Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 107 (2021) 103685

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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

incorporating Trenchless Technology Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Thermal monitoring of frozen wall thawing after artificial ground freezing:

Case study of Petrikov Potash Mine
L. Levin a, I. Golovatyi b, A. Zaitsev a, A. Pugin a, *, M. Semin a
a
Mining Institute of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation
b
Joint Stock Company “Belaruskali”, Republic of Belarus

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper describes a case study of thermal monitoring of frozen wall thawing during shaft sinking at the
Artificial ground freezing Petrikov Potash Mine in the Republic of Belarus. This case study included gathering experimental data from
Frozen wall which numerical simulation results were obtained. The unique feature of this research consists of developing an
Monitoring
original optical fibre sensor and its application for distributed measurements of temperature in the shaft lining
and surrounding rock mass. This new sensor automates measurements in real-time and provides significantly
more data compared to traditional periodical measurement techniques using temperature probes or loggers.
Sensor data are complemented by other distributed temperature sensing (DTS) data from vertical boreholes
drilled near the shaft for thermal monitoring of the frozen wall state. Multiple series of measurements provided a
clearer insight into the frozen wall thawing process. The data obtained from measurements were used for a
numerical simulation and reconstruction of the temperature field in the surrounding rock mass. Real-time DTS
monitoring combined with numerical simulation offers considerable possibilities for controlling and optimising
mining operations. As described in this paper, the experience of using this new type of DTS sensor may be useful
for specialists working with artificial ground freezing in mining and tunnelling.

1. Introduction
The method of artificial ground freezing (AGF) was developed by F.
H Poetsch, patented in 1884–1886, and published in 1887 (Poetsch,
1887). Currently, AGF is widely used for constructing tunnels (Afshani
and Akagi, 2016; Han et al., 2016; Papakonstantinou et al., 2013; Russo
et al., 2015) and shafts (Hentrich and Franz, 2015; Heyden et al., 2013;
Newman et al., 2011; Schmall and Maishman, 2007) in soft water-
saturated rocks to protect excavations from being flooded and
destroyed.
The basic principles of the AGF method are extensively described in
the literature (Andersland and Ladanyi, 2004; Harris, 1995; Trupak,
1974). For vertical shaft sinking, AGF requires the drilling of vertical
boreholes with freezing pipes around the future excavation. There are
two ways of realising this method: direct and indirect freezing. The first
method implies a direct feed of liquid nitrogen to freezing pipes (Ali
et al., 2019). This article also discusses the second method, which as­
sumes the use of refrigeration plants and pumps. The equipment pro­
vides coolant circulation in a brine network (including freezing pipes)
enabling heat extraction from the rock mass. Under AGF, surrounding
rocks serve as a strong and waterproof frozen shield that requires reli­
able monitoring methods.
The AGF operation usually proceeds in three stages (Trupak, 1974).
The first stage is the ice growing or active freezing stage, which involves
quickly creating a frozen wall with necessary strength (associated with
wall temperature and thickness). This requires a significant amount of
energy consumed for the shortest time. Active freezing continues until
the thickness of the frozen wall reaches the design value calculated by
the condition of mechanical strength. In some cases, when mechanised
excavation is used, active freezing continues until the rocks in the shaft
area freeze completely.
The second stage is the holding or passive freezing stage. This begins
immediately after the end of active freezing, and is intended to maintain
the reliability of the frozen wall until the concrete and waterproof
tubbing lining covers the shaft walls. Although the holding period is
longer compared to the ice growing stage, energy consumption per unit
time is lower at this stage because the primary aim is the extraction of
incoming heat without frozen wall expansion.
The third stage usually begins after the segmental lining (cast iron
tubbing) is constructed. Refrigeration plants turn off at this stage, and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dr.alexpugin@gmail.com (A. Pugin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2020.103685
Received 29 October 2019; Received in revised form 30 June 2020; Accepted 19 October 2020
Available online 7 November 2020
0886-7798/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
the frozen wall starts thawing. This stage is often considered safe and
accident-free, because the concrete and iron segmental lining act as a
permanent reinforcement of the shaft walls and water intrusion pro­
tection. However, this is not entirely true as it is possible that any defects
in this reinforcement may not appear immediately.
Natural thawing of the frozen wall can continue for several years.
The frozen wall gradually loses strength and allows water to pass
through. Shaft walls gradually take the hydrostatic pressure. Possible
defects in the lining can be detected after several months, because of the
long thawing time. On the other hand, the artificial ground heating
(AGH) technique can be used. Application of AGH causes the frozen wall
to thaw rapidly but stresses in the rock mass and the lining increase too
quickly (of the order of days). To date, there has been no reliable
research on the AGH method from a thermomechanical point of view or
risk evaluation regarding sinking shaft safety. Accordingly, natural
thawing is preferable.
When the segmental lining is constructed, grouting is used to push
the water out of the shaft and to consolidate the surrounding rocks.
Grouting is carried out when rock of 0.5–1.0 m has thawed behind the
primary concrete, and must be completed under the frozen wall pro­
tection. Therefore, mining engineers require real-time data obtained
during the thawing phase of a frozen wall to determine the best time for
grouting.
Sometimes, the shaft-sinking company decides to turn off refrigera­
tion plants as early as possible without waiting for the moment when the
segmental lining is fully constructed. This saves electricity but increases
the risk of accidents if the following conditions are not met:
1) the frozen wall is oversized;
2) temperature increase is controlled and monitored in real time
outside and inside the freezing circuit;
3) the time when the frozen wall loses strength and cannot hold the rock
and water pressure is determined by the numerical simulation based
on the reliable model and input data;
4) the best time for the shutdown of refrigeration plants must be defined
in accordance with item 2;
5) refrigeration plants must be ready to resume AGF immediately.
Fulfilment of the previously mentioned conditions minimises risks of
an accident where early thawing commences; however, this requires
careful attention at this stage, as much as for the ice growing and
holding stages.
This paper presents analysis of experimental measurements of the
temperature in control boreholes near the frozen wall and in the shaft
lining during the thawing stage. A practical case of a potash mine is
considered, where refrigeration plants were turned off until the
completion of permanent lining construction.
It should be noted that several approaches to the analysis of the
frozen wall state have been presented in the literature, including theo­
retical analysis, experimental measurements, and a combination of both.
Existing theoretical studies can be divided into those that use analytical
formulas (Cai et al., 2018) and numerical simulations (Vasilyeva et al.,
2020). In the last decade, many studies have carried out complex nu­
merical simulations taking into account thermo-hydromechanical pro­
cesses and the salinity of pore waters (Nishimura et al., 2009; Tounsi
et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2019). Experimental studies can be divided into
laboratory tests (Sudisman et al., 2019) and field measurements in
constructed tunnels and mines (Hu et al., 2019; Yan et al., 2019).
A comprehensive review of laboratory and theoretical models of
frozen soil can be seen in (Alzoubi et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019; Yang et al.,
2019). Particularly noteworthy are those studies in which inverse
problems are solved numerically to refine model parameters according
to field measurements (Hrubesova and Mohyla, 2014; Levin et al., 2018;
Pimentel et al., 2012). The same approach is used in the present work.
Field measurements recorded during the construction of shafts and
tunnels usually include measurements of the temperature in several
2
vertical boreholes drilled at a short distance from freezing pipes and the
shaft. In recent years, temperature measurements of the frozen rocks and
soil are often conducted using fibre optic sensors (Levin et al., 2017; Tao
et al., 2011; Tyler et al., 2013; Yao et al., 2019). Distributed temperature
sensing (DTS) using optic fibres is based on the physical principles
described in particular literature (Hartog, 2017). To our knowledge,
Dakin and colleagues were the first to develop DTS and to use Raman
scattering in optical fibres for temperature measurements (Dakin et al.,
1986). Existing experimental studies on AGF primarily focused on the
first stage of freezing and only partially considered the second stage.
(Tao et al., 2011; Yao et al., 2019). Almost no attention has been paid to
experimental studies of rock thawing processes after the AGF applica­
tion during shaft sinking. Due to the importance of this issue, we
describe here a case study on the third stage of AGF at the Petrikov
Potash Mine in Belarus.
For a systematic study of the frozen wall thawing stage, we have
modernised the standard scheme of DTS measurements. Newly devel­
oped DTS sensors were installed in short horizontal boreholes drilled
into the shaft walls. These provided real-time information about tem­
peratures of the lining and the adjacent rock in addition to vertical
boreholes. Such an approach has not been previously described in the
literature. Accordingly, the use of horizontal wells can provide impor­
tant information about the state of the rock mass behind the concrete
support. Based on this information, a decision about grouting can then
be made.
2. Geology and shaft sinking technology
The Petrikov Potash Mine (owned by the Belaruskali Company) is
situated near Petrikov, a small town in the southern part of the Republic
of Belarus. Shaft sinking was launched there in early 2016.
According to geological data, water-saturated rocks lie as inter­
stratified beds of sand, sandstone, aleurite, aleurolite, and chalk at a
depth ~ 260 m, underlied by heavy clay. The clay aquicludes separate
aquifers (see Fig. 1). Beds lie horizontally and there is no underground
water seepage through the future shaft area. Low-yield aquifers and
water-free rocks lie under heavy clays. Thus, all that is necessary here is
to freeze the 270–275 m upper layer of rocks; in other words, the main
aquifers that may cause shaft flooding. The in-situ rock temperature
decreases with depth from 6.0 to 9.0 ◦ C.
Rocks in this interval have different physical and mechanical pa­
rameters defined in laboratory tests. This data was given as prior in­
formation in the project documentation for the shaft sinking (see
Table 1). Some rocks have either extremely high or low thermal char­
acteristics, such as heat conductivity and specific heat capacity. Pore
water freezes at a temperature between 0 and − 1.5 ⁰C except for clays
that contain more (up to 60%) unfrozen water in pores; even at tem­
perature of − 5 ⁰C. The water in rock pores has low salinity. Anticipated
inflows of underground water to the shaft was evaluated to be 406.2 ÷
752.7 m3/h from the upper aquifers above chalk, 3.7 m3/h from the
chalk layer, and 238.8–2524.7 m3/h from the lower layers between
chalk and heavy clay. Therefore, the chalk layer has low permeability
and can be considered as an aquitard.
The technology of shaft construction through water-saturated rocks
in this mine included:
1) using the AGF method;
2) drilling and blasting operations and mucking under frozen wall
protection;
3) construction of a cast-in-place concrete lining (primary lining);
4) construction of a segmental lining from cast iron tubbings (starting
from the bottom of the shaft going upwards) and filling the annulus
between primary concrete and tubbings with mortar;
5) grouting the pore space of the rock mass outside the primary lining.
Two sinking shafts at the Petrikov Potash Mine had an excavated
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685

Fig. 1. Geology and shaft construction.

Table 1
Rock parameters determined in laboratory tests.
Rock Density, g/ Thermal conductivity, W/(m⋅⁰C) Specific heat capacity, J/(kg⋅ ⁰C) Water content, kg/ Freezing point,
cm3 kg ⁰C
unfrozen rock (+10 frozen rock(-10 unfrozen rock (+10 unfrozen rock (-10
⁰C) ⁰C) ⁰C) ⁰C)

Sand 1.70 ÷ 2.19 1.29 ÷ 2.70 1.53 ÷ 4.31 983 ÷ 1566 886 ÷ 1421 0.084 ÷ 0.260 − 0.05 ÷ -1.03
Clay 1.96 ÷ 2.12 1.48 ÷ 1.77 1.50 ÷ 2.09 1334 ÷ 1427 1128 ÷ 1398 0.204 ÷ 0.302 − 0.14 ÷ -2.12
Chalk, marl 1.86 ÷ 1.97 1.28 ÷ 1.40 2.09 ÷ 2.46 1600 ÷ 1724 1104 ÷ 1164 0.314 ÷ 0.380 − 0.05 ÷ -0.14
Sandstone 2.26 ÷ 2.55 2.24 ÷ 5.58 3.19 ÷ 6.3 746 ÷ 1016 721 ÷ 857 0.014 ÷ 0.088 − 0.11 ÷ -0.7
Aleurite 1.87 ÷ 2.05 1.47 ÷ 1.64 2.17 ÷ 2.2 1372 ÷ 1491 1121 ÷ 1152 0.224 ÷ 0.275 − 0.14 ÷ -0.2
Aleurolite* 2.09 1.68 2.28 1412 1106 0.241 − 0.2
Argillite, Heavy 1.98 ÷ 2.15 1.03 ÷ 1.46 1.25 ÷ 1.80 1284 ÷ 1532 1087 ÷ 1278 0.186 ÷ 0.289 − 0.81 ÷ -1.45
clay
*
only one core sample was used to determine thermal properties

diameter of 10.5 m and a uniform construction, as shown schematically
in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The distance between shafts was 100 m. Because the
frozen wall undergoes deformation under pressure, it cannot protect the
shaft for a long time without additional reinforcement. Therefore, pri­
mary concrete was cast in place, with a thickness of between 0.5 m and
1.0 m (not waterproof). The segmental lining from cast iron tubbings is
the main element of the waterproof permanent reinforcement. Its con­
struction started after the shaft was sunk to a depth of 300 m. Concrete
also filled the annulus (0.3 m) between the tubbings and the primary
concrete (see Fig. 2). This filler was also cast in place as the primary
concrete, together with the segmental lining works as a formwork in this
case. The filler and the primary concrete are made from mortar based on

3
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685

Fig. 2. Shaft lining and surrounding elements.

Portland cement with different chemical additives to accelerate hard­
ening and reduce permeability and corrosivity.
3. Artificial ground freezing and thermal monitoring system
The AGF system included four refrigeration plants with a total cold
capacity ~ 1600 kW per shaft. The 25.7% CaCl2 water solution (brine)
was used as a coolant circulating in the freezing pipes. The freezing
contour consisted of 41 pipes installed in boreholes at a depth of 275 m.
The freezing boreholes were drilled in a circle with a radius of 8.2 m and
a distance of 1.25 m between each other. The heads of the freezing pipes
were connected to the main brine pipe network in the closed foreshaft
(see Fig. 3). The intake coolant temperature was − 28 ⁰C during the ice
growing stage of freezing and − 14 ⁰C during the holding stage.
The frozen wall thawing process did not include AGH; however,
coolant circulation in the freezing pipes remained at non-zero velocity.
This enabled a decrease in energy consumption and provided heat flow
distribution more uniformly along the freezing pipe. It should be

Fig. 3. Closed foreshaft with freezing pipes around the shaft collar.

4
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
mentioned that the coolant temperature in this case was always slightly
higher than the temperature of the rock near the freezing pipe. This was
due to incoming heat from the atmosphere and working pumps in the
pipe network at the surface. In this mode, the refrigeration plants could
be immediately turned on to resume AGF if needed.
Three thermal monitoring (TM) boreholes were drilled near each
shaft outside the circuit of freezing pipes (see Fig. 2). The drilling depth
(255 m) was slightly less than for the freezing boreholes. For each shaft,
boreholes #1 and #2 were located at a distance of 1.25 m from the
nearest freezing pipes, and borehole #3 was at a distance of 2.25 m from
the nearest freezing pipe. The plan view showing TM borehole locations
for shaft #2 is shown in Fig. 12. The location of TM boreholes was
chosen to provide easy access and the best measurements of frozen wall
temperatures for the entire working period without interfering with
mining operations.
Steel-armoured optical fibre was inserted in all TM boreholes and
used as a temperature sensor. The optical fibre was connected to a Silixa
DTS Ultima with eight available channels. The Silixa DTS Ultima fires
the laser beam through the optical fibre, receives the returned signal,
and calculates temperatures along the optical fibre, evaluating the
Raman amplitude of backscattered light. Temperature data from the
Silixa DTS Ultima and data from refrigeration plants (WinCC) are
transferred to the server (see Fig. 4). The spatial resolution of such a
distributed measuring system is 0.25 m, the sensitivity is 0.1 ⁰C, and the
repeat accuracy is ± 0.3 ⁰C. The DTS system was calibrated after
installation in accordance with measurements of the borehole ther­
mometer (logger) LITAN, which has an accuracy of ± 0.1 ⁰C, and
measured temperatures in boreholes near the optical fibre at different
Fig. 4. Scheme of DTS monitoring system. Coloured polylines are the optical
fibre: red, blue, and black are the leading wires and violet are sensing wires.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
5
depths.
The special software automatically saves calculated temperatures to
the database, solves the inverse Stefan problem, and reconstructs tem­
perature distribution in each rock layer. A description of the mathe­
matical model and numerical solution method is provided in the next
section. Daily reports are created and sent to the client and the remote
analytical server. Thus, engineers always have actual information about
the frozen wall state while controlling mining operations.
There were no TM boreholes inside the freezing pipe contour while
the shafts were being sunk. The outer TM boreholes could not provide
information about the rock temperature near the lining. After refriger­
ation plants are turned off, short boreholes are usually drilled through
technological holes in tubbings. Mining engineers periodically place a
thermometer there to measure rock temperature and to determine the
best time for the grouting.
To make this process easier, we developed a new type of DTS sensor
that consists of an inner steel guide pipe with a coiled optical fibre of the
same type as used in the TM boreholes. The outer light-gauge steel pipe
protects the optical fibre from accidental damage (see Fig. 5). The sensor
construction was patented in the Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO).
Sensors were installed into the short horizontal TM boreholes of 2.0
m length, drilled in the concrete lining. Therefore, the scheme in Fig. 2
(see Section 2) illustrates two possible positions for horizontal TM
boreholes: in the concrete and in the tubbing. Each sensor has a length
resolution of 5 cm, sensitivity of 0.1 ⁰C, and repeat accuracy of ± 0.3 ⁰C.
Further, each sensor connects in-line with others via the leading wire to
Silixa DTS Ultima channels. Fig. 6 illustrates sensors prepared for the
installation, with one installed in the primary concrete lining. The
additional case from the light-gauge steel pipe prevents the sensor from
being gripped by the thawed rock. Therefore, it can easily be extracted
manually without damage. Moreover, the steel case can also be easily
extracted, either manually or by using a small winch.
The DTS line was calibrated before installation using the borehole
thermometer LITAN and checked two months later when some sensors
were reinstalled. The DTS readings differed from the thermometer data
by less than ± 0.1 ⁰C. This proves that the light-gauge steel case and
outer pipe do not greatly distort (smear) the measured temperatures.
Sensors were installed at depths of 35, 55, 70, 100, 150, 173, and
240 m at each shaft of the Petrikov Potash Mine. Their positions are
shown in Fig. 1, Section 2. Depths for the horizontal TM boreholes were
selected according to the depths of most water-saturated rocks and
aquicludes with the highest and lowest freezing rates.
4. Mathematical model
As mentioned previously, the measured temperatures in the TM
boreholes were used to reconstruct the temperature distribution in the
entire rock mass subjected to thermal influence from the artificial
freezing system. To accomplish this, the coefficient inverse Stefan
problem was formulated, and its regularisation and subsequent nu­
merical solution were carried out.
First, we describe the direct two-phase Stefan problem in a 3D case.
The enthalpy formulation of this problem is
∂H(T)
= ∇⋅(λ(ϕice )∇T) (1)
∂t
[ ( )]⃒
λ(T)n⋅∇T − α Tfb − T ⃒Ω = 0 (2)
fb
T|Ωout = T0 (h) (3)
T|t=0 = T0 (h) (4)
3
where H is the specific enthalpy of the rocks, J/m ; T is the tem­
perature of rocks, ◦ C; λ is the thermal conductivity, W/(◦ C⋅m); ϕice is the
volume fraction of ice in the pores; n is the normal vector to the surface
of pipe; α is the heat transfer ratio between the rock and the brine, W/
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685

Fig. 5. TM sensor construction: inner steel guide pipe (1) with coiled optical fibre (2), outer steel protecting pipe (3), steel plate (4) for sensor fixation on the hole
collar, steel case (5) for protection of the welding point of coiled fibre (1) with leading wire fibre (6).

Fig. 6. TM sensor installed in the primary concrete lining (top), sensors connected in-line and prepared for the installation (bottom left) and the steel case in the
tubbing prepared for the sensor reinstallation (bottom right).

(◦ C⋅m2); Tfb is the brine temperature, ◦ C; T0 is the initial rock tempera­
ture, ◦ C; ∇ is the differential operator nabla, m− 1; Ωfb represents the
surface of freezing pipes; Ωout represents the surface of outer boundary;
and t is the time variable, s.
The remoteness of the outer boundary surface Ωout from freezing
pipes is selected on the basis of preliminary numerical simulations in
such a way as to ensure the independence of the solution from this
boundary condition.
The rock mass is considered a multilayer system, and the thermal
properties (such as heat conductivities, specific heat capacities, and
water content) are different for different rock layers. Heat conductivity
for each rock layer is a function of the ice volume fraction in the pores:
λ(ϕice ) = λfr ϕice λun 1− ϕice
(5)
where λun is the thermal conductivity of the unfrozen rock mass, W/
(◦ C⋅m); λfr is the thermal conductivity of the frozen rock mass, W/(◦ C⋅m);

6
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
the index “un” denotes the unfrozen (or thawed) rocks and the index “fr”
- the frozen rocks. Zero ice volume fraction ϕice = 0 corresponds to the
case of unfrozen rock mass, while ϕice = 1 means that all pore water is
frozen.
The enthalpy function H(T) and the ice volume fraction function
ϕice (T) include information about the phase transition of pore water.
These functions are determined as follows:
⎧ 5. Experimental data
⎨ ρun cun (T − TLiq/() + ρun φL, ) T⩾TLiq
H(T) = ρun φL⋅(T − TSol ) TLiq − TSol , TLiq > T⩾TSol
⎩ ρfr cfr (T − TSol ) T < TSol
⎧
0,/( T⩾TLiq
⎨
ϕice (T) =
)
1 − (T − TSol ) TLiq − TSol , TLiq > T⩾TSol (6)
⎩
1, T < TSol
where ρun is the density of unfrozen rock mass, kg/m3; ρfr is the
density of frozen rock mass, kg/m3; cun is the specific heat capacity of
unfrozen rock mass, J/(◦ C⋅kg); cfr is the specific heat capacity of frozen
rock mass, J/(◦ C⋅kg); φ is the initial water content in rock mass, kg/kg; L
is the latent heat of water freezing, J/kg; TSol is the solidus temperature,
◦
C; and TLiq is the liquidus temperature, ◦ C.
The calculation of the heat transfer coefficient α through the freezing
borehole walls in (2) is carried out according to (Rohsenow et al., 1998).
The stoppage of coolant circulation at the end of the thawing stage is
simulated by setting α = 0. This approach implies neglecting thermal
disturbances due to the natural convection of the brine under the in­
fluence of a temperature gradient (Demezhko et al., 2017).
The inverse Stefan problem is formulated by means of adding to the
system (1)-(6) the over specified condition at each TM borehole no. i:
T|Ωcbi = Tcbi (7)
where Tcbi represents the rock temperature at the wall Ωcb of the TM
borehole no. i.
The overdetermined system of Equations (1)–(8) requires additional
unknown parameters. Let these parameters represent the thermal
properties of rocks in the frozen and unfrozen states. This decision stems
from the fact that the thermal properties of rocks are the least accurate
input parameters of the mathematical model. The thermal properties of
rocks are usually determined from geotechnical sampling. Mining
companies often try to reduce the cost of geotechnical investigations by
minimising the number of exploratory wells. This results in an insuffi­
cient quantity of core samples, which causes a less accurate determi­
nation of soil thermal properties.
Improvements in model accuracy can be achieved via reconstruction
of rock mass thermal properties using the solution of the inverse Stefan
problem and the measurements performed in TM boreholes. Thus, the
solution of the inverse Stefan problem assumes determining the func­
tions T(x,y,z,t) and the parameters λ, c, φ for each rock layer, which
satisfy Equations (1)–(7).
The solution of inverse problems is obtained using the natural reg­
ularisation method (Alifanov, 1994). According to this method, the
stringent condition (7) is replaced by a condition of the following form:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√
√ ∑ ∫Δt ( )2
√1 N 1
I=√ Tcbi − T|Ωcbi dt→min (8)
N i=1 Δt
0 2018–01-07. All temperature curves were measured at the same time
where Δt is the simulation time interval, sec, and N is the number of
TM boreholes.
Thus, the solution of the inverse Stefan problem is reduced to min­
imisation of Functional (8) under conditions (1)–(6). We use the itera­
tive approach based on the gradient descent method for finding the
minimum of Functional (8). At each iteration step the solution of the
direct Stefan problem is obtained with the actual values of optimising
( )
parameters (thermal diffusivity in the frozen afr = λfr / ρfr cfr and un­
frozen aun = λun /(ρun cun ) zones, water content φ). For the numerical
7
calculation, the finite difference method is used. The description of the
numerical algorithm in detail is presented in (Levin et al., 2018; Levin
et al., 2019). This algorithm was implemented numerically in the Visual
studio environment in C#. The direct Stefan problem is solved numer­
ically using the finite difference method. The implemented algorithms
became part of the “FrozenWall” software developed by the authors.
Note that the numerical simulation of the freezing process for shaft
#2 showed that the frozen wall was oversized. This required that the
thickness from the project documentation for shaft sinking was no more
than 2.5 m in all layers, while the actual thicknesses calculated using
DTS data exceeded 4 m. This should lose strength approximately a
month after the shutdown of refrigeration plants. It should be remem­
bered that the segmental lining was constructed from the bottom of the
shaft going upwards. The primary concrete in the upper part of the shaft
was thicker (up to 1.0 m) and the hydrostatic pressure there was less
than 1.0 MPa. All things considered, the evaluated risk of an accident
was minimal. Therefore, the freeze was stopped on 2018–01-01, which
was 3 weeks before the tubbing lining was completely constructed.
A multiple series of measurements were carried out during these
three weeks: daily visual and infrared inspection of the primary concrete
lining that was free of tubbings, measurements of microclimatic pa­
rameters as the intake airflow rate, humidity, and temperature. A
thermal camera (FLIR SC660) and infrared thermometer (Fluke 568)
were applied for the infrared inspection. The microclimatic parameters
were measured by a temperature humidity meter (Fluke 971) and an
anemometer (APR-2).
It was found that the shaft air had the following average parameters:
temperature of + 5 ⁰C, humidity of 50%, and velocity of 0.1 m/s in the
cross-section area. The inspection also determined that the lining
thawed uniformly without local temperature anomalies. The photo on
the top in Fig. 7 illustrates the primary concrete 10 days after the
shutdown of refrigeration plants (view from a small skip downwards).
The infrared image at the bottom of Fig. 7 shows the same side of the
lining but a few meters higher (view from the sinking platform up­
wards). The wall temperature increased locally (but only slightly)
because the humid warm air flowed up from the place of the grouting
(filling the annulus between the tubbing and the primary concrete by
cement). However, it did not heat the lining deeply, as sensors showed.
Since the early twentieth century, many studies have been devoted to
the problems of heat generation from concrete due to cement hydration
(Abbas and Majdi, 2017; Lerch and Bogue, 1934). Some of these
considered hydration heat relating to the shaft lining (Song et al., 2018)
or its influence on the permafrost (Wang et al., 2018). However, pre­
vious studies did not answer the question of how the cement hydration
and microclimatic parameters influence the temperature state of the
artificially frozen rock adjacent to the lining. The proposed system of
horizontal TM boreholes equipped with new sensors allowed us to
observe the cooling of concrete after grouting, and the heat exchange
between the shaft air, the lining, and the frozen wall in real mine
conditions.
Fig. 8 illustrates temperatures of the tubbing, the primary concrete,
and the rock measured by DTS sensors in short TM boreholes on
and presented in one coordinate system where zero on the X-axis cor­
responds to the surface of the tubbing lining. Three TM sensors at depths
of 150, 173, and 240 m were already reinstalled into the tubbing lining,
while other sensors remained in the concrete lining that was free of
tubbings. The upper part of Fig. 8 shows the boundaries “Tubbing-Filler
(Concrete)” and “Filler (Concrete)-Primary concrete” for reinstalled
sensors, whereas its lower part has only the “Primary Concrete-Rock”
boundary for other curves.
The mortar had a temperature of + 15 ⁰C while filling the annulus
between the primary concrete and the tubbing lining. Tubbings had a
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
Fig. 7. Photo (top) and infrared image (bottom) of the primary concrete showing the influence of the warm and humid air above the mortar (filler) feed point.
temperature of + 7 ⁰C, and the intake air had temperatures in the range
of 2–4 ⁰C. It was assumed that sensors were reinstalled in the tubbing the
next day after the tubbing lining covered this part of the wall. The dark
red curve (150 m) illustrates temperatures on the day of sensor rein­
stallation, the green curve (173 m) represents a week after reinstallation,
and the violet curve (240 m) is three weeks after reinstallation. Under
these conditions, refrigeration plants were turned off in the previous
week. Therefore, the sensors at depths of 173 m and 240 m were rein­
stalled in the tubbing until the AGF operations finished and the signif­
icant part of the hydration heat was extracted by the freezing pipes.
Curves “-240” and “-173” show that the grout heats the rock behind the
lining, but cannot defrost the rock.
The next example, shown in Fig. 9, illustrates the temperature dy­
namics measured by the sensor at a depth of 150 m during the first 47
days after the shutdown of refrigeration plants. There was only an ex­
change between the frozen wall, lining, and intake air. The cement hy­
dration heat could not defrost the rock at a distance of 1 m from the
8
lining, even if AGF was finished. This becomes clear from a comparison
of temperature curves on the first day after shutdown and on following
days. The sensor was reinstalled in the tubbing seven days after the
refrigeration plants were turned off.
To obtain 0.5–1.0 m of thawed rock behind the primary concrete
faster, mining engineers decided to heat the intake air after completion
of the tubbing lining construction. According to the measurements,
intake air had a temperature of approximately + 15 ⁰C at the outlet of
the ventilation duct near the frozen wall bottom (at a depth of 270 m)
and a velocity of 0.2–0.25 m/s in the cross-section area. Air heating
started on 2018–02-22.
The temperature curves, received from TM sensors, showed that two
months of air heating defrosted 0.7–0.8 m of the rock adjoining the
lining, which was enough for the grouting. The upper plot in Fig. 10
shows temperatures in the clay at a depth of 173 m, which has ice-
melting temperatures in a range from − 2 to − 0.27 ⁰C. The lower
graph shows temperatures in the sand at a depth of 240 m, which has a
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685

Fig. 8. DTS data from sensors in short horizontal TM boreholes at different depths at the same time (2018–01-07) depending on the distance along the TM borehole.

Fig. 9. DTS data from the sensor in the short horizontal TM borehole at a depth of 150 m on different days after the shutdown of refrigeration plants. Days are noted
to the right of curves.

9
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
Fig. 10. DTS data from sensors in the lining and the rock adjacent to it at different moments after the start of intake air heating.
range of ice melting temperatures from − 0.7 to − 0.2 ⁰C.
6. Numerical simulation results and discussion
The initial model for the numerical simulation was parametrised
based on an analysis of the large data set. It contains the following pa­
rameters defining the thermodynamic processes under AGF for the shaft
#2 case:
1) thermodynamic and physical parameters of rocks, and their natural
water content;
2) the natural temperature of the rock mass as a result of temperature
logging;
3) information about the temperature range of the water freezing in
each layer;
4) thermodynamic and hydraulic characteristics of the coolant;
5) thermodynamic characteristics of the reinforcement;
10
6) coordinates, elevations, vertical and horizontal deviations of
freezing pipes and TM boreholes, their diameters, and thermal
resistivities;
7) the design parameters of the shaft.
The coolant intake, outlet temperatures and flow rate, and the shaft
air temperatures and flow rate are provided daily as input data.
For more adequate estimation of the current frozen wall thickness
and temperatures during the ice growing and holding stages, the model
of parameters is calibrated every time when calculated temperatures
differ from DTS data in TM boreholes by more than ± 0.5 ⁰C. The cali­
bration procedure corrects three values: thermal diffusivity of the frozen
and unfrozen rock and natural water content. Thus, these parameters
differ from their initial values, or even take the form of time-dependent
step functions to the end of freezing. Other parameters remain
unchanged.
The parameters are calibrated using the algorithm described in
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685

Section 4. The “FrozenWall” software saves the temperature and

enthalpy fields for each rock layer at predefined times.
The described model does not include underground water seepage
through the surrounding rock mass for two reasons:

1. there is no underground water seepage in accordance with the pre­

liminary hydrogeological survey;
2. this research is mainly focused on the thawing stage when the frozen
wall is completed and prevents the water seepage through itself.

Nevertheless, in our opinion, the described technique can be

extended to the case of construction of mine shafts in the presence of
groundwater seepage. In this case, the mathematical model in Section 2
must be supplemented by the equations of mass balance and water
seepage in the porous rock mass, the corresponding initial and boundary
conditions, and additional model parameters. The greatest difficulty
here is the experimental determination of additional hydraulic param­
eters of water-saturated rock layers (permeabilities, external velocity,
and hydraulic pressure fields).
It should be mentioned that the calibrated model can be applied to
both the reconstruction of current temperature distribution in the rock
mass, and to the forecasting of temperatures on a given time (as will be
shown subsequently). Note that the calibrated parameters did not
Fig. 12. Calculated temperature maps (plan view) in the sandstone layer
change during the thawing stage.
around the shaft 40 days after the shutdown of refrigeration plants.
Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 illustrate the results of numerical simulation of
the reconstruction of temperature distribution in the sandstone layer
across the frozen wall, and zero of the X-axis corresponds with the shaft
lying at a depth of 150 m and having a range of ice melting temperatures
centre.
from − 0.51 to − 0.18 ⁰C. This rock layer has the highest freezing and
Fig. 11 contains experimental data for comparisons with the
defrosting rates. The temperature curves in Fig. 11 are calculated for
approximate temperatures calculated in the numerical simulation. The
different moments after the shutdown of refrigeration plants and coin­
approximation error is less than ± 0.5 ⁰C. The temperature reconstruc­
cide well with the experimental data. The profile is radially oriented
tion in dynamics confirms that the coolant circulation heats the frozen

Fig. 11. Temperatures calculated in the frozen wall at different times after the shutdown of refrigeration plants (black curves) and experimental data for the
comparing: DTS data from sensors (red curves), temperatures measured in vertical TM boreholes (red squares and numbers), temperatures of the circulated coolant
(navy blue squares and numbers). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

11
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
wall around the freezing pipes and divides it into two parts: the inner
and outer rings. This can be clearly observed in Fig. 11, and especially in
Fig. 12 (map). The border between the two rings becomes more inten­
sive if the coolant is heated up by the AGH method.
The frozen wall achieves the lower range limit of the ice melting
temperatures in different rocks in 80–120 days after AGF was stopped.
Then, the frozen wall thickness slowly decreases in size under incoming
heat. The thawing rock mass may have a heterogeneous structure at that
time, and can be broken locally by the external (rock and underground
water) pressure. However, the frozen wall can withstand the pressure for
a long time if it is substantially oversized. Information about the frozen
wall thawing behind the lining provides efficient control of mining op­
erations, particularly grouting works.
The model remains applicable for the forecasting of frozen wall
behaviour during the restricted time after calibration. Many small errors
accumulate; therefore, long-term forecasting for a year or more is not
expected to be as precise as for shorter periods (days, weeks, or even
months). Nevertheless, a numerical simulation for a long thawing time
was also carried out for the same sandstone layer. The coolant circula­
tion was stopped, and the freezing pipes were demounted after the
grouting was finished. The model accepted that heat from the shaft wall
was permanent for all calculated periods. The temperature curves in
Fig. 13 show that the frozen rock thaws slowly and will be completely
thawed after approximately 5 years.
Temperature measurements in TM borehole #3 of shaft #2 were
carried out 12 months after the AGF shutdown (2019–01-16) to verify
the predictive capability of the model. The freezing and DTS systems had
already demounted. Therefore, temperatures were measured using the
borehole thermometer (logger) LITAN with an accuracy of ± 0.1 ⁰C
within the range from − 20 to + 20 ⁰C. The results of the measurements
are given in Table 2 and show that frozen wall temperatures remain
negative in all layers.
Comparing the measured temperature at a depth of 150 m with the
calculated temperature for 12 months (see Fig. 13), the difference be­
tween these values is less than ± 0.2 ⁰C. This proves the following:
Fig. 13. Results of the numerical simulation for a long thawing time in the sandstone layer at a depth of 150 m (shaft #2): calculated temperatures (black curves)
limit the frozen rock within the range of temperatures [-0.51; − 0.18], the red square and text point to the measured temperature and date of the measurement. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
12
1) the model is applicable to simulate long-term thawing;
2) the frozen wall thawed slowly without AGH;
3) the rock remains frozen for at least a year after shutdown of the
refrigeration plants.
Unfortunately, we have no experimental data for longer periods to
verify our calculations, because TM boreholes were plugged and aban­
doned in accordance with the construction schedule.
The results shown in Fig. 13 were based on a thermodynamic model
that could not consider geomechanics (such as local stresses and de­
formations in the freezing and thawing rock), possible anisotropy of
physical parameters, and heat and mass transfer from the grouting
works. Therefore, conclusions concerning long-term frozen wall thaw­
ing should only be reviewed in the context of thermodynamics.
It seems that the frozen wall should lose its completeness earlier than
after one or a few years of thawing, because it would lose its strength (if
its temperature is within the range of ice melting) and could be broken
locally by the rock and underground water pressure. Water seepage
through cracks in the frozen wall could provide additional heat and mass
transfer and accelerate thawing.
7. Conclusions
Newly developed DTS sensors in short horizontal boreholes drilled in
the shaft lining were proposed as a part of a complex system for the real-
time monitoring of frozen wall state. The design of the proposed sensor
enables achieving almost the same measurement accuracy as for vertical
TM boreholes equipped with optical fibre sensors. Usage of the proposed
DTS sensors in combination with DTS in vertical TM boreholes is pri­
marily intended for thermal monitoring at the end of the AGF procedure
when the artificially frozen rock mass thaws. This allows automatisation
of the measurements in real-time, and provides more detailed infor­
mation on the temperature distribution inside and outside the freezing
pipes circuit compared with traditional techniques of periodical mea­
surements using temperature probes or loggers.
L. Levin et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 107 (2021) 103685
Table 2
Temperatures measured in TM borehole #3 of shaft #2 (2019–01-16).
No Depth, m Rock Temperature, ◦ C
1 40 Sand − 0.29
2 55 Aleurite − 0.43
3 70 Sand − 0.20
4 80 Sand − 0.20
5 100 Chalk − 0.52
6 120 Chalk − 0.54
7 150 Sandstone − 0.31
The reconstruction of the temperature field in the entire rock mass
according to measurements in horizontal and vertical TM boreholes is
carried out in this study by numerically solving the inverse Stefan
problem using the natural regularisation method. Additional unknown
parameters of the inverse problem are the thermophysical properties of
the different rock layers (thermal diffusivities for frozen and unfrozen
zones and water content). As a result, we obtain a more reliable deter­
mination of the actual parameters of the frozen wall and we can forecast
its behaviour in future possible scenarios.
Considering the case of the Petrikov Potash Mine, complex analysis
of experimental data and the results of the numerical simulation helped
us to obtain a clearer insight into the frozen wall thawing process and to
make the following conclusions:
1) the hydration heat of hardening concrete of this composition cannot
defrost the frozen rock adjacent to the lining even after the shutdown
of refrigeration plants;
2) coolant circulation without AGH accelerates rock thawing around
freezing pipes, because the atmosphere and the working pumps
slightly heat the coolant, and the temperature near the pipes is
higher than the minimal temperature in the rock. In other words,
coolant cuts the frozen wall on two rings (outer and inner) in relation
to the circuit of freezing pipes;
3) heating of intake air for a few months accelerates the thawing of the
rock adjacent to the lining and defrosts it faster for grouting;
4) numerical simulation for a long thawing time and measurements
indicate that the frozen wall thaws slowly without AGH, and the
rocks could remain frozen for a few years.
With regard to AGH for the acceleration of the frozen wall thawing,
this requires additional thermomechanical research. From our point of
view, the advantage of the AGH application seems doubtful for grouting
due to the following reasons:
1) AGH defrosts the rock rapidly near frozen pipes but not behind the
primary concrete; shaft air heating is more effective for this purpose;
2) AGH cuts the frozen wall on two rings faster than simple coolant
circulation. Therefore, the frozen wall becomes too weak to hold the
external pressure and the load on the permanent lining fast increases.
This is not problematic if the lining has no hidden defects;
3) AGH requires additional power and financial costs for the mine
owner to rent the heating equipment;
4) if AGH defrosted the frozen wall between freezing pipes and the
lining, and made its outer ring weaker, this lead to the infiltration of
the large volume of grout outside to the rock mass filling all cracks
and caves. This is unproductive and does not improve shaft safety;
5) it is enough for grouting if the rock is thawed to a distance of 1.0 m
from the lining under natural thawing and shaft air heating, and the
frozen wall plays the role of barrier in this case. This prevents the
leakage of a large volume of grout in the thawed rocks outside the
freezing contour.
This paper may be useful for specialists working with the technique
of artificial ground freezing in mining and tunnelling.
13
No Depth, m Rock Temperature, ◦ C
8 160 Sand − 0.29
9 173 Clay − 0.45
10 180 Sand − 0.30
11 190 Sand − 0.30
12 200 Sand − 0.31
13 220 Sand − 0.41
14 240 Sand − 0.51
CRediT authorship contribution statement
L. Levin: Methodology, Supervision, Resources. I. Golovatyi:
Conceptualization, Project administration, Resources. A. Zaitsev:
Investigation, Formal analysis. A. Pugin: Writing - original draft, Formal
analysis. M. Semin: Software, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was carried out thanks to the technical support of Joint
Stock Company “Belaruskali”, which provided all conditions for suc­
cessful experiments at Petrikov Potash Mine. The results of sections 4–6
were obtained within RSF grant (project No. 19-77-30008).
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