DC Motor

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy by creating a
magnetic field that is rotated by a current-carrying conductor. It is a type of rotary electrical machine
that converts direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. DC motors were the first form of
motors widely used, as they could be powered from existing direct-current lighting power distribution
systems. The most common types of DC motors rely on magnetic forces produced by currents in the
coils. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current in part of the motor. DC motors are used in a
wide range of applications, from small tools and toys to industrial machinery and electric vehicles. There
are three main types of DC motors: brushed DC motors, brushless DC motors, and stepper motors.

The formulas for a DC motor can be derived from the basic principles of electromagnetism and the
conservation of energy. The torque, speed, and power are the main quantities involved in the analysis of
a DC motor. Here are the key formulas:

Torque (T): The torque produced by a DC motor is given by the product of the force and the radius of the
armature. The formula for torque is:

T=F×r
where F is the force and r is the radius of the armature

Back Emf (Eb): The back electromotive force (EMF) generated by a DC motor is given by the formula:

Eb=PΦNZ/60A
where P is the number of poles, Φ is the flux per pole, N is the speed of the motor in revolutions per
minute (RPM), Z is the number of conductors, and A is the number of parallel paths in the armature

Armature Current (Ia): The armature current in a DC motor is given by the formula:

Ia=(V−Eb)/Ra
where V is the supply voltage, Eb is the back EMF, and Ra is the armature resistance

Power (P): The power developed in the armature can be given as the product of the torque and the
angular speed of the motor. The formula for power is:
 P=Tω=T×(2πN/60)
where T is the torque, ω is the angular speed of the motor, and N is the speed of the motor in RPM

These formulas provide a basic framework for analyzing and controlling DC motors in various
applications. Keep in mind that the specific values of the parameters (P, Φ, N, Z, A, and R_a) may vary
depending on the design and construction of the motor.

PVC Pipe Hydro Turbine

A PVC pipe hydro turbine is a type of hydroelectric turbine that uses PVC pipes to harness the energy of
flowing water and convert it into electricity. PVC pipes are used in the construction of the turbine blades
and other components due to their lightweight, weather-resistant, and easy-to-shape properties. The
use of PVC pipes in hydro turbines is also being explored for wind turbine blades due to their potential to
capture wind energy effectively and increase strength and stiffness.

The formula for calculating the power output of a PVC pipe hydro turbine depends on several factors,
including the head (vertical distance from where the water enters the pipe to the turbine), flow rate, and
diameter of the pipe.

The actual flow rate of the water in a hydroelectric system is determined by the diameter of the nozzle.
The power output can be calculated using the following formula:

Power (Watts) = Head (ft) x Flow Rate (gpm) x 0.18 x 0.50 efficiency
Blade Angle

The blade angle is the acute angle between the chord of a propeller or rotor blade and a plane normal to
the axis of rotation. Its value varies along the span and decreases from root to tip because of blade twist.
In the context of knife sharpening, the edge angle refers to the angle at which the cutting edge is cut into
the side of the knife to form the sharp tip. It is measured from the centerline of the knife to the outer
edge of the spine. The blade angle beta in the context of blade generation is defined along the mean
camber line with respect to the developed view in (m,s) coordinates.

The blade angle, denoted by α, is defined as the acute angle between the chord of a propeller or rotor
blade and a plane normal to the axis of rotation. Its value varies along the span and decreases from root
to tip because of blade twist. The formula for the blade angle can be expressed as:

α=acute angle between the chord of the blade and a plane normal to the axis of rotation

This angle is crucial in determining the performance and efficiency of propellers and turbines. It affects
parameters such as the angle of attack and the lift-to-drag ratio, which are essential for optimizing the
operation of propellers and turbines.

Blade Thickness

Blade thickness refers to the distance between the two opposite surfaces of a blade. It is an important
parameter in various applications such as propellers, circular saw blades, impellers, and knives. In the
context of propellers, the blade thickness affects the cross-section thickness-to-chord ratio along the
blade. For circular saw blades, the thickness, often referred to as the kerf, determines the thickness of
the cut being made, and it can vary between 1.5mm and 3mm for thin kerf blades. In impeller design,
blade thickness is important for blade angle calculation due to the blockage effect and flow acceleration.
In the case of knives, blade thickness affects the strength and cutting ability of the blade, with thicker
blades being stronger and thinner blades allowing for easier and better slicing.

he formula for calculating the blade thickness of a turbine typically involves a combination of structural
mechanics and fluid dynamics considerations, and there isn't a single universal formula due to the
complexity and variability of turbine designs. However, the blade thickness is often determined using
engineering principles, material properties, and structural analysis.

One simplified approach to estimating blade thickness involves considering factors such as the maximum
stress the blade will experience, the material's strength properties, and the desired safety margin. This
can be expressed through the following simplified formula:

Blade Thickness = (Maximum Stress × Safety Factor) / (Material's Allowable Stress)

Where:

Maximum Stress: The maximum stress the blade is expected to experience, which is influenced by fluid
forces, operational speeds, and other loads.

Safety Factor: A factor applied to the maximum stress to ensure the blade's safety under all operating
conditions.

Material's Allowable Stress: The maximum stress the blade material can withstand without permanent
deformation or failure.