Structure of Atom

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Charge to mass ratio.
3. Charge on electron.
4. Discovery of Protons and Neutrons.
5. Atomic models
a) J.J. Thomson Model.
b) Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
c) Steps for the development of Bhor Model
i) Wave nature of electromagnetic Radiation
ii) Particle nature of EMR : Plank’s quantum theory
iii) Photoelectric effect (PEE)
iv) Atomic spectra
• Emission and Absorption spectra
• Line spectrum of Hydrogen
d) Bhor’s model for Hydrogen
e) Towards quantum Mechanics
i) Dual Behavior of Matter
ii) Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
f )Quantum mechanical model of Atom.
6. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers.
7. Filling of Orbitals
a) Aufbau Principle.
b) Pauli Exclusion Principle.
c) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity.

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 Structure of Atom

• Introduction :

• Dalton’s Atomic theory states that Atoms are the smallest particles of matter and
they are indestructible.
• Electrons were discovered by Michael Faraday.
• Electrons were discovered using cathode ray discharge tube(given by William
crooks) experiment.
• Cathode ray discharge tube experiment(By Faraday): A cathode ray discharge tube made up of glass is taken
with two electrodes. At very low pressure and high voltage, current starts flowing through a stream of
particles moving in the tube from cathode to anode. These rays were called cathode rays. When a
perforatedanode was taken, the cathode rays struck the other end of the glass tube atthe fluorescent coating
and a bright spot on the coating was developed.

• Results:
a. Cathode rays consist of negatively charged electrons and move from cathode to anode.
b. Cathode rays themselves are not visible but their behavior can beobserved with help of fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials.
c. In absence of electrical or magnetic field cathode rays travel in straight lines.
d. In presence of electrical or magnetic field, behavior of cathode rays issimilar to that shown by electrons
e. The characteristics of the cathode rays do not depend upon the material ofthe electrodes and the nature of
the gas present in the cathode ray tube.
2. Charge to mass ratio:
• Charge to mass ratio of an electron was determined by Thomson. The charge to mass ratio of an electron as
e/me = 1.758820 x 10 11
C kg-1

3. Charge on electron :
• Charge on an electron was determined by R A Millikan by using an oil drop experiment. The value of the
charge on an electron is -1.6 x 10-19 C.

• The mass on an electron was determined by combining the results ofThomson’s experiment and Millikan’s
oil drop experiment. The mass of anelectron was determined to be 9.1094 x 10-31 kg.

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 Structure of Atom
4. Discovery of Protons and Neutrons: (By Goldstein)
• Modified cathode ray tube experimentwas carried out which led to the discovery of
protons.
• Goldstein proves that there is another type of rays travel from anode to cathode and
name them canal rays.
• Canal rays (anode rays) are positively charged particles called protons.
• Characteristics of positively charged particles:
b. The positively charged particles depend upon the nature of gas present in the
cathode ray discharge tube
c. Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of fundamentalof electrical charge.
d. Behavior of positively charged particles in electrical or magnetic field isopposite to that observed for
cathode rays.
• Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick by bombarding a thin sheet of beryllium by alpha - particles.
They are electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the protons.

Itni sari research ke baad ab bari

aaee atom ka structure janne ki

a. J.J. Thomson Model:

• With the study of electrical phenomenon in gases, a very important fact that evolved is: atom is divisible, and
is made up of:
1. Electrons, or the negatively charged particles.
2. Positive residues or the protons.
• J.J Thompson came up with the following postulates, after the discovery of divisibility of atom.
1. An atom is a sphere of positive electricity in which electrons are embedded like raisins in a pudding.
2. The repulsion between the electrons was balanced by the attraction towards the sphere.

• Many different names are given to this model. For example, plum pudding, raisin pudding or water
melon, because of his postulates.

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 Structure of Atom

b. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model:

• Rutherford found that when alpha particles were passed through a thin sheet of metal, majority of them
continued their straight paths. Some where scattered through large angles, while very few were even thrown
back as if they had collided with something solid impenetrable in their straight path.
It can be argued that an  −
+2
• particle (helium ion He) is about 7000 times as heavy as the electron and has
positive charge of two units. Hence it can hardly move out of its straight course by coming into contact with
the electrons.

From the above experiment, Rutherford Observation:

• Since most of the particles

− passed through foil un
deflected, it means most of the space in atom is
empty.
• Since some of the −
particles are deflected to certain
angles, it meansthat there is positively mass present
in atom.
• Only some of the  − particles suffered large
deflections, thepositively charged mass must be
occupying very small space.

• Strong deflections or even bouncing back of  −particles from metal foil were due to direct collision with
positively charged mass in atom at 180o (1 in 20,000).
• Rutherford’s model of atom: This model explained that atom consists of nucleus which is concentrated in a
very small volume. The nucleus comprises of protons and neutrons. The electrons revolve around the nucleus
in fixed orbits. Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces ofattraction.

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 Structure of Atom
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom:
• According to Rutherford’s model of atom, electrons which are negatively charged
particles revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits (same as planets around the sun).
Thus, theelectrons undergo acceleration. According to electromagnetic theory
ofMaxwell, a charged particle undergoing acceleration should emitelectromagnetic
radiation. Thus, an electron in an orbit should emitradiation. Thus, the orbit should
shrink. But this does not happen.
• The model does not give any information about how electrons aredistributed around
nucleus and what are energies of these electrons.
• This model couldn’t explain the stability of atom.

• Atomic number (Z): It is equal to the number of protons in an atom. It is also equal to the number of electrons
in a neutral atom.
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus of the atom

= number of electrons in a neutral atom.

• Mass number (A): It is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons.

Mass number (A) = number of protons (p+) + number of neutrons(n)

Mass number (A) = Atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons (n).

A = Z +n

Sawal 1. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons

80
in35Br.
Jawab:- Karokhud sab kaam me hi karu.

Prashnn 2. The no. of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16, 16 respectively. Assign
the proper symbol to the species.
Hal:-OoooohhhhSwayamkare………………

C) Steps for the development of Bhor Model:

Neils Bhor utilized Rutherford results and two developments played major role in formulation ofbhor’s model:

i) Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations, means radiation have both wave like and particle like
properties.
ii) Atomic Spectra.

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 Structure of Atom
i) Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations, means radiation have both wave like and
particle like properties.

A).Wave nature of electromagnetic radiations(James Maxwell): The radiations

which are associated with electrical and magnetic fields are called electromagnetic
radiations. When an electrically charged particle moves under acceleration,
alternating electrical and magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. These fields
are transmitted in the form of waves. These waves are called electromagnetic waves
or electromagnetic radiations.
• Electromagnetic radiations are measured with frequencies or wavelength.
• Electromagnetic radiations with frequencies lower than those of red light known as Infrared radiations, while
the radiations with the frequencies higher than those of violet light is called Ultra violet light.
• Visible light, UV radiations, I.R radiations, x- rays, Radio waves, microwaves, etc are all arranged together
in a spectrum, called electromagnetic spectrum.
• Arrangement of all electromagnetic radiations in the increasing order of their wavelengths or decreasing order
of their frequencies is called electromagnetic spectrum.

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 Structure of Atom

Properties of electromagnetic radiations:

a. Oscillating electric and magnetic field are produced by oscillating chargedparticles. These
fields are perpendicular to each other and both areperpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
b. They do not need a medium to travel. That means they can even travel invacuum.

Characteristics of electromagnetic radiations:

a. Wavelength: It may be defined as the distance between two neighboringcrests or troughs of wave as shown. It is
denoted by  (lambda).

b. Frequency (): It may be defined as the number of waves which pass through a particular point in one second.
c. Velocity (c): It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave in onesecond. In vacuum all types of electromagnetic
radiations travel with thesame velocity. Its value is 3 X108 m sec-1. It is denoted by c.
d. Relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength Velocity = frequency x wavelength
c = 

e. Wave number: Wave number ( ) is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length. = 

umericals:

Q1. The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extend from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm).

Express these wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1nm= 10-9 m).

Q2.Calculate a) Frequency b) wave number of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800Ao.(1Ao=10-10m).

B) Particle nature of EMR : Plank’s quantum theory: Wave nature of EMR couldn’t explain some phenomenon like :

i) Black body radiations.

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 Structure of Atom
ii) Photoelectric effect.

i) Black body radiations: When solid are heated they emits radiations of wide range of
wavelengths for example:
Heating an Iron rod : When an iron rod heated in furnace its turn’s dull red as the temperature
increases it becomes more and more red on further heating the radiations become white and
becomes blue at very high temperature.

Observations:
• Red color belongs to low frequency region.
• Blue color belongs to high frequency region of electromagnetic spectrum.

This means that as the temperature increased the radiation emitted goes from low frequency to higher frequency or higher
wavelength to lower wavelength. An ideal body which emits and absorbs all frequencies is called black body and radiations
are called black body radiations.

The exact distribution of frequency for emitted radiations depends upon the temperature. This was not explained by wave
theory of EMR.

Planck’s quantum theory: Max Planck suggested that atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy only in
discrete quantities and not in a continuous manner. Planck gave the name quantum, meaning ‘fixed amount’ to the
smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

E
E= h

E=hc/ 

Where:
E is the energy of a single quantum
 is the frequency of the radiation
h is Planck’s constant
h= 6.626 X 10-34Js.

ii) Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of metal when light of suitable
frequency strikes it is called photoelectric effect. The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.

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 Structure of Atom
Observation:
a. When beam of light falls on a metal surface electrons are ejected immediately i.e. there is
no time lag between light striking on metal surface and ejection of electrons.

b. Number of electrons ejected is proportional to intensity or brightness oflight.

c. Threshold frequency ( vo): For each metal there is a characteristic minimum frequency below which photoelectric
effect is not observed. This is called threshold frequency.
d. If frequency of light is less than the threshold frequency there is no ejection of electrons no matter how long it
falls on surface or how high is its intensity.

Photoelectric work function (Wo): The minimum energy required to eject electrons is called photoelectric
work function.
Wo =h

Energy of the ejected electrons : Kinetic energy of the ejection electron is proportional to the frequency of the
EMR and striking photons(light energy) has energy equal to h and minimum energy required to eject electron
is hThen the difference in energy is equal to kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron..
K.E=h−h
½ mv2=h−h m=mass of e-
v= velocity of ejected e-

Conclusion: These two nature of EMR made scientist in dilemma (do do duwidha): Wave nature explain interference
and diffraction but not black body and atomic spectra and particle nature of wave vice versa) this do
do duwidha was resolved by accepting both the nature of EMR.
Numericals:

Prashnn 1. Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiations whose frequency is 5 x 1014 Hz.

Uttar 1: Energy of one photon is given by E= h

=x10-34x5x1014 =3.3x10-19 Joule.

Energy of one mole of photons: 1 mole =6.022x1023 atoms/molecules/numbers

So energy of one mole photon = energy of one photon X 6.022x1023

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 Structure of Atom
=3.3x10-19x6.022x1023 =199.5 kJ mol-1

Q2. The threshold frequency for a metal is 7x1014 s-1.Calculate the K.E of an electron emitted
when radiation of frequency =1x1015 s-1 hits the metal.

Solution : we know that K.E=h−h

Q3. 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the no. of
photos emitted per second by bulb.(2.012x1020)

Solution : Power of bulb=100 watt. Or 100 J S-1

Energy of one photon E= h

Than no. of Photons= 100 J S-1/energy of one photon.

ii) Atomic Spectra: When a white light is passed through a prism, it splits into a series of colored band
known as spectrum.

Spectrum is of two types: continuous and line spectrum:

a. The spectrum which consists of all the wavelengths is called continuous

spectrum.Eg. Rainbow.
b. A spectrum in which only specific wavelengths are present is known as a line spectrum. It has bright lines
with dark spaces between them.
• Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum. It consists of a range of electromagnetic radiations
arranged in the order of increasing wavelengths or decreasing frequencies. It extends from radio waves to
gamma rays.

Spectrum is also classified as Emission and Absorption spectrum.

• Emission spectrum: A substance absorbs energy and moves to a higher energy state. The atoms, molecules
or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be excited. Since the higher energy state is unstable they
return to the more stable energy state by emitting the absorbed radiation in various regions of
electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy is
called an emission spectrum.
• Absorption spectrum is the spectrum obtained when radiation is passed through a sample of material. The
sample absorbs radiation of certain wavelengths. The wavelengths which are absorbed are missing and
comeas dark lines.
• The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred as spectroscopy.
• Emission spectra which do not show continuous spectrum and emits light of specific wavelength with dark
spaces between them is called atomic spectra or line spectra.

Line Spectrum of Hydrogen: When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the hydrogen
molecule dissociate and excites the atoms.
• Excited atoms emit bluish electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies.

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• This, on passed through a prism, produces a discontinuous emission spectrum, called
line spectrum.
• Hydrogen emission spectrum is a line spectrum. Since Hydrogen has only one
electron, the line spectrum is a simple one.
• The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their
discoverers.
• The spectral lines are expressed in terms of wave number.
• The first of this series of lines was discovered by Balmer in the visible region.
• There are four prominent coloured lines in the visible hydrogen spectrum of Balmer
Series.
• The Balmer series of the lines are the only lines in the hydrogen spectrum which
appear in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• These spectral lines are designated as:
• The first line in the Balmer series is a red line with wavelength of 6563Å.
• Second line in a blue line with wavelength 4861Å. Third and the fourth line are in the blue and violet regions
respectively.
• The other four series of Hydrogen are Lyman, Paschen, Bracket and Pfund series. They lie in the infrared and
ultraviolet regions.
• The wave number of all the first five series of lines that correspond to n 1= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 is calculated by the
formula:
− 1  1 1 
v= = R 2 − 2 
  n1 n2 

• The value of R, the Rydberg constant is given by: R = 109677.8 cm-1.

• The spectral lines for atomic hydrogen:

Spectral Series n1 n2 Spectral Region

Lyman 1 2,3…. Ultraviolet

Balmer 2 3,4…. Visible

Paschen 3 4,5…. Infrared

Bracket 4 5,6…. Infrared

Pfund 5 6,7…. infrared

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• Transitions of the electron
in the hydrogen atom (The
diagram shows the Lyman,
Balmer and Paschen series
of transitions).

• Calculate the wave number of the line in

the emission spectrum of hydrogen
when the electron jumps from the
third energy level to the second in the
Balmer series.

− 1  1 1 
= = R − 
  n 21 n 2 2 
• For Balmer’s series, n1 = 2 and n2 = 3
(Since it says third energy level)

R, Rydberg constant = 10.97 x10 6 m −1 −

1 1
 = 10.97 x106  − 
4 9
= 1.5236 x106 m −1
So, Wave number of the line given is
1.5236 x106 m −1

Bhor’s model for Hydrogen

• Neil's Bohr put forward an atomic theory based on the quantum theory of Planck and made the following
postulates.
• Electron in an atom are revolving around the nucleus in certain selected, but fixed concentric circular orbits,
called stationary orbits.
• A certain fixed amount of energy is associated with each electron in a particular stationary orbit. Thus each
stationary orbit corresponds to a certain energy level.
• An electron does not radiate energy as long as it remains in the same orbit. Energy is emitted or absorbed
when an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to another.
• This energy is given :
‘c’ is velocity of light.

hc
E = E2 − E1 = h =
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 Structure of Atom

• The electron emits or absorbs energy only in fixed amounts or quanta.

• Electrons are permitted to revolve around only those orbits, whose angular momentum
is an integral multiple ofh the factor , where‘h’ is the Plank’s constant.
2

• The electrostatic attraction between positive nucleus and negative electrons are balanced by centrifugal force
of orbiting electrons. This makes the atom stable.

Bohr’s theory for hydrogen atom:

• Stationary states for electron are numbered in terms of Principal Quantum numbered as n=1, 2, 3…
• For hydrogen atom: The radii of the stationary states is expressed as rn = n2a0 where a0= 52.9 pm.
• Energy of stationary state

• For ions containing only one electron:

And radius :
rn = n2a0
Z
Where Z is atomic number.

Merits of Bohr’s theory:

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• The emission spectrum of hydrogen and other single electron atoms and ions are
explained well with Bohr’s theory.
• Bohr’s theory also gives proof for the stability of an atom. Though the electrons lose
energy continuously, they fall only on the first shell, n=1.
It does not fall into the nucleus and unstabilise the whole atom.
• The wave numbers of spectral lines determined experimentally are in good accordance
with those calculated using Bohr’s integral values, 1, 2, 3 etc.

Demerits:
• Bohr’s theory fails to account for the spectral details of the atoms that have more than
one electron.

• Since electron is supposed to have wave and particle nature, Bohr’s postulate about electrons revolving
around definite orbit is not valid.

• A line in emission spectrum splits up in to closely packed lines when the atomic source of radiation is placed
in a magnetic field or an electric field.

• The splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field is called as Zeeman effect and splitting of
spectral lines in the presence of electrical field is called as Stark effect. Both these effects are not explained
by Bohr’s theory.

• It could not explain the ability of atoms to forms molecules.

e) Towards quantum Mechanics

i) Dual Behavior of Matter
ii) Heisenberg uncertainty principle

i) Dual Behavior of Matter :de Broglie proposed that matter exhibits

dual behavior i.e. matter shows both particle and wave nature.
de Broglie relation:

According to de Broglie, every object in motion has a wave character. Wavelengths of macroscopic objects cannot
be detected but for microscopic particles it can be detected. This is because for microscopic objects, the mass is less.
Since mass and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other, the wavelength will be more. But for
macroscopic objects, the mass is large. Therefore, wavelength will be too short to be detected.

ii) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: It states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact
position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an electron.

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This means that if the position of electron is known, the velocity of electron will be uncertain. On the other hand, if
the velocity of electron is known precisely, the position of electron will be uncertain.

Significance of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

1. The properties of a subatomic particle observed are not independent of the observer.
2. The values of position and momentum of particle are in large difference.
3. It can apply only for microscopic objects not for macroscopic objects.

Failure of Bohr’s model:

a. It ignores the dual behavior of matter.
b. It opposes Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

f ) Quantum mechanical model of Atom:

• Classical mechanics is based on Newton’s laws of motion. It successfully describes the motion of
macroscopic particles but fails in the case of microscopic particles.
• Reason: Classical mechanics ignores the concept of dual behaviour of matter especially for sub-atomic
particles and the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the motions of the microscopic objects
that have both observable wave like and particle like properties.
• Quantum mechanics is based on a fundamental equation which is called Schrodinger equation.
• Schrodinger’s equation: For a system (such as an atom or a molecule whose energy does not change with
time) the Schrödinger equation is written as:
ᴧ
H  =E
Where: ᴧ
H is the Hamiltonian operator E is the total energy of the system represents the wave function
which is the amplitude of the electron Wave.

• When Schrödinger equation is solved for hydrogen atom, the solution gives the possible energy levels the
electron can occupy and the corresponding wave function () of the electron associated with each energy
level.
• Out of the possible values, only certain solutions are permitted. Each permitted solution is highly
significant as it corresponds to a definite energy state. Thus, we can say that energy is quantized. That is, it
can have only certain specific values.
•  gives us the amplitude of wave. The value of  has no physical significance.

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•  gives us the region in which the probability of finding an electron is maximum. It
is called probability density.

6. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers:

• Orbital: The region of space around the nucleus where the probability of finding an
electron is maximum is called an orbital.
• The circular planar path of rotation of electron around the nucleus is called orbit.
• Thus orbital does not indicate specific place for electron but indicates a three
dimensional area in which electron can be found.
• Orbitals are denoted by angular momentum quantum number (l), and are depicted by
s, p, d and f.
• All the four orbitals are of different types, shapes and have different characteristics.
• Orbit, is two dimensional and is shown by the principal quantum number (n). It is given by K, L, M and N.

S orbital
• S-orbital: Spherical shape, non-directional (or no definite boundaries).
• Since it is spherical, the probability of finding electron in this orbital is same on all sides. S orbital can hold
two electrons.
• The spherical shape within the ‘s’ orbital, where probability of finding an electron is zero is called as a
Nodal plane.

• The size of the ‘s’ orbital depends upon the main shell. 1s orbital is smaller than 2s, which is smaller than
3s and so on.
• The shape of ‘s’ orbital is shown as follows:

P and d orbitals
• P -orbital is dump bell shaped. Three possible orientations are possible in ‘p’ orbital. They are: px,py,pz
• These three types of p orbitals are oriented along three axis, x, y and z.
• Since p orbital is dump bell shaped, they have two lobes on the two sides. The middle part, where the two
nodes join, forms the node.
• Probability of finding an electron in the node is zero. P orbitals occupy six electrons.

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d orbital:
• d orbitals are double dumbbell shaped. It has five orientations:
• They have four lobes each, intersecting in a middle node. d orbital can hold ten electrons.
dxy, dyz, dzx, dx2-y2, dz2

Quantum Numbers:
• The quantum numbers are integers or constants used to describe an electron in an atom.
• The quantum numbers are helpful in locating the position of an electron in an atom.
• In an atom a large number of electron orbitals are permissible.
• These orbitals are designated by a set of numbers known as quantum numbers.
• Every electron is characterised by four quantum numbers:

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1. Principal quantum number.
2. Azimuthal or angular quantum number.
3. Magnetic quantum number.
4. Spin quantum number.

1. Principal Quantum Number :

• Principal quantum number gives the main shell in which an electron can be found.
• This is denoted by the number n, and n can have values 1,2,3,4 etc…
• The shell with n = 1 is called the K shell.
• The shell with n=2 is called the L shell.
• The shell with n=3 is called the M shell.
• The shell with n=4 is called the N shell.
• The principal quantum number values can give the distance between an electron to the nucleus and also
indicates the energy of an electron.
• Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodate in a principal energy level is 2n2.
2. Azimuthal or angular quantum number:
• Azimuthal quantum number indicates the sub shell in which an electron is present. This is denoted by land
have values from 0 to (n-1).
• So, if n = 1, ‘l’ can have values of: l= 0. Only ‘s’ sub shell is present in the first main shell.
• For n = 2, the values of ‘l’ would be: l = 0, 1. There will be two values of l. So, two sub shells, s and p
would be present in the second level.
Azimuthal or the angular quantum number, therefore, is related to the shapes, s, p, d and f of the orbitals.

Value of ‘n’ Value of ‘l’ Sub orbitals

n=1 l=0 1s

n=2 l = 0, 1 2s, 2p

n=3 l = 0, 1, 2 3s, 3p, 3d

• In an atom, only a maximum of four sub shells are present. Angular or Azimuthal quantum number is also
called as Orbital quantum number.

3. Magnetic quantum number:

• The magnetic quantum number is proposed by Lande, to explain the Zeeman effect. In a strong magnetic
field a sub shell is resolved into different orientations in space. These orientations have slight differences in
energy.
• Each orientation is designated by a magnetic quantum number m and its value depends on the value of l.

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• For each value of ‘l’, there will be (2l + 1) m values. The table shows the value of ‘l’
and corresponding value of ‘m’.

Value (2 l + 1) Values of ‘m’ Number of

of ‘l’ orientation

0 2x0+1 m=0 1 (s)

=1

1 2x1+1 m = -1, 0, +1 3 (p) (px,py,pz)

=3

2 2x2+1 m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5 (d)

=5

4. Spin quantum number:

• The electrons in the atom rotates not only around the nucleus, but also around its own axis.
• In an orbital, it is believed that the two electrons present, will rotate in opposite directions. One in
anticlockwise direction and another in the clockwise direction.
• Spin quantum number, denoted by ‘s’ represents this spin of electrons in opposite directions.
• Therefore the spin quantum number can have only two values + ½ or – ½.

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7. Filling of Orbitals :The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place
according to Aufbau principle ,Pauli’s exclusion principle, the Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.

• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:Pauli’s exclusion principle states that: ‘no two electrons of a particular atom
can have all the values of four quantum numbers same’.

• So, two electrons in the same sub shell and same orbital, can have three quantum numbers, principal,
Azimuthal and magnetic, same, but they will always have the opposite spins.
• This can be shown with the help of Helium. Helium has two electrons. It has an electronic configuration of
1s2. The quantum numbers would be:
n l m s

1 0 0 +1/2

1 0 0 -1/2

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• Aufbau Principle:The ‘Aufbau’ in German means ‘building up’. The building up
of orbitals means the filling up of orbitals with electrons in their increasing order of
energy.

• The principle states that ‘Electrons enters the various orbitals to their respective
capacities in increasing order of energy’.

• Orbitals of lower energy gets filled first, then the next higher in energy, and so on.
• The ‘d’ orbitals have higher energy than the ‘s’ orbitals of the next main level. So,
they are filled up after ‘s’.
• For example, ‘4s’ orbital is filled before ‘3d’.

• Similarly, ‘5s’ is filled before ‘4d’ orbital.

• The sequence of atomic orbitals, with respect to their increasing energy level is shown in with the help of a
diagram.

• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity:The rule states that:

• ‘ Pairing of electrons in orbitals of a particular sub shell does not take place until all orbitals in the sub shell
are singly occupied’.
• So, when filling up electrons in the sub shell, the electrons fills all the orbital orientations, before pairing
up.This can be shown with the help of Oxygen, with 8 electrons. (Atomic number = 8).

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 Structure of Atom
• It can be seen that in 2p orbital, the electrons fill up 2py, rather than pairing up in the
2px.

• Hund’s rule can be applied to all elements with electrons in the ‘p’, d and f sub
shells, since these sub shells have more than one orientations.
• In nitrogen, with 7 electrons, the ‘p’ sub shell has only three electrons. Instead of
pairing together, they occupy each orbital singly.
• This can be observed in oxygen too. Pairing in p sub shell can be seen in oxygen,
since oxygen has 4 electrons in the p sub shell.

Stability of Orbitals

• It is always assumed that the atoms tend to distribute electrons in the orbitals in such a way that they are
completely filled or half filled. Because, half filled and completely filled energy levels of orbitals are much
stable than the incompletely filled orbitals.
• This can be seen with the example of Cu and Cr.
• Copper has the end configuration of Ar 3d 10 ,4s1 , instead of Ar 3d 9 ,4s 2 , as expected, because 4s level
is lesser in energy than 3d, since 3d is half filled.
• Chromium has a configuration of: Ar 3d 5 ,4s1 , instead of Ar 3d 4 ,4s 2 , because, d with 10 electrons is
completely filled, while d with 9 is incompletely filled.
• This proves that the half filled and completely filled are more stable configurations. The stability decreases
as:
• Completely filled orbitals >Half-filled orbitals > incompletely filled orbitals.

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