more
favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
H6b. Employees who perceive more advantages resulting
from telecommuting to their organization will have a more
favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
H6c. Employees who perceive more advantages resulting
from telecommuting to the society will have a more
favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting
Some investigations showed that individuals perceive that
there are less promotion possibilities for telecommuters
(Illegems et al., 2001). In other words, one of the most
frequently reported disadvantages of telecommuting is that
it may potentially impede individuals’ career growth.
Employees believe that their reduced visibility in the office
will have a negative effect on their career development and
growth prospects. In addition, employees miss out on
technical discussions and peer interaction, which are
important to development of technical expertise. Their
interaction with business contacts may also be reduced and
they may be likely to be passed over at promotion time
because their supervisors do not see them often enough
(Teo and Lim, 1998: 258).
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
56
Another disadvantage may be the feeling about the lack
of companionship and social interaction (Kurland and
Cooper, 2001: 2). Telecommuters may feel that they are
isolated, cut off from the flow of things back in the
company and unable to keep up with both career and
company developments and that they are losing a sense of
belonging to the company, which forms such an important
foundation in their commitment (Kurland and Bailey, 1999:
57; Ward and Shabha, 2001: 62).
In addition, telecommuters face the difficulty of separat-
ing work and home activities while telecommuting.
Distractions at home may be harder than those in the
office (Mills et al., 2001: 52). Self-discipline and motivation
to work may be a problem as it may be stressful to work
and to look after children simultaneously.
Telecommuting may result in reduction or loss of office
workspace. Furthermore, employees may be required to
share their workspace as a result of telecommuting. This
can be a significant disadvantage since any reduction or
loss of workspace can adversely influence perceptions of
privacy and status at the workplace (Hobbs and Armstrong,
1998: 367).
Telecommuting may also have an adverse effect on
others. For example, non-telecommuting colleagues may be
resentful and supervisors may feel loss of control over
telecommuters. In addition, family and neighbors may
perceive telecommuters as not having a ‘respectable’ job
(Teo and Lim, 1998: 258).
Some investigations showed that since the work is being
done away from physical supervision, managers may find it
difficult to control and monitor telecommuters (Kurland
and Cooper, 2001: 2; Ward and Shabha, 2001: 68).
In addition many organizations worry that letting
workers telecommute will increase security risks by
creating more opportunities for computer hackers and
equipment thieves (Mills et al., 2001: 52). For all organiza-
tions, certain data are confidential and any leakage of such
data to unauthorized parties may cause companies to lose
their competitive advantages in a highly competitive
business environment. Another disadvantage is the issue
of designing an equitable compensation scheme. Problems
pertaining to issues accountability for repairs and main-
tenance of equipment placed at employees’ homes may
arise (Lim and Teo, 2000: 569).
In terms of social challenges, it may be stated that
telecommuting needs to develop its own culture. Within
existing cultural environment, it is assumed that anyone at
home during the day is free to chat, to watch a child or to
run an errand (Kurland and Bailey, 1999: 62). It is also
feared that by transforming work from a sensual activity to
an abstract, computer mediated one, telecommuting may
cause a gradual degradation of a person’s ability to interact
with other people in a personal, intimate and human
manner. In addition to above considerations, it is stated
that telecommuting may promote decline of clothing
industry, dispersion of housing and this increases com-
muting distances (Tung and Turban, 1996: 104; Mills et al.,
2001: 529).
Thus, we propose that:
H7a. Individuals who perceive more disadvantages
accruing from telecommuting to themselves will have a
less favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
H7b. Individuals who perceive more disadvantages
accruing from telecommuting to their organization will
have a less favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
H7c. Individuals who perceive more disadvantages
accruing from telecommuting to the society will have a
less favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
Support factors
Supervisor relationship
Positive attitude and support of supervisors is very
important in influencing an individual’s attitude towards
telecommuting. Studies showed that factors such as work-
ing well with one’s supervisor, appreciation of employee’s
work by the supervisor, effective communication between
the supervisor and the employee, positively effect employ-
ee’s attitude towards telecommuting (Stanek and Mokhtar-
ian, 1998; Ahmadi et al., 2000; Mokhtarian and Bagley,
2000). Telecommuters regarded their supervisors’ under-
standing, concern and acceptance of telecommuting as
valuable and important to their telecommuting attitudes.
Such results show the important role of supervisors in
promoting a favorable attitude towards telecommuting
(Hobbs and Armstrong, 1998: 370).
Therefore we may expect that:
H8a. Employees who perceive that their supervisors are
supportive of telecommuting will have a more favorable
attitude towards telecommuting.
Colleague support
Getting along with one’s co-worker and having an effective
work team appears to be a positive factor in terms of
attitude towards telecommuting (Mokhtarian and Bagley,
2000: 232). On the other hand if an employee believes that
his or her colleagues may react negatively towards
telecommuting, he or she may reject the work option.
Some non-telecommuters may believe that telecommuters
are not working when they are not regularly seen in the
traditional office. As it is the case in the negative effect of
supervisors, this is because employees feel that the
organization is not interested in telecommuting and thus
this new work arrangement is unlikely to be adopted even
though the technology is available (Ahmadi et al., 2000: 84;
Lim and Teo, 2000: 566).
Thus we may state that:
H8b. Employees who perceive that their colleagues are
supportive of telecommuting will have a more favorable
attitude towards telecommuting.
Technological-bill support
Individuals, in order to have a positive attitude towards
telecommuting, must be sure that basic technologies, such
as e-mail access and responsive communication links will
be available (Mokhtarian and Salomon, 1997: 44; Ahmadi
et al., 2000: 84). In addition, managers and employees may
need to improve their ability to communicate effectively
with electronic media (Hobbs and Armstrong, 1998: 370;
Kurland and Bailey, 1999: 65). Technology in the form of a
computer, a modem, a telephone and voice messaging
service, has given us a runner up in terms of effectiveness
and efficiency and has made telecommuting an alternative
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
working option (Handy and Mokhtarian, 1996: 229;
Ahmadi et al., 2000: 84).
Another aspect, which may affect attitudes towards
telecommuting, is bill support. If employees know that
some kind of support will be made in terms of payment of
telephone bills, electricity bills and stationary expenses,
their attitudes towards telecommuting may be more
positive (Teo et al., 1998: 340).
Thus it is hypothesized that:
H8c. Individuals, who perceive that there will be
technological infrastructure in their organization, will have
a more favorable attitude towards telecommuting.
Method
Sample and procedure
The sample comprised 664 IT professionals working in
several internet (portal) companies in Turkey. We selected
portal companies because such internet companies have
formalized programs to continually track advances in IT
and to acquire new and promising technologies. These
organizations are indeed, very suitable for telecommuting
in terms of the content of the work and the infrastructure.
Data were gathered through the use of questionnaire
surveys. We conducted a pilot-test and asked an expert
group to comment on the representativeness and suitability
of our questions. Comments and suggestions received were
then used to fine-tune the presentation of the final
questionnaire. The questionnaires were distributed in
packets, each of which contained a letter from the
researchers assuring participants of a complete confidenti-
ality, and a questionnaire. Completed surveys were mailed
by the respondents directly to the researchers in pre-
addressed envelopes. In all, 900 questionnaires were
distributed but 200 of the questionnaires were not returned
and 36 others were incomplete. So, 664 questionnaires were
considered for statistical analyses (Response rate is 74
percent).
Instrument
Items measuring the variables in this study were derived
from an extensive review of the literature on telecommut-
ing, general work environment support and household
attributes. Wherever possible, scales that operationalized
constructs were adapted from past research where psycho-
metric properties were already established.
Perceived advantages of telecommuting to individuals,
organizations and society
Variables related to individual and organization were
measured with scales adapted from Yap and Tung (1990).
Individual advantages were measured through 13 items and
organizational advantages were measured through six
items. Societal advantages were derived from extensive
review of the literature about this subject (Mokhtarian et al.,
1995; Henderson and Mokhtarian, 1996; Tung and Turban,
1996; Salomon, 1998; Mitomo and Jitsuzumi, 1999) and
were measured through seven items. Cronbach’s alphas for
the scales on advantages of telecommuting to individuals,
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
57
organizations and society were 0.87, 0.80 and 0.73,
respectively.
Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to individuals,
organizations and society
Variables, related to individual and organization were
measured with scales adapted from Yap and Tung (1990).
Individual disadvantages were measured through 16 items
and organizational disadvantages were measured through
seven items. Societal disadvantages were derived from
extensive review of the literature about this subject (Tung
and Turban, 1996; Kurland and Bailey, 1999; Mills et al.,
2001) and were measured through three items. Cronbach’s
alphas for the scales on disadvantages of telecommuting to
individuals, organizations and society were 0.89, 0.82 and
0.69, respectively.
Work-based support
This variable was assessed with the work support scale
adapted from House (1981). Four items were used to assess
supervisory support and four items to assess work
colleague support. Technological and bill support was
assessed through nine items which are developed from
extensive review of the literature about this subject (Teo
et al., 1998; Belanger, 1999; McInerney, 1999; Illegems et al.,
2001). Cronbach’s alphas for the scales on supervisory,
work colleague and technological and bill support were
0.71, 0.68, and 0.79, respectively.
Demographic individual and household attributes data
Respondents were also asked to provide their age, gender,
marital status, educational experience, whether there are
children less than five years old, largeness of home, and
distance of home from workplace.
Attitudes towards telecommuting
Attitude towards telecommuting was assessed with two
items. Cronbach alpha for this scale was 0.79.
Five-point Likert scales ranging from (1) ‘Strongly
Disagree’ to (5) ‘StronglyAgree’ were utilized to assess the
construct in the present study.
Results
Demographic, individual and household attributes characteristics
of individuals
A total of 75.6 percent of the respondents were male, 74.4
percent were married. The mean age of the respondents was
33. Majority of the respondents had a university degree
(72.9 percent). In total, 59.3 percent of the respondents
have children less than five years old. The mean largeness
of respondents’ houses was 110 m2. The mean distance of
respondents’ homes and workplaces is 13 km.
Means, standard deviations and correlations
The Pearson-product moment correlations of the indepen-
dent and dependent variables are shown Table 1. As can be
seen from the table, dependent variable, attitude towards
telecommuting, has meaningful correlations with all the
independent variables. It is observed that there exists a
 58
Table 1 Means, standard deviations and correlations

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Attitudes towards telecommuting

Independent
1.SEX na na
2.MARITAL na na
0.05
3.SMALL CH. na na
0.04 0.32*
4.LARGENESS 2.22 0.85 0.04 0.33* 0.27*
5.DISTANCE 2.37 0.84 0.05 0.21* 0.16* 0.53*
6.TCINA 3.96 0.59 0.00 0.37* 0.36* 0.59* 0.52*
7.TCOA 3.70 0.57 0.07 0.25* 0.29* 0.42* 0.56* 0.66*
8.TCSA 3.55 0.52 0.02 0.31* 0.28* 0.38* 0.32* 0.67* 0.64*
9.TCIND 2.17 0.54
0.02
0.32*
0.32*
0.60*
0.59*
0.90*
0.68*
0.61*
10.TCOD 2.09 0.75
0.03
0.33*
0.29*
0.46*
032*
0.76*
0.58*
0.64* 0.75*
11.TCSD 2.29 0.66
0.04
0.32*
0.28*
0.44*
0.54*
0.50*
0.66*
0.55* 0.59* 0.48*

OF Iscan and A Naktiyok

12.SUP 3.78 0.48 0.01 0.21* 0.26* 0.42* 0.41* 0.57* 0.50* 0.39*
0.61*
0.46*
0.57*
13.COLL 3.49 0.52 0.00 0.36* 0.24* 0.56* 0.60* 0.74* 0.57* 0.47*
0.75*
0.54*
0.46* 0.63*
14.TECH 3.43 0.57 0.01 0.26* 0.27* 0.47* 0.29* 0.71* 0.40* 0.39*
0.76*
0.59*
0.40* 0.68* 0.60*

Dependent
15.TCATT 3.37 0.97 0.14* 0.26* 0.29* 0.37* 0.35* 0.49* 0.47* 0.45*
0.47*
0.44*
0.38* 0.27* 0.30* 0.25*
Notes: *Po0.001.
na ¼ not applicable; SEX ¼ Gender; MARITAL ¼ Marital Status; SMALLCH ¼ Children less than five years old; LARGENESS ¼ Largeness of home; DISTANCE ¼ Distance of home
and workplace; TCINA ¼ Perceived advantages of telecommuting to individuals; TCOA ¼ Perceived advantages of telecommuting to organizations; TCSA ¼ Perceived advantages of
telecommuting to society; TCIND ¼ Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to individuals; TCOD ¼ Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to organizations; TCSD ¼ Perceived
disadvantages of telecommuting to society; SUP ¼ Supervisory support; COLL ¼ Work colleague support; TECH ¼ Technological-Bill support; TCATT ¼ Attitude towards teleworking.
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
positive relationship between individuals’ attitudes towards
telecommuting and their level of work-based support.
Because attitude towards telecommuting (TCATT) is
positively correlated with supervisory support (SUP)
(r ¼ 0.27), work colleague support (COLL) (r ¼ 0.30) and
technological support (TECH) (r ¼ 0.25). In addition,
attitude towards telecommuting (TCATT) is positively
correlated with demographic variables (for SEX r ¼ 0.14,
for MARITAL r ¼ 0.26), household attributes variables (for
SMALLCH r ¼ 0.29, for LARGENESS r ¼ 0.37, for DIS-
TANCE r ¼ 0.35), perceived advantages (for TCINA
r ¼ 0.49, for TCOA r ¼ 0.47, for TCSA r ¼ 0.45). On the
other hand, attitude towards telecommuting (TCATT) is
negatively correlated with perceived disadvantages (for
TCIND r ¼
0.47, for TCOD r ¼
0.44, for TCSD
r ¼
0.38).
Hypotheses testing
To empirically test the postulated hypotheses, a regression
analysis was performed on the research variables. A
summary of the results of the regression analysis is shown
in Table 2.
Results shown in Table 2 suggest that the model
explained 35 percent of the variance in attitude towards
telecommuting. In addition, significant F-values (Po0.001)
of the regression indicate the model’s strong explanatory
power.
Table 2 Results of regression analysis
Variables
Demographic variables
H1. Gender
H2. Marital Status
Household attributes
H3. Small children
H4. Largeness of home
H5. Distance of home from workplace
Perceived advantages
H6a. Advantages of telecommuting to individuals
H6b. Advantages of telecommuting to
organizations
H6c. Advantages of telecommuting to society
Perceived disadvantages
H7a. Disadvantages of telecommuting to
0.20*
individuals
H7b. Disadvantages of telecommuting to
0.09w
organizations
H7c. Disadvantages of telecommuting to society
0.02
Support factors
H8a. Supervisory support
H8b. Colleague support
H8c. Technological-bill support
F-values
R2
Adjusted R2
w
Po0.1; *Po0.05; **Po0.01; ***Po0.001.
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
59
Demographic variables
Gender. Table 2 shows that men and women differ in
their attitudes towards telecommuting. Thus, H1 which
postulated that women will have a more favorable attitude
towards telecommuting than men is supported. This is an
interesting finding and it is contrary to the claims of some
studies which state that technologically driven facilities
such as telecommuting are primarily perceived as mascu-
line (e.g.Wilson, 2002). This can be considered as the
positive side of the findings. The negative side is related to
the division of labor at home. Indeed, our findings show
that traditional roles of males and females did not change in
Turkey. In other words, it seems that most of the home-
related problems are still seen as the responsibility of
women and for this reason women favor telecommuting
more than men.
Marital status. H2 which predicted that married employ-
ees will have a more favorable attitude towards telecom-
muting than unmarried ones is supported in regression
analysis (b ¼ 0.08, Po 0.05). On the other hand, the
relationship between marital status and telecommuting is
weaker than the relationship between gender and tele-
commuting. In spite of a relatively weak relationship we
may conclude that telecommuting enables married indivi-
duals to have more time flexibility to balance between work
and family responsibilities.
Household attributes
Beta Small children. As predicted, the results of our study
suggest that individuals who have children less than 5 years
0.11*** old, have a more favorable attitude towards telecommuting
0.08* thus supporting H3 (b ¼ 0.09, Po0.05). The interesting
point about our findings is that while the relationship
between having children less than five years old and
0.09* telecommuting is weaker than the relationship between
0.09* gender and telecommuting, it is higher than the relation-
0.08w ship between marital status and telecommuting. A possible
explanation for this could be the fact that about 15 percent
of the sample did not have children less than five years old.
0.22*
This shows that employees who are both married and have
0.12*
children less than five years old have a more favorable
attitude towards telecommuting. This finding shows that
0.11*
telecommuting helps such people to balance their work and
family needs by providing a flexible work environment. For
example, the individual may arise early, work from home
for a few interrupted hours, then provide family members
with breakfast and get the children off to school or to other
care arrangements. This flexibility might also explain the
results suggesting that workers with flexibility in the
location of work can work more hours without impacting
work–family balance.
0.05
0.25***
0.20** Largeness of home. H4 which postulated that employees
27.17*** who have larger houses will have a more favorable attitude
0.37 towards telecommuting is supported (b ¼ 0.09, Po0.05).
0.35 The basic reason behind this could be the fact that
individuals who have larger houses, since they have enough
space to establish a home office, prefer telecommuting
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
60
more than those whose houses are not large enough. If the
house is large enough, other elements of home atmosphere
(small children, number of individuals etc.) may have less
negative effects on the working conditions at home.
Distance of home and workplace. H5 which predicted
that as the physical distance of work and home increases,
the positive attitude towards telecommuting will also
increase is supported but the relationship between this
distance and telecommuting is not as high as the relation-
ship of other demographic and household attributes
variables (b ¼ 0.08, Po0.10). A possible explanation for
this weak relationship might be the fact that most of the
employees in our sample (76.4 percent), have personal
vehicles. Another explanation could be the effectiveness of
mass transportation system in big cities of Turkey such as
İstanbul and Ankara.
Perceived Advantages
Perceived advantages of telecommuting to individuals
Our regression analysis showed that individuals who
perceive more advantages accruing from telecommuting
to themselves have a more favorable attitude towards
telecommuting, thus supporting H6a (b ¼ 0.22, Po0.05).
This finding suggests that respondents perceived advan-
tages such as increased work life quality, better family
relationships, savings in commuting time and cost, and
improved efficiency. This leads us to conclude that the
more potential advantages accruing from telecommuting to
individuals, the more favorable their attitudes towards
telecommuting.
Perceived advantages of telecommuting to organizations
H6b which postulated that employees who perceive more
advantages resulting form telecommuting to their organiza-
tion will have a more favorable attitude towards telecom-
muting is empirically supported (b ¼ 0.12, Po0.05). Thus,
individuals’ attitude towards telecommuting is significantly
and positively affected by their beliefs about advantages
accruing to their organizations. For example, organiza-
tional performance may increase; turnover rates and
absenteeism may decrease as a result of telecommuting.
In addition, advantages of telecommuting such as reduc-
tions in office space requirements, capital savings for the
organization and a possible retention of scarce skills and
talents in an organization may motivate organizations to
adopt telecommuting. Parallel to this, employees who
perceive such kinds of advantages to their organization
will also have a more favorable attitude towards telecom-
muting.
Perceived advantages of telecommuting to society
As we predicted, employees who perceived more advan-
tages resulting from telecommuting to the society have a
more favorable attitude towards telecommuting. Thus, H6c
is supported empirically (b ¼ 0.11, Po0.05). Thus indivi-
duals’ beliefs about advantages accruing to their society,
positively and significantly affect their attitude towards
telecommuting. For example, as a result of telecommuting
there will be a decrease in the demand of transportation
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
and air pollution. Also, telecommuting may cause energy
saving and decreased traffic congestion. Correspondingly,
employees who perceive such kinds of advantages to their
society will also have a more favorable attitude towards
telecommuting.
Perceived disadvantages
Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to individuals
H7a, which posited that individuals who perceive more
disadvantages accruing from telecommuting to themselves
will have a less favorable attitude towards telecommuting, is
supported by the results of regression analysis (b ¼
0.20,
Po0.05). This shows that individuals’ attitudes towards
telecommuting are significantly and negatively affected by
their beliefs about disadvantages associated with telecom-
muting. For instance, telecommuting may cause profes-
sional and social isolation. Individuals may perform their
tasks independently at home by means of telecommuting
but since telecommuting reduces their workplace interac-
tion they may still be hesitant towards telecommuting. As
such, individuals who perceived a potential reduction in
workplace interaction may have a less favorable attitude
towards telecommuting.
In addition, individuals may get confused with home and
work responsibilities. Also they may experience difficulties
in establishing self-discipline and motivation for their
tasks. Furthermore, they are concerned with the potential
loss of office workspace if they telecommute. As a result, as
potential disadvantages accruing from telecommuting to
individuals increase, they will have a less favorable attitude
towards telecommuting.
Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to organizations
H7b which predicted that individuals who perceive more
disadvantages accruing from telecommuting to their
organization will have a less favorable attitude towards
telecommuting is supported but the negative relationship
between perceived organizational disadvantages of tele-
commuting to organizations and telecommuting is not as
high as the relationship of perceived individual disadvan-
tages (b ¼
0.09, Po0.10). This finding shows that
individuals do not see organizational disadvantages,
such as controlling performance, loss of data security
and equipment accountability, as important as individual
disadvantages. This might be attributed to the fact that
the process of institutionalization or institutional think-
ing has not been completed in Turkey. For this reason
every fact, factor or case is evaluated on the basis of
individual paradigms. Nevertheless, we can conclude that
individuals who are concerned with such organizational
disadvantages tend to have a less favorable attitude towards
telecommuting.
Perceived disadvantages of telecommuting to society
Table 2 shows that our H7c hypothesis which predicted that
individuals who perceive more disadvantages accruing
from telecommuting to the society will have a less favorable
attitude towards telecommuting is not supported. This
shows that negative perceptions of individuals about
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
disadvantages of telecommuting to society, does not affect
their attitude towards telecommuting.
Support factors
Supervisory support
H8a is not empirically supported as our results showed that
telecommuting is not significantly related to beliefs about
supervisors’ telecommuting attitudes. This finding indi-
cates that individuals are doubtful in their attitudes towards
the kind of support they expect from their supervisors
during telecommuting. A possible explanation may be that,
since telecommuting is a very new form of work option
(specially for Turkey), employees are not sure about the
reactions of their supervisors. Another explanation may be
that colleague support may play an even more influential
role in employees’ attitudes towards telecommuting.
Colleague Support
H8b which posited that employees who perceive that their
colleagues are supportive of telecommuting will have a
more favorable attitude towards telecommuting is empiri-
cally supported (b ¼ 0.25, Po0.001). It is interesting to see
that while there exists no important relationship between
supervisory support and attitudes towards telecommuting,
there is a strong relationship between colleague support
and attitude towards telecommuting. This may be thought
as a reflection of Turkish culture which gives great
importance to collectivism and not being socially isolated.
This finding is also consistent with our findings about
perceived individual disadvantages about social isolation.
Technological-bill support
As predicted, individuals, who perceived that there would
be technological infrastructure and bill support in their
organization, have a more favorable attitude towards
telecommuting. Thus H8c is empirically supported
(b ¼ 0.20, Po0.01). This finding is also as interesting as
the findings about supervisory and colleague support. One
possible explanation of this finding may be the fact that in
the home atmosphere, usage of technological instruments
such as personal computers, faxes, and printers are not very
common and such instruments are very expensive in
Turkey. For this reason, employees expect support in terms
of such instruments. In addition in Turkey bill costs as a
result of technological instruments are high and the salaries
of employees are relatively low. Thus, it is very difficult for
Turkish IT personnel to telecommute without technological
and bill support.
Conclusion
Telecommuting appears likely to expand and evolve in an
information-driven society. But a review of the scientific
and popular literature, leads to the conclusion that
telecommuting forecasts have generally been overly opti-
mistic and do not take socio-cultural features of countries
into consideration. So the question remains whether
telecommuting will eventually reach the high levels envi-
sioned for it. In order this to happen, it seems necessary to
study both employees’ and employers’ decisions as
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
61
complements. In other words, the future of telecommuting
depends on the willingness and desire of employers and
employees.
This study contributes to the literature about telecom-
muting by examining a wide variety of factors, which may
affect IT professionals’ attitudes towards telecommuting.
Our results reveal that telecommuting should not be viewed
merely as a technology. As broad social and institutional
aspects are involved, they fall more in the context of social
forecasting than that of technological forecasting. In
addition it seems that telecommuting is an emotional issue.
Personal circumstances of individuals are very important in
assessing it. In other words, a personal standpoint is
necessary. When coupled with the perception–reality gap
that surrounds the advantages of telecommuting, this
means that organizations are in a very hard position to
improve their competitive advantage.
An important finding that must be mentioned is the
finding about negative relationship between perceived
organizational disadvantages of telecommuting to organi-
zations and telecommuting. Although this relation is
meaningful, it is not as high as the relationship between
other variables and telecommuting. This finding shows that
individuals do not see organizational disadvantages, such
as controlling performance, loss of data security and
equipment accountability, as important as other variables.
Interestingly, our results suggest that individuals are
doubtful in their attitude towards the kind of support they
expect from their supervisors. Also, the effect of perceived
social disadvantages to the attitude towards telecommuting
is ambiguous. This is perhaps telecommuting is a very new
work environment, specially in the context of Turkey, and
thus employees may not be sure about how their super-
visors would react to telecommuting. This means that the
forecasts of future telecommuters are simply that –
forecasts. Quite possibly, individual workers and managers
may determine the challenges of telecommuting outweigh
the advantages and thus decline to set up telecommuting
alternatives. It can be inferred that since telecommuting is a
relatively new work arrangement, some form of training is
required so that employees and their supervisors have a
good understanding of this work arrangement. Moreover,
the uncertainty and fear of the unknown associated with the
change can be minimized by an effective communication
program. In addition, since the work option is very new,
individuals may not perceive social disadvantages in a
culture in which traditional norms are predominant.
Because in a country like Turkey in which masculinity
culture is prevailing, ‘a man working at home’ may be
perceived as not having a ‘respectable’ job by family and
neighbors. Nonetheless, in the face of this phenomenon,
small businesses, large corporations, state agencies and the
public at large must help to develop policies to address the
needs, challenges, and ramifications associated with tele-
commuting.
Our results show that telecommuting may produce
effective and practical results for individuals, organizations
and society. If necessary infrastructure is prepared, a
telecommuting program may help employees manage work
and family responsibilities, and it may improve work-
related attitudes such as job satisfaction, job autonomy and
job performance. Since women constitute an important
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
62
percent in the population, and since their involvement in
the workforce increases specially because of economic
reasons, telecommuting may provide a flexible work
arrangement in order to accommodate increased demands
from the non-work domain.
But companies need to be alert to the potential
disadvantages or problems associated with telecommuting
such as impediment of career growth, lack of companion-
ship and social interaction, loss of control and office
workspace, and security risks. For this reason, to help
alleviate potential liability and employee concerns before
constituting a telecommuting program, organizations are
advised to consider the issues presented in this article and
institute telecommuting agreements with their employees.
In order to gain a competitive edge, companies should
explore the possibilities surrounding telecommuting and
develop a strategic plan before implementing a program.
The negatives about telecommuting can be greatly mini-
mized by taking the proper steps to maximize the chances
of success.
Two important limitations exist in this study. First,
respondents comprised 664 IT professionals working in
several internet (portal) companies in Turkey. Therefore it
is necessary to investigate whether these findings can be
extended to other professional groups or non-professionals
employed in other industries. As a result, examination of
the topic in the future could be directed towards individuals
employed in other industries.
Another limitation is that potential predictors of
individuals’ attitudes towards telecommuting are more
than those of our study. Thus, future attempts may take
into consideration the potential impact of more factors
such as support from the family and union.
References
Abdul Azeez, K.H. and Supian, A. (1996). A Study of Applicability of
Telecommuting on Selected Business Firms in Malaysia, Paper presented at
the Telecommute 1996 Conference, Jacksonville, FL.
Ahmadi, M., Helms, M.M. and Ross, T.J. (2000). Technological Developments:
Shaping the telecommuting work environment of the future, Facilities
18(1–2): 83–89.
Atkyns, R., Blazek, M. and Roitz, J. (2002). Measurement of Environmental
Impacts of Telework Adoption Amidst Change in Complex Organizations:
AT&T Survey Methodology and Results, Resources, Conservation and
Recycling 36: 267–285.
Belanger, F. (1999). Workers’ Propensity to Telecommute: An empirical study,
Information Management 35: 139–153.
Dannhauser, R. (1999). Who Is in the Home Office? American Demographics
21(11): 50–57.
Davenport, T., Jarvenpaa, S. and Beers, M. (1996). Improving Knowledge Work
Processes, Sloan Management Review 37(4): 53–65.
Habib, L. and Cornford, T. (2002). Computers in the Home: Domestication and
gender, Information, Technology & People 15(2): 159–174.
Hall, D.T. (1989). Moving Beyond the ‘Mommy Track’: An organizational
change approach, Personnel 66(12): 23–29.
Handy, S.L. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (1996). The Future of Telecommuting,
Futures 28(3): 227–240.
Henderson, D.T. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (1996). Impacts of Center-Based
Telecommuting on Travel and Emissions: Analysis of the Puget sound
demonstration project, Transportation Research D 1(1): 29–45.
Hill, E.J., Ferris, M. and Martinson, V. (2003). Does It Matter Where You Work?
A Comparison of How Three Work Venuses (Traditional Office, Virtual
Office, and Home Office) Influence of Work and Personal/Family Life,
Journal of Vocational Behavior 63(2): 220–241.
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
Hobbs, D. and Armstrong, J. (1998). An Experimental Study of Social and
Psychological Aspects of Teleworking, Facilities 16(12–13): 366–371.
House, J.S. (1981). Work, Stress and Social Support, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA.
Illegems, V., Verbeke, A. and S’Jegers, R. (2001). The Organizational Context of
Teleworking Implementation, Technological Forecasting & Social Change 68:
275–291.
International Labor Organization. (2000). World Employment Report.
Istanbul Chamber of Commerce. (2002). Intersection, Istanbul.
Jackson, P.C. and Van Der Wielen, J. (1998). Actors, Approaches and Agendas:
From teleworking to the virtual organizations, in: P. Jackson and J. Van Der
Wielen (eds.) New International Perspectives on Telework, London:
Routledge, pp. 1–20.
Judiesch, M.K. and Lyness, K.S. (1999). Left Behind? The Impact of Leaves of
Absence on Managers’ Career Success, Academy of Management Journal
42(6): 641–651.
Kraut, R.E. (1989). Telecommuting: The trade-offs of home work, Journal of
Communication 39: 19–47.
Kurland, N.B. and Cooper, C.D. (2001). Manager Control and Employee
Isolation in Telecommuting Environments, Journal of High Technology
Management Research 1: 1–20.
Kurland, N.B. and Bailey, D.A. (1999). Telework: The advantages and
challenges of working here, there, anywhere, and anytime, Organizational
Dynamics Autumn: 53–68.
Lim, V.K.G. and Teo, T.S.H. (2000). To Work or Not to Work at Home: An
empirical investigation of factors affecting attitudes towards teleworking,
Journal of Managerial Psychology 15(6): 560–586.
Lindstrom, J. and Rapp, B. (1996). On Costs in Teleworking, International
Transactions on Operational Research 3(1): 51–63.
Lupton, P. and Haynes, B. (2000). Teleworking – The Perception-Reality Gap,
Facilities 18(7–8): 323–327.
Mannering, J.S. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (1995). Modeling the Choice of
Telecommuting Frequency in California: An exploratory analysis,
Technological Forecasting and Social Change 49: 49–73.
McInerney, C.R. (1999). Working in the Virtual Office: Providing information
and knowledge to remote workers, Library & Information Science Research
21(1): 69–89.
Mills, J.E., Ellison, C.W., Werner, W. and Clay, J.M. (2001). Employer Liability
for Telecommuting Employees, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly October–November: 48–59.
Mitomo, H. and Jitsuzumi, T. (1999). Impact of Telecommuting on Mass
Transit Congestion: The Tokyo case, Telecommunications Policy 23: 741–751.
Mokhtarian, P.L., Handy, S.L. and Salomon, I. (1995). Methodological Issues in
the Estimation of the Travel, Energy, and Air Quality Impacts of
Telecommuting, Transportation Resarch A 29A(4): 283–302.
Mokhtarian, P.L. and Salomon, I. (1997). Modeling the Desire to Telecommute:
The importance of attitudinal factors in behavioral models, Transportation
Resarch A 31(1): 35–50.
Mokhtarian, P.L. and Bagley, M.N. (2000). Modeling Employees’ Perceptions
and Proportional Preferences of Work Locations: The regular workplace and
telecommuting alternatives, Transportation Research Part A 34: 223–242.
Murray, F. (1993). A Separate Reality: Science, technology and masculinity, in
E. Green, J. Owen, and D. Pain, (eds.) Gendered by Design: Information
Technology and Office Systems, London: Taylor & Francis, 64–81.
Nagurney, A., Dong, J. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (2002). Multicriteria Network
Equilibrium Modeling with Variable Weights for Decision-Making in the
Information Age with Applications to Telecommuting and Teleshopping,
Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control 26: 1629–1650.
Nilles, J.M. (1996). What Does Telework Really Do to Us? World Transport
Policy&Practice 2(1–2): 15–23.
Obra, A.R.A., Camara, S.B. and Melendez, A.P. (2002). The Economic and
Organizational Aspects of Telecentres: The Spanish case, Technovation 22:
785–798.
Perez, M.P., Sanchez, A.M. and de Luis Carnicer, M.P. (2002). Benefits and
Barriers of Telework: Perception differences of human resources managers
according to company’s operating strategy, Technovation 22: 775–783.
Pliskin, N. (1998). Explaining the Paradox of Telecommuting, Business
Horizons March–April: 73–78.
Raghuram, S., Wiesenfeld, B. and Garud, R. (2003). Technology Enabled Work:
The role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter adjustment and
structuring behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior 63(2): 180–198.
 Attitudes towards telecommuting
Salomon, I. (1998). Technological Change and Social Forecasting: The case
of telecommuting as a travel substitute, Transportataion Research Part C 6:
17–45.
Sanli, K. and Celebi, F. (2000). New Economic Revolution with Internet,
Intermedia Economy 7/16: 13–17.
Stanek, D.M. and Mokhtarian, P.L. (1998). Developing Models of Preference for
Home-Based and Center-Based Telecommuting: Findings and forecasts,
Technological Forecasting and Social Change 57: 53–74.
Sturgeon, A. (1996). Telework: Threats, risks and solutions, Information
Management & Computer Security 4(2): 27–38.
Teo, T.S.H. and Lim, V.K.G. (1998). Factorial dimensions and differential effects
of gender on perceptions of teleworking, Women in Management Review
13(7): 253–263.
Teo, T.S.H., Lim, V.K.G. and Wai, S.H. (1998). An Empirical Study of Attitudes
Towards Teleworking among Information Technology (IT) Personnel,
International Journal of Information Management 18(5): 329–343.
Trauth, E.M. (2002). Odd Girl Out: An individual differences perspective
on women in the IT profession, Information Technology & People 15(2):
98–118.
Tung, L.L. and Turban, E. (1996). Information Technology as an Enabler of
Telecommuting, International Journal of Information Management 16(2):
103–117.
Turkish Employment Organization. (2000). Statistical Yearbook, No.308,
Ankara.
Turkish State Statistics Institute. (2001). Provincal Statistics, Ankara.
Ward, N. and Shabha, G. (2001). Teleworking: An assessment of socio-
psychological factors, Facilities 19(1/2): 61–70.
Wilson, M. (2002). Making Nursing Visible? Gender, Technology and The Care
Plan as Script, Information, Technology & People 15(2): 139–158.
Woodfield, R. (2002). Woman and Information Systems Development:
Not just a pretty (Inter) face? Information, Technology & People 15(2):
119–138.
OF Iscan and A Naktiyok
63
Workman, M., Kahnweiler, W. and Bommer, W. (2003). The Effects of
Cognitive Style and Media Richness on Commitment to Telework and Virtual
Teams, Journal of Vocational Behavior 63(2): 199–219.
Yap, C.S. and Tung, H. (1990). Factors Associated with Attitudes towards
Telecommuting, Information and Management 19(1/2): 227–235.
About the authors
Omer Faruk lscan was born in Yozgat in 1973. He
graduated from Middle East Technical University, Faculty
of Business Administration, Department of Political Science
and Public Administration. He has a master and doctoral
degree in the field of Management and Organization, from
Ataturk University, Institute of Social Sciences. He is an
Assitant Professor at Ataturk University, Faculty of
Business Adm., Department of Management. He has several
articles published in Turkish journals and papers presented
at several national and international congresses.
Atilhan Naktiyok was born in 1970 in Erzurum. He
graduated from Ataturk University, Faculty of Business
Administration, Department of Management in 1993. He
has a master and doctoral degree in the field of Manage-
ment and Organization from Ataturk University, Institute
of Social Sciences. He is an Assitant Professor at Ataturk
University, Faculty of Business Administration, Department
of Management. He has several articles published in
Turkish journals and papers presented at several national
and international congresses.