Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF COST EFFECTIVE

CONSTRUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the application of processes that are environment friendly and resource-efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and demolition.

Green building also refers to saving resources to the maximum extent, including energy
saving, land saving, water saving, material saving, etc., during the whole life cycle of the
building, protecting the environment and reducing pollution, providing people with healthy,
comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with nature Buildings that live in
harmony. Green building technology focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy,
environmental protection, integration and optimization.

2. USES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIALS AND THEIR AVAILABILITY

Different types of building materials used in construction are as follows

1. Stone
2. Bricks
3. Concrete
4. Concrete blocks
5. Laterite blocks
6. Stabilized mud blocks
7. Timber
8. Steel
9. Cement
10. Bamboo
11. Sand

2.1 STONE

 Stone is a naturally occurring and a long-lasting building material. Some Stone

structures built hundreds of years ago are still in existence without much abrasion.
 Stones are good against weathering hence they can be used to construct exterior walls,
steps, exterior flooring etc.
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 It is available in the form of rocks which is cut to required size and shape and used as a
building block
 It has been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and temples all
over the world. Ex: Red fort, TajMahal, VidhanaSoudha and several places of medieval age all
over India.

2.1.1 Types of Stones/Availability

 Geological Classification
 Physical Classification
 Chemical Classification

 Geological Classification: Based on origin

There are three kinds of rock: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.

1) Igneous rocks: Rocks that are formed by the solidification and cooling of magma or lava
are called Igneous Rocks. They can be found on the surface that are extrusive rocks or below the
surface as intrusive or plutonic Rocks. Ex:Granite, Basalt etc

2) Sedimentary rocks originate when particles settle out of water or air, or by precipitation of
minerals from water. They accumulate in layers. Ex: Sandstone, Limestone etc

3) Metamorphic rocks result when existing rocks are changed by heat and pressure. Most
rocks are made of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in the
Earth’s crust. Ex: Marble, Slate etc

Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks Sedimentary rocks

Physical classification: Based on structure

1. Stratified rocks: Different layers in its structure. Ex: Stand stone, Lime stone, Marble
2. Unstratified rocks: Crystalline Rocks Ex: Granite, Basalt
3. Folliated rocks: Identifiable layers, Textures and Patterns. Ex: late, phyllite, schist, and
gneiss

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 Chemical Classification: Based on chemical composition

1. Silicaceous rocks: Any of a group of sedimentary rocks that consist largely or almost
entirely of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Ex: Chert, Diatomite
2. Argillaceous rocks: The rocks which contain clay or alumina as a main constituent are
called argillaceous rocks. Ex: Granite, Gneiss, Trap, Basalt, Sandstone, and Quartzite.
3. Calcareous rocks are formed from a variety of chemical sediments such as limestone,
dolostone, or marl and are largely composed of calcium oxide.
Ex: Marble, limestone, dolomite, etc. are some of the calcium predominant rocks.

2.1.3 Uses of Stones:

1) Stones are used in the construction of foundations, walls, lintels, columns, arches, dams,
retaining walls, harbours, light houses, barrages, piers and abutments of bridges.
2) The stones are used as flooring material, damp proof course and roofing material.
3) Stones with good appearance are used for the ornamental and architectural works in the
buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
4) For paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces around the buildings, stones are used.
5) Some stones are also used for making of fireproof structures.
6) Certain stones can also be used as decorative material in buildings.
7) Sandstone is popular with sculptors an also used for garden walls and paths in landscaping.
8) Stone can also be used as stone dust in place of sand, where sand is not available.
9) Some stones are used in the manufacturing of iron.
10) Crushed stones are adopted for the following works:
 As a basic inert material in concrete
 For making artificial stones and building blocks
 As railway ballast.
The most commonly used stones in the construction of residential buildings are
 Work surface in kitchen – granite
 Counter tops in kitchen – marble
 Bathrooms – marble, soft limestone
 Staircase – marble, limestone

2.1.4 Requirements or Characteristics of a Good Stone

 Crushing strength: Crushing strength of stone indicates its strength to resists the load
coming on it. Compressive strength of building stones should be in range of 60 to 100N/mm².
 Appearance: Its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor. Light coloured
stones are more preferred than dark coloured stones.
 Durability: Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces
like wind, rain and heat and it should be durable and should not deteriorate
 Hardness: Stones used in floors, pavements should resist wearing and abrasive forces.
Hardness > 17 indicates superior quality
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 Hardness-14- 17 indicates medium quality
Hardness < 17 indicates poor quality
 Specific gravity: The more the specific gravity of stone, the more the heavier and
stronger the stone is. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8
 Toughness: Ability of stone to resist the impact forces. The stone aggregates used in
the road constructions should be tough.
 Seasoning: The removal of natural moisture of stone by cyclic drying and airing is
called seasoning of stone. This moisture if not required may render the stone to be soft and
weak.
 Water absorption: For good stone water absorption should not be greater than 0.6
 Dressing: Giving required shape to stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress
so that the cost of dressing is reduced.
 Fire resistance: Stones should resist to fire and should be free from calcium carbonate,
iron oxides.
 Workability: Stones should be workable. Stone is said to be workable when the work
involved in stone work is economical and easy to conduct.

2. LATERITE BLOCKS.
Origin of the word and its meaning

The word Laterite is derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means ‘brick’. Laterite is a soil
and rock type rich in iron and aluminium and is commonly considered to have formed in hot
and wet tropical areas such as Maharastra,kerala etc. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red
coloration, because of high iron oxide content.

Colour

Laterite soil is reddish to yellow in color with a lower content of potassium, phosphorus,
nitrogen, lime, and magnesia with 90 to 100% of aluminium, iron, titanium, & manganese
oxides.

Formation

Laterite soil is formed under conditions of heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods,
and high temperature which leads to leaching of soil, leaving only oxides of aluminium and
iron

 Laterite stones are manual or machine-cut block pieces from quarries or mines
containing lateritic crusts.
 Laterite bricks are natural stones so they have cooling properties hence they keep the
home cool during summers which is a great benefit for hot regions. Due to its natural
properties, laterite brick has good thermal insulation properties and they easily adapt ad adjust
with the weather.

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 Laterite is a soft rock composed of iron &aluminium oxides as the main ingredient. Due to the
weathering actions, in hot & wet tropical areas, lateritic soil gradually gains strength to become
a hard mass.

Uses

Rocks are used for various purposes starting from construction of roads, bridges, buildings to
pot in kitchen, as a gem stone or just for decorating your garden. Laterite uses in construction
industry include Cobblestones, for road aggregate, Landscaping, Roadstone etc.

Chemical properties

The average composition of typical laterites is as follows:

 H2O-with large quantities of alumina, the combined water in laterite varies from 20-
30%
 Al2O3-In general, Al2O3 forms the most abundant constituent in laterite varying from
50 60 %. With an enrichment of iron or Quartz, the alumina content is lowered.
 Fe2O3-The content of Fe2O3 may vary considerably, ranging from 35 to 80%.
 SiO2-In typical laterite the SiO2 will be very low.

2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Laterite bricks

Advantages

1. They keep the building cool in the summer season as they are quarried natural stones.

2. Laterite stones have good thermal insulation properties.

3. The stone provides a good aesthetic appearance to the building.

4. The stone hardens & gains strength as time progresses.

5. Due to its larger size, it is cost-effective by reducing labour& other material charges.

6. Plastering is not compulsory for laterite masonry works.

7. Environment friendly as they do not emit CO2& greenhouse gases.

Disadvantages

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1. The strength of the block is not uniform and is less compared to burnt bricks.

2. The compressive strength is in the range of 1 to 3.5 N/mm2

3. Laterite stone blocks are available in limited regions.

3. Stone dressing is needed before masonry work to match the sizes.

4. The biggest disadvantage of laterite brick is less strength they have 5-10 times less strength
than a concrete brick which is why it is not suitable for high-rise construction but only small-
scale masonry works.

5. Laterite bricks are prone to absorb water so during heavy rainfall we cannot predict the
structural failure of the building.
6. They are overall high maintenance and not a choice for the modern building techniques and
modern aesthetics of the buildings.

Size:

The size of the laterite stone block varies depending upon the locality, cutting process, &
hardness of the laterite layer.
12"×8"×8";12"×8"×9"; 16"×9"×6"

3. BRICKS

A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction. Brick is generally manufactured by moulding suitable clay into blocks
of uniform size which are later dried and burnt.

Advantages of bricks

 They are light in weight and can be lifted and transported without any lifting machine.
 They are uniform in shape and size
 Bricks is fire resistant and sound proof
 Bricks can be manufactured at all places using locally available clay and this helps in
places where stones are not available.
 No dressing is required because of uniform shape and size.
 Bricks are economical in construction.
 Desired architectural design can be given to brick masonry.

Uses
 In construction of Structural walls, exterior and interior walls
 Bricks can be used for construction of walls of any size (exposed brick walls, foundation
walls, fences, brick retaining walls) floors, arches, and cornice.
 Can be used for permanent structural construction such as buildings, dams, roads,
bridge piers, etc.

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 The fireproofing of structural-steel members in the form of firewalls, partition walls,
enclosures and fire towers
 Foundations for statues
 Chimneys and fireplaces
 High-quality bricks are also utilized for decorative purposes
 Outdoor steps, path way, brick walks and paved floors
 Swimming pools

3.1 Classification of Bricks as per common practice:

1. Unburnt bricks or sun dried bricks

2. Burnt bricks

Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four
categories on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation, as given below.

1. First class bricks

2. Second class bricks

3. Third class bricks

4. Fourth class bricks

First Class Bricks:

 These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns. The
surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight.
 They comply with all the qualities of good bricks and are free from cracks.
 The crushing strength of these bricks should not be less than 10 N/mm2
 Water absorption lies between 12-15%.
 These bricks are used for superior work of permanent nature like pointing, exposed face
work in masonry structures, flooring.

Second Class Bricks:

 These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of these
bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular.
 These bricks may have small cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform.

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 The crushing strength of these bricks should not be less than 7 N/mm2
 Water absorption lies between 16-20%.
 These bricks are commonly used at places where brick work is to be provided with a
coat of plaster.

Third Class Bricks:

 These bricks are ground moulded and they are underburnt in clamps.
 These bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted
edges.
 Water absorption is greater than 25%.
 They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places where rainfall is
not heavy.

Fourth Class Bricks:

 These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour.
 These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc.

3.2 Tests on Bricks: To know the quality of bricks following tests can be performed. In these
tests some are performed in laboratory and the rest are on field.

Compressive strength test

• Water Absorption test
• Efflorescence test
• Hardness test
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• Size, Shape and Colour test
• Soundness test

• Structure test

3.3 Sizes of bricks

In India, bricks are typically used in one of four standard sizes.

 Modular bricks: 190 x 90 x 90 mm(without mortar). These bricks are made by

machines. 200x100x100 mm(with mortar)
 Non-modular bricks: 230 mm x 110 mm x70mm

Burnt clay bricks

3.4 Requirements of Good bricks

 Bricks should be uniformly and thoroughly burnt with uniform color, size and shape.
 They should be sound proof and compact.
 They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc.
with sharp and square edges.
 Bricks should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight when immersed in
water for 24 hours.
 The minimum compressive strength of bricks should be of 3.5 N/mm2(35 kg/cm2 ).
 Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in brick
also causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
 Bricks should neither over burnt nor under-brunt.
 Bricks should not break into pieces when dropped freely from a height of about 1m on
to ground.
 The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building built
with them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.

3.5 Characteristics of Burned bricks

The most important properties of bricks can be classified into three division:
Physical.

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Mechanical.
Thermal.

Physical Properties:
Good quality bricks should have the following properties:

Colour
• Reddish type of color is ideal for first-class bricks.
• We must avoid dark blue and light yellow color of bricks as this indicates over-burning and
under-burning respectively.

Size
• As per the Indian Stanard, the Size of bricks is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm. without
mortar.The Size of bricks is 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm. with mortar
• It is necessary to maintain the standard size of bricks for construction work.

Shape
• It is already described that the ideal shape of bricks is the rectangular shape.
• It should have sharp and well-defined edges.
• Bricks surface should be even and regular.

Density
• The standard range of density of bricks is 1600 kg/cubic meter to 1900 kg/cubic meter.
• The density depends upon the type of material used and the molding method.

Hardness
• One simple and easy way to test the hardness of bricks is the nail-scratching test.
• In this test, fingernail is used to scratch on the brick surface. If no scratch impression occurs
on the surface then it is a type of hard bricks.

Soundness
• From the soundness test, you can judge a brick's quality.
• When two bricks are rubbed with each other, it should produce a metallic sound.

Mechanical Properties of bricks

Compressive strength
This strength defines how much a matter can withstand compressive force without
showing any significant failure.
As per Indian standard, Brick should have a minimum compressive strength of 3.5
N/mm2. First class bricks should not have less than 10 N/mm2 Second class bricks should
not have less than 7 N/mm2

Thermal Properties
Thermal properties refer to the conductivity of brick. It is necessary that brick should have low

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thermal conductivity. This characteristic of bricks helps houses to keep warm in winter
and cool in summer.

Water absorption
By using this test we can identify many characteristics of bricks such as weather
resistance, durability, quality, etc.
Water absorption of bricks can be determined by the following formula:

Absorption=(W2 – W1 / W1) x 100

Where,
W1= Dry weight of the brick sample
W2= Weight of brick after 24 hours of water immersion.

Efflorescence of bricks
Sometimes you may notice that a wall is covered with white powder. The engineering term of the
white powder is Efflorescence. Efflorescence occurs in presence of water and makes a salty
deposition on the brick surface. High moisture content is the reason for efflorescence in brick.

4. Concrete Blocks

Concrete Block is a ‘Building Block’ made entirely of concrete(Cement+aggregates+water)

which is then bonded together with Mortar to form an imposing long-lasting structure. Such
Concrete Blocks can be used as a masonry unit for load-bearing walls, partitions walls

4.1 Types of Concrete Blocks: There are two types of concrete blocks:

1.SolidConcreteBlocks
2. Hollow Concrete Blocks

1. Solid Concrete Blocks

Solid concrete blocks, which are highly heavyweight and formed by aggregate, are primarily
utilized in construction projects. These solid blocks are ideal for large-scale projects such as
load-bearing walls. They’re compared to bricks that come in big sizes. As a result, constructing
concrete masonry takes less time than brick masonry.

2. Hollow Concrete Blocks:

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A Concrete Block having solid material only between 50-70% of the total volume, calculated
from the overall dimensions is categorised as a Hollow Concrete Block. Hollow Concrete
Blocks have one or more large ‘Holes’ or ‘Cavities. It reduces labour costs on the job site while
also speeding up the construction process and saving cement and steel. These blocks reduce the
natural weight of masonry structures while also improving physical wall qualities like noise
and thermal insulation

PROPERTIES

 Size:- 39cm X 19 cm X 30 cm; 39cm X 19 cm X 20 cm ; 39cm X 19 cm X 10 cm

 Density:
1. Solid concrete blocks :- 1500 to 2000kg/m3
2. Hollow concrete blocks:- 1000 to 1500kg/m3
 Compressive Strength:
1. Solid concrete blocks : The minimum compressive strength is greater than 5
N/mm2
2. Hollow concrete blocks: The minimum compressive strength is around 2 to 4
N/mm2
 Water Absorption:- < 10 to 15% by weight
 The moisture movement of Concrete Blocks should be less than 0.09%.

4.4 Uses of Concrete Blocks:

 Concrete Blocks are a great option for partition walls because they are quick and easy to
install. The inclusion of steel reinforcement adds to the structure’s strength.
 Exterior and Interior Load-bearing Walls, Partition Walls, Panel Walls, and Boundary
Walls are common uses for Hollow Concrete Blocks.

 Solid Concrete Blocks are perfect for Chimney and Fireplace building, but they also
work well for Non-load Bearing Walls and Garden Walls.
 Concrete blocks are also used in a variety of smaller landscaping projects. Many
Outdoor Furniture & Patio ideas, for example, include Outdoor Seating, Decorative screens,
Outdoor Bar, Flower Bed, and many others.
 Concrete blocks can cover stored commodities from the effects of changing weather.

4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete Blocks

Advantages of Concrete Blocks:

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 The reduced wall thickness due to narrower Concrete Blocks than a traditional brick
masonry wall makes the space is larger by increasing the carpet surface.

 Concrete block building is more systematic, faster, and stronger than brick masonry
because of the vast size of the blocks.
 Better thermal insulation is provided.
 It effectively absorbs sound and protects the interiors from noise pollution.
 Using concrete blocks provides additional fire protection.
 Protects precious agricultural land that is extensively mined to produce clay bricks.

 Individual pieces can be manufactured to a larger customized size and shape, allowing
for a quick building cycle turnaround.
 Concrete Blocks, unlike traditional bricks, have a consistent size that lowers the need
for plaster, making them a more cost-effective solution.

 The mortar consumption rate is lower than in traditional masonry construction due to
fewer joints, but the overall strength of the structure is increased.
Disadvantages of Concrete Blocks:
 The expense of constructing a residence out of concrete blocks is significantly higher.
 Concrete block homes aren’t usually attractive from the outside.
 Over time, concrete blocks may be subject to water seepage.
 Some regional preferences may not be compatible with this material.
 Windows and doors can easily detract from the environmental benefits.

5 STABILIZED MUD BLOCK

Conventional burnt bricks utilize large amount of non-renewable natural resources like energy,
minerals, top soil, forest cover etc. Earth block is a construction material made primarily from
soil. Types of earth block include compressed earth block (CEB), compressed stabilized earth
block (CSEB), and stabilized earth block (SEB).

Stabilized mud block (SMB) or pressed earth block is a building material made primarily from
damp soil compressed at high pressure to form blocks. If the blocks are stabilized with a
chemical binder such as Portland cement they are called compressed stabilized earth block
(CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB). Stabilized mud block uses a mechanical press to form
block out of an appropriate mix of fairly dry inorganic subsoil, non-expansive clay, aggregate,
and cement.

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 CONCEPT of SMB
1) When the Soils are compressed using external energy, the density of the soil reaches a value
of a moisture content known as the optimum moisture content (OMC)
2) The value of OMC and the maximum density depends on the energy input during
compaction.
3) The process of mechanical compression can lead to densification and strengthening of the
soil.
4) If soil also stabilized against loss of strength during saturation, we can think of a stabilized
mud (soil) block where the stabilization is achieved by a combination of densification and
mixing of a stabilizing additive.
5) A variety of materials can be used for the stabilization namely: cement, lime and bitumen.

OBJECTIVES
Stabilized mud blocks (SMBs) are manufactured by compacting a wetted mixture of soil, sand,
and stabilizer in a machine into a high-density block. Such blocks are used for the construction
of load-bearing masonry.

· For the purpose of provide alternate of burnt bricks.

· To investigate present soils to find their suitableness in stable earth block production.
· Use naturally available material in construction work.
· For eco-friendly construction. And decrease greenhouse effect.
· For provide thermal insulation in building.
· To improve sound absorption in building.
· To meet the economic requirements of the local situation by reducing dependence on outside
sources and ensuring low cost alternatives.

The general composition of the materials used to make stabilized mud blocks or raw materials

1. Soil: The soil used for SMBs is usually clayey or silty soil, which provides good binding
properties when mixed with sand and cement. Soil containing 10 to 15% clay is used. The soil
should be free of organic matter, rocks, and other debris that can weaken the blocks.
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2. Sand: Sand is added to the mixture to improve the workability and reduce the shrinkage of
the blocks. The sand used should be clean and well-graded, with a particle size of about 2mm.
65.0 to 70.0% sand are satisfactory for making cement stabilized mud blocks
3. Cement: Cement is added to the the tune of 6.0 to 8.0% by the weight of the appropriate soil
mixture to improve the strength and durability of the blocks. Usually, ordinary Portland cement
or lime pozzolana mixture is used, but other types of cement can also be used.
4. Water: Water is added to the mixture to form a workable paste that can be compressed into
blocks. The amount of water used should be carefully controlled to ensure that the blocks are not
too wet or too dry.

Physical Properties of SMB:

The properties of SMBs may vary depending upon the purpose, usage, region building code
and atmospheric exposure. However, here are some common physical properties of stabilized
mud blocks:

1. Compressive strength: The compressive strength of SMBs typically ranges from 1.5 to 10
MPa, depending on the soil type and stabilizing agent used. As per IS: 3495 (part 1)-1976,
the minimum average compressive strength of:
2
o Class 20 should have 20kgf/cm = 1.96 MPa.
2
o Class 30 should have 30kgf/cm =2.94199 MPa.
2. Water absorption: SMBs can absorb a certain amount of water, but their water absorption
rate is lower than that of traditional fired bricks. This property makes SMBs more resistant to
water damage. The average water absorption shall not be more than 15 per cent by weight
immersion in cold water for 24 hours.
3. Density: The density of SMBs is generally between 1,800 and 2,200 kg/m³, which is similar
to that of traditional fired bricks.
4. Weathering: When tested for weathering as described in IS1725 – 1982, the maximum loss
of weight shall not exceed 5 per cent.
5. Thermal conductivity: SMBs have a low thermal conductivity, which means they are good
at insulating heat. This property can help keep buildings cool in hot climates and warm in cold
climates.
6. Durability: SMBs can be durable if they are properly made and cured. They can resist
weathering and erosion and can last for many years.
7. Fire resistance: SMBs are generally not very resistant to fire, but their fire resistance can be
improved by adding fire retardants to the soil mix.

Uses of Stabilized Mud Blocks:

Stabilized mud blocks (SMBs) are sustainable and cost-effective building material that has a
wide range of uses ad some of the uses includes:

1. Wall construction: SMBs can be used for constructing load-bearing or non-load-bearing

walls in buildings. The blocks have good thermal insulation properties, which help to keep the
interior of the building cool in hot weather and warm in cold weather.
2. Flooring: SMBs can also be used for constructing floors in buildings. They have good
compressive strength and can withstand heavy loads.
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3. Paving: SMBs can be used for paving walkways, driveways, and other areas. They are
durable and can withstand heavy foot and vehicle traffic.
4. Landscaping: SMBs can be used for constructing retaining walls, garden walls, boundary
walls, and other landscaping features. They can be easily moulded into different shapes and sizes
to suit the design requirements.
5. Infrastructure projects: SMBs can also be used for constructing small bridges, culverts,
and other infrastructure projects in rural areas.

Block Sizes : i) 305* 143* 100mm ii) 230*190*100mm have been standardized.

Advantages of SMB:
 Local material:Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in the nearby area.
Thus, it will save the transportation, fuel, time and money.
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 Energy efficient – Requiring only a little stabilizer the energy consumption in a m can
be from 5 to 15 times less than a m³ of fired bricks hence 70% savings when compared to burnt
bricks
 Strength: The compressive strength of stabilized mud block is 40 to 50% more
compare to normal mud block.
 Eco friendly: The pollution emission will also be 2.4 to 7.8 times less than fired bricks.
 Cost effective: Produced locally, with a natural resource and semi-skilled labour,
almost without transport, it will be definitely cost effective, reduces the cost of bricks by 20-
40%.
 Limiting deforestation: Firewood is not needed to produce CSEB. It will save the
forests, which are being depleted quickly in the world, due to short view developments and the
mismanagement of resources
 A transferable technology
It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get. Simple villagers will be able
to learn how to do it in few weeks. Efficient training centre will transfer the technology
in a week time.
 A job creation opportunity
CSEB allow unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill, get a job and rise in the
social values.
 Market opportunity
According to the local context (materials, labour, equipment, etc.) the final price will
vary, but in most of the cases it will be cheaper than fired bricks.
 Reducing imports
Produced locally by semi-skilled people, no need import from far away expensive
materials or transport over long distances heavy and costly building materials.
Other advantages are
 Plastering of walls can be eliminated.
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Lesser quantity of mortar required for wall construction.
 Thermal and sound insulating property is good of this block. These blocks are less
produce green gases.

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Disadvantages of SMB

 These blocks are not used in heavy rainfall

 These block are less durable compare to bricks.
 Blocks are affected by water. And due to that blocks are destroy easily
 The less compressive strength of block compare to bricks.
 The proper maintenance is required.
 The block are affected by termite. Therefore anti-termite protection is required.
 For casting and drying of this block required more time.
 This block are easily affected by nature like, wind, sun heat, rain, snow etc.
 Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous costs.
 Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products

6. LIME POZOLONA CEMENT

LIME STONE
One of the raw materials for all lime based mortars is lime stone. Lime stone is essentially
calcium carbonate in nature. Calcium being one of the fairly abundant metals on earth. Natural
lime stone is one of the purer forms of calcium carbonate occurring in nature.

What is pozzolana or pozzolanic material?

Pozzolana is a material which consists essentially of amorphous silica or a mixture of

amorphous silica and alumina. This is not cementitious by itself, but forms cementitious
compounds when it combines with calcium hydroxide at ambient temperature in the presence
of moisture. A mixture of finely ground calcium hydroxide and pozzolana is hence known as
lime- pozzolana cement.
.

Types of pozzolana materials :

1. Artificial pozzolana
Fly ash, silica fume, rice husk, blast furnace slag.

2. Natural pozzolana
Burnt clay(Surkhi), pumicite, diatomaceous Earth.

There are many ways in which pozzolana can be produced. The following sources
of pozzolana are commonly used.
1. Powdered burnt clay (commonly known as ‘Surkhi’ in India)
2. Fly ash.
3.Rice husk ash

POWDERED BURNT CLAY

It is made either by artificially burning clay in a kiln or by selecting wastes of burnt
17
clay materials like bricks, tiles, and pottery.
When clay is burnt in a kiln for the purpose of making pozzolona, it is desirable
to select a soil with high proportion of clay
The high clay soil may now be made into thin sizes. The wet clay may be spread on
level ground to a thickness of 2.5cms and then sliced into thin cakes of sizes 10cms x
10cms x 2.5cms.
These cakes may now be dried and then charged into the kiln with alternate layers
of firewood. Usually the firewood used could be around 10% of the weight of the clay
The burnt clay may now be reduced to about 90μ size particles. Ball mills are
usually used for the purpose. This pozzolona can store in bags indefinitely without any
loss of its reactivity.

Fly Ash
Fly ash as pozzolona is ultimately obtained from thermal power plant which
used pulverized coal in the fuel.
The fine particles of coal, which are collected in electrostatic precipitators, are
known as fly ash. They contain significant amount of amorphous silica and alumina.
Fly ash is a waste product and may be considered as a zero-thermal energy
material, unlike burnt clay which needs specific energy inputs.

Rice Husk Ash

Rice husk ash is a natural source of silica. Normally rice husk contains about 20% silica
and the rest of it is combustible material. This silica is amorphous and if the husk is burnt
under controlled conditions a highly pozzolonic ash can be produced.

6.1 Lime Pozolona

Lime pozzolana concrete aims to be a more sustainable, low-carbon alternative to Portland

cement and similar conventional examples of reinforced concrete.

Lime is a natural material but it is mixed or “slaked” with water to produce lime pozzolana.
Slaked lime maintains natural chemical properties that enable it to disintegrate easily, which
means that only 25% of lime pozzolana requires the traditional grinding process normally
needed for the manufacturing of cement.

THE PROCESS
LIME - POZZOLONA CEMENT
It is an intimate mixture of lime and pozzolona will set in the presence of water,
forming calcium silicate and calcium aluminates compounds.
In the traditional lime Surkhi mortar, slaked lime and brick powder is mixed and
ground in the presence of moisture in bullock driven mortar mills and the ground moist
mixture is then directly used in construction.
In the modern context, power-driven pan mills are used to grind the mortar. Unlike
Portland cement, which is already a complete cementitious product, lime
pozzolona cement needs an additional step of mixing lime pozzolona. The efficiency
18
of the lime pozzolona cements depends on the intimacy of the mixing of lime
and pozzolona.

Uses of Lime-Pozzolona Cement

1. Used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea shore, dam
construction etc.
2. Lime-pozzolana mixture which is essentially a mixture of lime and pozzolana could be
used in works like masonry mortar and plaster, foundation concrete, road and airfield bases,
precast building blocks (including light weight blocks), paving blocks, soil stabilization.
3. Used in masonry mortars and plastering.
4. As it gives better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
5. Used in manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
6. Used under harsh concreting conditions.

Advantages of Lime Pozzolana Cement

1. it is an eco-friendly cement as the material used in the manufacture are made of natural
recycled waste.
2. It is very fine cement hence very good when used for plastering works.
3. Pozzolano consists of silica material which makes it cheap and hence reduces the cost
of the cement making it economical to use.
4. Pozzolana cement has very good resistance against sulphate attack hence is used in
hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the sea shore, dam construction etc..
5. It reduces the carbon monoxide emission from the concrete making it environmental
friendly.
6. As the pozzolano materials are very fine, it can fill gaps between the reinforcement and
aggregate , thus reducing the shrinkage, honeycomb formation and bleeding can be reduced,
which in turn increases the strength and durability of concrete.

Disdvantages of Lime Pozzolana Cement

1. The initial strength obtained is less, which effect the de-shuttering of supports early.
2. As it contains more fine material, handing of concrete is difficult.
3. As the strength of this concrete gains slowly, curing process is very important. Any
error in this could cause durability problems.

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7. Fibre Reinforced Cement Composite/Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of

cement, aggregate and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers. Fiber-
reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural
integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented.

Fibres

Fibers are used to reduce permeability, bleeding, and the formation of minor cracks in concrete.
Fibers also improve the tensile strength and impact resistance of concrete.

Different types of fibers used in concrete are as follows

 steel fibers,
 glass fibers,
 asbestos fibers,
 polypropylene fibers,
 carbon fibers, and
 organic fibers

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

 Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete or SFRC is produced by mixing a little amount of steel
fibers in the elements of concrete. Steel fibers are regularly prepared by cutting 10-60 mm
length of low carbon steel wires diameter of 0.25-0.75 mm.

 By adding 2 – 3% fibers (by volume) it is possible to achieve a two to three times

increase in the flexural strength of the concrete and furthermore increase in crack resistance,
explosion resistance, and different properties of the concrete.

 It can greatly increase resistance to cracking, impact, fatigue, and bending, durability,
and others. SFRC is being used in structures such as flooring, housing, precast, bridges,
tunneling, heavy-duty pavement, and mining

Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Glass fiber reinforced concrete is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibers of
glass. Glass fibers are made by mixing silica sand,limestone, folic acid and the mix is heated
20
until it melts at about 1260ᵒC.Then glass strands are cooled and wound. Although not as rigid
as carbon fiber, it is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites. Glass
Fibre reinforced concrete is mostly used for manufacturing precast products such as spun
pipes, wall cladding

Carbon fibers

Carbon fibers are fibers about 5–10 micrometers in diameter and composed mostly of carbon
atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength,
low weight, high chemical resistance, high-temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion.
Carbon fiber comes under the very high modulus of elasticity and flexural strength. Carbon
fibers are also composited with other materials, such as graphite, to form reinforced carbon
composites, which have a very high heat tolerance.

Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar and concrete

Polypropylene is one of the cheapest & abundantly available polymers, polypropylene fibers
are resistant to heat and chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165 degrees
centigrade). These fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic
shrinkage and drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce
the bleeding of water .Polypropylene fiber displays good heat-insulating properties and is
highly resistant to acids, alkalies, and organic solvents.

21
 Advantages Of Fibre Reinforced Concrete

 High tensile strength and impact resistance to fatigue stresses and thermal shocks.
 Reduced permeability, bleeding, and formation of microcracks.
 Increased durability.
 High flexural rigidity.
 Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing
 Minimizes steel reinforcement requirements
 Controls the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability
 Reduces segregation and bleed-water
 FRC, toughness is about 10 to 40 times that of plain concrete
 The addition of fibers increases fatigue strength and flexural strength.
 Fibers increase the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams

Disadvantages of Fibre Reinforced Concrete

 Fibers are costly.

 The fibers should be uniformly distributed in concrete because they may not mix well
and form lumps.
 The size of the coarse aggregate is restricted to 10 mm.
 Mixing fibers in large volumes could be tedious.
 Construction with FRC requires skilled labour.

Applications of FRC

 Runway,Aircraft Parking
 Pavements
 Tunnel Lining
 Walls
 Pipes
 Dams
 Hydraulic Structure
 Elevated decks
 Roads
 Bridges
 Warehouse floors

8. Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite(FRP Composite) : Fibre Reinforced

Polymer (FRP) composite is defined as a polymer or matrix that is reinforced with fibre. A
composite is a material made up of two or more constituent materials with widely different
strengths and material properties.
22
 Components of Composite Materials
1. Fibres
The choice of fibre frequently controls the properties of composite materials. Carbon, Glass,
and Aramid are three major types of fibres which are used in construction.

2. Matrices(Polymer)
The matrix should transfer forces between the fibres and protect the fibres form detrimental
effects. Thermosetting resins (thermosets) are almost exclusively used. Vinylester and epoxy
are the most common matrices.

Properties of FRP Composite Materials

In an FRP composite, the fibre part usually brings most of the strength to the material. The role
of the matrix is to encase the fibres and distribute the forces among the fibres.

Some of the most important properties of FRP composites include:

 Extremely lightweight
 High tensile strength
 High durability and high stiffness;
 Damping property, flexural strength
 High Fatigue and Impact strength.
 Resistance to corrosion, wear, impact, and fire
 Resistance to water and corrosion
 Resistance to electrical conductivity
 Resistance to chemical substances
 Stability under UV

ADVANTAGES OF FRP IN CONSTRUCTION

FRP features numerous unique properties to consider during the material selection process.

 Corrosion resistance: The corrosion-resistant polymers in FRP hold up to salt and

chemical exposure. This allows FRP to last for decades in settings ranging from sea-side walkways
to rail platforms.
 Cost-efficiency: An FRP structure can go up to 75 years with little or no maintenance,
drastically reducing the overall cost of a construction project and generating more long-term
economies of scale.
 Strength-to-weight ratio. At just 10–20% the weight of reinforced concrete decking, FRP
panels are lightweight yet strong enough to withstand high foot traffic, motor traffic and high static
loads.
 Ease of installation. The lightweight nature of FRP also facilitates construction, FRP's
weight makes it one of the easiest and cheapest materials to install on-site.
 Safety. FRP is an excellent choice for structures that will experience pedestrian traffic. The
non-slip surface is safer than metal or concrete, which can become slick when wet.

23
 Design flexibility. FRP can be engineered to meet almost any construction parameters,
including custom dimensions and specific load-bearing capabilities.
 FRPs may be used to retrofit existing structures (as with slabs, columns, or beams) to
enhance their load-bearing capacity or to repair damage.

Applications of FRP Composites

FRP composites are used to make a wide range of materials, such as:

 Carbon FRPs are used in prestressed concrete for applications where high resitance to
corrosion is important
 CFRP are employed for underwater piping and structural parts of offshore platform.
 The stairways and walkways are also made of composites for weight saving and
corrosion resistance.
 It is used in high-performance hybrid structures.
 FRP bars are used as internal reinforcement for concrete structures.
 FRP bars, sheets, and strips are used for strengthening of various structures constructed
from concrete, masonry, timber, and even steel.
 FRPs are employed for seismic retrofitting
 Suitable for strengthening engineering structures subjected to dynamic and impact
loading.
 Structural components in the aerospace industry
 Structural components in the construction industry
 Body panels for vehicles to reduce weight.
 Electrical insulation components

9. Bamboo as Building Material

Bamboo is a versatile and sustainable building material that has been used for centuries in
various parts of the world. It is a fast-growing and renewable resource that is lightweight, strong,
and durable. Bamboo can be used for a wide range of applications, from flooring and wall panels
to scaffolding and furniture.

Additionally, bamboo has natural antimicrobial properties, making it an ideal material for use in
humid or tropical environments, the use of bamboo as a building material has gained popularity
due to its eco-friendliness, affordability, and versatility.

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Property of Bamboo as Construction Material

 The compressive strength of bamboo is at least twice of concrete.

 The tensile strength of bamboo (28KN/sq.in) is close to steel (23KN/sq.in).
 The shear stress of bamboo fiber is higher than wood, with an even wider span than
wood.
 Curving bamboo is possible without breaking or damage.
 The high elasticity of bamboo makes it useful as a building material in areas of high
risk of earthquakes.
 The fire resistance of bamboo is good, can withstand a temperature of 400°C

Uses of Bamboo In Building Construction

Walls Construction with Bamboo as a Building Material

 Bamboo is extensively used for construction of walls and partitions. Posts and beams are
the main elements normally constructed with bamboo provide structural framework for walls.
They positioned in a way to be able to withstand forces of nature.

Roofing with Bamboo as a Building Material

 Bamboo is one of the best roofing materials and provides ample sturdiness to the
structure. It is a proven shield against forces of nature or animals and are considerably light
weighted which makes them easy to install. The bamboo roofs encompass purlins, rafters and
trusses

Scaffolding with Bamboo as a Building Material

 Due to advantageous properties of bearing heavy load bamboos are considered as one of
the highly-endorsed materials for scaffolding even for tall structures.

Bamboo for Foundations

 There is very limited use of bamboo as foundation material because when in contact with
moisture laden surface they decay fast. However, this issue can be tackled to quite an extent
though proper treatment using appropriate chemicals

Bamboo for Flooring

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Bamboo can be used material due to its better wear and tear resistance resilience properties.
Whole culms act and the floor covering is done using bamboo boards, mats etc by means of
wire to the frame

Doors and Windows

Bamboo frames can be substituted in place of timber frames of the appropriate function. Reed
boards are reeds pressed flat at high temperatures, usually used in the elements like flooring,
walls, ceiling and roofing, partitions, doors, and windows.

Advantages of Bamboo as a Building Material

The various advantages of bamboo are as mentioned below:

1. Tensile strength: Bamboo has higher tensile strength than steel because its fibers run
axially.
2. Fire Resistance: Capability of bamboo to resist fire is very high and it can withstand
temperature up to 400 C. This is due to the presence of high value of silicate acid and water.
3. Elasticity: Bamboo is widely preferred in earthquake prone regions due to its elastic
features.
4. Weight of bamboo: Bamboos due to their low weight are easily displaced or installed
making it very easier for transportation and construction.
5. Unlike other building materials like cement and asbestos, bamboo poses no danger to
health.
6. They are cost effective and easy to use.
7. They are especially in great demand in earthquake prone areas.

Disadvantages of Bamboo
Bamboos come with their own set of drawbacks such as:

1. They require preservation

2. Shrinkage: Bamboo shrinks much greater than any other type of timber especially
when it loses water.
3. Durability: Bamboo should be sufficiently treated against insect or fungus attack
before being utilized for building purposes.
4. Jointing: Despite prevalence of various techniques of jointing, structural reliability of
bamboo is questionable.

Recycling of Building Materials

A recycled building material is any product or material that has previously been used in
another construction and is reused in other constructions.. All sorts of materials can be re-used
and repurposed, including brick, steel, timber, and even whole elements like windows and tiles.
Recycled building materials are an easy way for construction projects to be a bit greener. Not

26
only will using them reduce your energy use, limit waste, and minimise emissions, but they are
often cheaper too.

Benefits/Necessity of Recycled Building Materials

1. Lower Costs
Using reclaimed or recycled building materials is often more economical than buying new
products. Dumping unwanted construction and demolition waste materials for landfill can
become costly due to dumping fees.

2. Improved Resource Efficiency

Construction resources are finite — so it’s important to make the most of resources once they
are extracted. Where construction materials are able to be reused and recycled in the circular
economy, it means that our industry can make the resources go further.

3. Reduced Landfill
Using recycled building materials means that we produce less waste and reduce the amount of
product that goes to landfill. Since building and demolition material makes up a significant
portion, this can have a significant impact on our landfills.

4. Preserve Natural Habitats

Recycling waste from construction reduces demand for fresh materials needed to construct new
building which means less quarrying, less mining, and fewer trees cut down. This means less
damage to natural habitats and more of our beautiful country left for our native wildlife.

5. Energy Efficient

Using recycled materials in your project either entirely or partly will greatly reduce its energy
consumption. It is found that remaking building materials from recycled ones uses 10-25% less
energy, compared to manufacture new ones.

6. Reduced Environmental Impact

Using recycled material during the construction phase of a building’s life cycle and ensuring its
materials are recycled during the disposal phase reduces its environmental impact by up to
65%.

7. Reduces Emissions

If your project is using less energy, it will naturally be emitting fewer greenhouse gases. In
fact, it is estimated that 11% of global carbon emissions come from construction . And, to
further decrease carbon emission, choosing a local provider of recycled building materials will
mean a substantial reduction in transport emissions

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 Recycling of Plastic as building Material

Plastics are manufactured in different forms such as moulding pipes, sheets and films

Here are the some five ways in which recycled plastic is being used for construction purposes:

PVC Windows

PVC windows are specifically produced from high-grade Poly Vinyl Chloride. Being primarily
made up of plastic, the frames of these windows are 100 percent recyclable. These can be
recycled several times and be used again in new windows which provides longer life span.

Bricks

Known to fasten up the construction work as compared to the traditional bricks, recycled bricks
made up of plastic are considered to be fire-resistant, cost-effective, and even eco-friendly.
Additionally, these are lighter in weight and have superb heat-insulating properties.

Recycled plastic bricks are coming into use, which have many advantages like –
 Low environmental impact.
 Reduced energy consumption
 Thinner and lighter than conventional bricks
 Building structurally sound to withstand an earthquake
 Excellent insulation properties (about 5 times more than conventional bricks)
 Very good noise insulation

Roofing Tiles

Roof tiles made up of recycled plastic is not only inexpensive but also high-quality and cost-
effective. These are lightweight in comparison to traditional asbestos sheets and resistant to UV
radiations. With multiple advantages such as attractive appearance, extended durability, good
sound insulation, and easy processing, roofing tiles having plastic as content, are quite common
nowadays.

Carpets

Recycled plastic can also be used to produce long-lasting products such as carpets, the
manufacturers have been able to make carpet fibres with the help of recycled plastic such as
the plastic used in the production of beverage bottles, the carpets made up of plastic are stain-
resistant and colour-fast.

Fencing

Designing fences from recycled plastic is another great way to become sustainable in your
approach. Fencing products made up of plastic are manufactured using High-Density
Polyethylene (HDPE), which originates from plastic products, including detergent bottles and

28
 milk jugs. When used for commercial properties, these provide significant benefits such as
protection from insects, choice of colours and profiles, durabilit and low-maintenance.

Recycled Concrete

Recycling concrete consists of breaking, removing, and crushing concrete from an existing
location, and then using it to create a new, reusable material

Recycling of waste concrete is done to reuse the concrete rubble as aggregates in concrete. The
recycled aggregates have less crushing strength, impact resistance, specific gravity and has
more absorption value as compared to fresh aggregates.

Necessity of Concrete Recycling: Millions of tonnes of waste concrete is generated every year
around the world due to following reasons:

1. Demolition of old structure,

2. Destruction of buildings and structures during earthquakes and wars,
3. Removal of useless concrete from structures, buildings, road pavements etc.
4. Waste concrete generated due to concrete cube and cylinder testing, destructive
methods of testing of existing structures etc.

Advantages of Concrete Recycling: Usually demolished concrete were shipped to landfills

for disposal, but due to greater environmental awareness, the concrete is being recycled for
reuse in concrete works. There are a variety of benefits in recycling concrete rather than
dumping it or burying it in a landfill.

Other Benefits of Recycling of Concrete are:

 Local Product – Local Sources

 Alternative to a Non-Renewable Resource
 Cost Savings
 No Disposal Fees
 Better Trucking Utilization (Reduced Costs)

Recycled concrete can be used as an aggregate ingredient in concrete mixtures in construction

projects.

Uses of Recycled Concrete:

 Landscaping: Recycled concrete can be used for residential and commercial landscaping
projects, including in the construction of retaining walls, raised flower and garden beds, to build
yard drainage systems and sized down as decorative gravel.

29
 Construction: Use recycled aggregate or gravel made from recycled concrete for engineered
structural fill and embankments, as well as a sub-base material for foundations, parking lots and
driveways.
 Roadways: recycled concrete is used whenever possible to repair, reconstruct and maintain the
National Highway System, which include construction of paved roadways. These same processes
can be used for local and small scale roadways as well.
 Development: Recycled concrete has been successfully used in several types of industrial,
warehouse and office development projects, including as part of the foundation and standing
structures.
 Community: Public sidewalks, walkways and asphalt pavement courts can be made out of
recycled concrete and are typically just as durable and long-lasting as fresh concrete.
 Environment: The production of recycled concrete is better for the environment which
reduces the pollution.

BRICK
Bricks are recycled in several ways. They can be chipped and used in landscapes. Bricks, when
crushed into very fine material, can also be used in place of sand or even go into new bricks.
Bricks, depending upon different factors, are recycled in different ways.

Benefits/Advantages of Recycled brick

 Saves natural resources — Recycling bricks reduces the need to extract new clay and shale,
which are used to make new bricks. This helps to conserve natural resources and reduce the
environmental impact of brick production.
 Reduces energy use — Manufacturing new bricks requires a lot of energy, including firing
the bricks in kilns at high temperatures. Recycling bricks conserve s energy because the bricks
have already been fired and do not need to be re -fired.
 Reduces greenhouse gas emissions — The production of bricks is a significant source of
greenhouse gas emissions, primarily due to the energy used in the firing process. Recycling bricks
reduces the overall greenhouse gas emissions associated with brick production.

 Reduces waste — Recycling bricks helps divert waste from landfills, reducing the
environmental impact of waste disposal. It also reduces the emissions associated w ith transport to
landfill.
 Saves money — Recycling bricks can be a cost-effective alternative to buying new bricks,
particularly if the bricks are in good condition and can be reused as -is or with minimal processing.
 Preserves history — Recycling old bricks can help to preserve the history and character of a
building or community.

Uses of Recycled Brick

 Environmentally friendly and sustainable option. Each re-used brick is a brick that is saved
from landfill.

30
 Those leftover bricks are perfect for creating a lovely informal walkway or path to your
door.
 Strong and durable material.
 Versatile product.
 Recycled bricks are great for internal and external wall finishes, structural building work,
garden paving, garden edging, garden walls
 Old bricks can be used for paving new walkways around your home,
 Old bricks can be used for building retaining walls around flowers in your garden

Recycling of Steel

Steel is the world’s most recycled construction material and approximately 40% of all steel
production is based on recycled scrap.

Benefits of recycling steel

 It reduces the consumption, expenses, energy, and time to mine other valuable resources.
 For every ton of recycled steel, it saves one and a half tons of iron ore, half a ton of coal,
and 40 percent of the water normally used in the production process.
 By using ferrous scrap rather than virgin materials in the production of iron and steel,
CO2 emissions are reduced by 58 percent.
 The more steel is recycled, the less space it takes up in landfills. Over time, this means a
cleaner environment and fewer health concerns from contaminated soil or groundwater.

 One of the major benefits of recycling steel is the fact that steel can be recycled over and
over again without losing its innate strength. Reusing steel doesn’t degrade the products’
strength or value and it has a great weight capacity.
 While recycled steel is no different in quality than new steel, it is however cheaper. Its
lightweight nature means less use of heavyweight equipment and lifts. Additionally, builders
save money on maintenance and repair due to steel’s long life span and durability.

Uses of recycled steel

Iron and scrap recycling produces new major appliances, motor vehicles, food containers,
machinery, derricks, pipes, bridges, ships, trains and rails.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO BUILDING MATERIALS

Land Degradation
The quarrying Process requires large land areas to extract the mineral ore and on the other
hand, there is a requirement of huge areas to dump the quary waste. Quarrying destroys natural
vegetation by scraping the upland soil and thereby also destroys the habitats of many wild
animals. It cleans the surface vegetation, which destroys the humus in the soil which is
essential for plant growth. Fine dust particles spread in the air around a quarrying site destroy
natural vegetation.
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Erosion
Quarrying in hilly areas causes erosion of hillsides, mine dumps, and tailings dams, which can
result in the siltation of canals, streams, and rivers, which significantly affects surrounding
areas. Due to quarrying, soil erosion reduces the availability of water for plant growth, which
may result in population decline in plant ecosystems. Quarrying also causes coastal erosion,
resulting in flooding in coastal areas.

Air Pollution
The quarrying process generates a lot of dust which causes air pollution. That means dust from
quarry sites is a major source of air pollution. Air pollution affects human health, mainly
affects on the respiratory system. Air pollution also has physical effects on surrounding plants
by depositing dust particles on the surface of plants, blocking and damaging their internal
structure, and abrasion of leaves and cuticles.

Water Pollution
Quarrying activities cause pollution of surrounding water resources and groundwater. High
concentrations of chemicals such as arsenic, sulfuric acid, and mercury produced from
quarrying operations spread over the water surface. This sewage containing the above-
mentioned chemicals leads to the destruction of the surrounding vegetation.

Noise Pollution
Quarrying operations involve many activities that generate significant levels of noise. Those
activities are the establishment of the road to the quarry site, rail access, drilling activities,
blasting activities, hydraulic excavator truck operations. Quarrying site involves the use of
explosives to break huge chunks of rocks, which leads to massive noise pollution and the use of
powered machinery which involves the transport of materials and processing crushing of the
products contributes more noise to the environment.

Damage to Biodiversity
One of the biggest concerns of quarrying on the environment is the damage to biodiversity.
Although habitats are not directly removed by quarrying activities, they are indirectly affected
and damaged by environmental impacts such as groundwater depletion that causes some
habitats to dry out or others to flood.

Sinkholes
At the time of quarrying activities, overburden at the quarry site can develop cavities in the
subsoil or rock, which can refill with sand and soil from overlying strata, when sudden failure
of the earth creates a large depression at the surface without warning can cause serious hazards
to life and property nearby by quarry site.

Improper disposal of Quarry Waste

Many man-made activities and machinery activities on a quarry site generate significant
amounts of waste. Dumping of quarry waste without a proper site can harm the environment,.
Furthermore, the treatment, storage of waste products, and disposal of waste may produce
32
more negative impacts on the environment. When waste material has to be dumped on the
adjacent land, it is chemically contaminated and affects the hydrological instability of plant
growth as it is carried to the watercourses and degraded environment near the land.

LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE BEAMS

3
Concrete is considered to be lightweight if the density is not more than 2200kg/m (the density
3 3
of normal weight concrete is assumed to be between 2300kg/m and 2400kg/m ) and aggregate
3
should have a density of less than 2000kg/m . Concrete of substantially lower density than that
made using aggregates of normal density; consists entirely of lightweight aggregate or a
combination of lightweight aggregate, its equilibrium densities are generally between 1120 and
3
1920 kg/m . The tensile strength, ultimate strains and shear strengths are all lower than a
normal weight concrete with the same cylinder strength. Creep and shrinkage for lightweight
concretes are higher than that for the equivalent normal weight concrete. Lightweight concretes
are also less stiff than the equivalent normal strength concrete. However, this is mitigated by
the reduction in self-weight to be carried, so the overall effect tends to be reduction in the depth
of a beam or slab.

The benefits of using lightweight concrete beams include:

 Reduction in dead loads making savings in foundations and reinforcement.

 Savings in transporting and handling precast units on site.
 Reduction in formwork and propping.
 The elastic modulus of lightweight concretes is lower than the equivalent strength
normal weight concrete, but when considering the deflection of a slab or beam, this is
counteracted by the reduced self-weight.

LIGHT WEIGHT STEEL BEAMS

Light Beams are designed and hot-rolled to provide load bearing strength in an extremely light-
weight profile. Available with either a wax coating or prime painted, Super-Light Beams are
commonly used in rail and truck trailer manufacturing. Profiles include Symmetric, Non-
Symmetric and Slide Rail.

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 Wavebeam is a light-weight structural beam which has the ability to revolutionise the
international construction industry. Because of its unique design, Wavebeam will carry similar
loads as existing steel beams, but will be up to 40% lighter. Ultimately, the Wavebeam concept
will be manufactured in other structurally efficient materials including but not limited to
aluminium, carbon fibre reinforced polymer and composites.

Wave beam

GYPSUM BOARD

A collection of panel goods is referred to as “gypsum board.” These have a non-

combustible gypsum core with paper surfacing front, back, and long edges. The term “gypsum
panel products” refers to the various gypsum boards used in building and construction. The
basis of all gypsum board products is gypsum, but the surface can be wrapped in various
materials, including paper and fiberglass matting. Drywall, wallboard, and plasterboard are
used to describe gypsum boards. They differ from other panel-type shelters, and road and
building products, such as plywood, hardboard, and fiberboard, due to their non-combustible
core and paper facers. Gypsum wallboard creates a continuous surface suited for various
interior design projects, both residential and commercial when their seams and fastener heads
are covered with a joint compound system.

Ceiling gypsum board Fire resistant gypsum board

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PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM BOARD

1. Gypsum is Fire Resistant: Gypsum boards are fire resistant and safeguard the structure
from fire threats by preventing the fire from spreading further. Due to chemically bound water
in the gypsum, it possesses a fire-resistant quality. When gypsum boards are exposed to fire,
the water contained within the gypsum evaporates, forming a protective layer.

2. Thermal Properties of Gypsum: Gypsum can regulate variables such as humidity and
temperature in the home. The insulating characteristics of gypsum plasterboard or formwork
used in buildings are improved.

3. Acoustic Property of Gypsum:Sound isolation is prioritized in the design of gypsum

materials. Gypsum plasterboard is designed to absorb sound and reduce reverberation. Adding
an air space between two solid gypsum walls improves acoustic performance by preventing
noise from passing through.

4. Non-combustible Property of Gypsum: Because of its non-combustible quality and

capacity to slow fire development for hours, gypsum is regarded as an effective fire retarder.

Uses of Gypsum Board:

 Gypsum and glass are also utilized to make various lightweight architectural ornaments.
 .The ceilings of the buildings are similarly made of gypsum tiles.
 Partitions, lining, ceilings, roofs, and floors are made of gypsum fireboards..
 In the building of partition walls, gypsum blocks are employed.

Types of Gypsum Board:

1. Fire Resistant Gypsum Boards:

Fig 1: Fire Resistant Gypsum Boards

Due to the particular behavior of the gypsum core when exposed to fire, a fire-resistant gypsum
board provides good fire protection in buildings. The chemically mixed water is gradually
released in the form of water vapor when a fire-resistant gypsum board protects building
materials exposed to fire. This situation develops when a board or gypsum finish is
continuously exposed to a temperature above 49°C.

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Uses of Fire Resistant Gypsum Boards:
When a high level of fire protection is required in ceilings and drywall, this product is ideal.

2. Water-Resistant Gypsum Board:

Fig 2: Water Resistant Gypsum Boards

This type has water-repellent face paper and a water-resistant gypsum core. It can be used as a
foundation for wall tiles in bathtubs, showers, and other wet places.

Uses of Water-Resistant Gypsum Boards:

 In wet spaces like bathrooms and kitchens, it’s best for both ceiling and drywall
partitions.
 In sheltered locations, it’s used as a base for external soffits.
 Interior walls and ceilings in residential and commercial buildings are covered with this
material.
 Also, specialized moisture or water-related assembly is required.

3. Backing Gypsum Board:

The backing gypsum comprises various layers in the construction process, where several
layers of gypsum boards are utilized as a soundproofing material to give the walls strength and
fire resistance. Walls and ceilings are covered with backing gypsum boards, also used for self-
leveling screeds.

Fig 3: Backing Gypsum Boards

Uses of Backing Gypsum Boards:

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 For the walls and ceilings.
 gypsum-based fiberboard
 Partitions and tiles made of gypsum plaster blocks
 Screeds with self-leveling properties.

4. Drywall /wall Board:

Fig 4: Drywall White Boards

Drywall is made out of thin gypsum board panels used to build walls. The board comprises two
layers of special paper with a layer of gypsum rock sandwiched between them. Drywall is a far
more efficient form of a building than applying wet plaster to a gypsum lath, which was once
standard.

Uses of Drywall White Boards:

 It’s also used as a tile backer in wet conditions, including in bathrooms, water closets,
basement walls, kitchens, and laundry and utility rooms.
 It is moisture-resistant and has a strong resistance power

Advantages of Gypsum Board:

 Gypsum is also used in plaster to provide a smooth, crack-free surface. Gypsum boards
give a smooth, continuous surface to which you can apply paint directly.
 Gypsum has the property of balancing the building’s indoor temperature and humidity.
Gypsum is a low-emission building material that provides excellent thermal and acoustic
insulation.
 The use of gypsum goods within the budget boosts the creativity of architects. It offers a
wide range of attractive design options.
 The gypsum products are simple to install and do not necessitate the use of trained staff.
The installation is simple, clean, and quick.
 The gypsum plaster does not need to be painted, and it can be utilized as a final finish.
 A wide range of gypsum products is available to meet a variety of practical and aesthetic
needs.

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Disadvantages of Gypsum Board:
 It’s a difficulty to keep the temperature consistent for both the mechanical and adhesive
applications of gypsum board.
 To Maintain adequate ventilation in the working area during the installation and cure
process.
 Although it is not required, always read the manufacturer’s instructions for temperature
control during the joint treatment, texturing.
 The risk of exposing the gypsum board to high temperatures is more.
 Never use gypsum board in areas where moisture is present in large amounts or regularly.

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