PSY202

Introduction to Psychology

FATHER OF PSYCHOLOGY- Wilhelm Wundt

PSYCHOLOGY- scientific study of human behavior and mental
processes
• Based on evidence, facts, and proof
• SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Testing Hypothesis/experimenting
• Conclude/Conclusion
• Report Results
• Full of Research
• BEHAVIOR- studying things that you can see and observe
• MENTAL PROCESSES- intangible/cannot see
• Late 1800s (only new but not a young field)

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. Describe - What is that behavior
2. Explain - Why is that behavior happening
3. Predict - when will that behavior arise
4. Control/Behavior - How to control Behavior
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
1. STRUCTURALISM
a. 130 years old only
b. Aristotle- believes separation of soul to the body
c. Plato- believes in dualism, soul is also separate from
the body
d. Philosophers- explained human mind in connection
to body
e. Objective Introspection- objective perspective
wherein the therapist fully relies on the clients
thought (externally)
f. Descriptions
2. FUNCTIONALISM
a. Consciousness of idea
b. Always changing depending on the circumstances
c. Individuals adapt and function in everyday life
d. No clear basis
e. Perspective, thinking at the moment
3. GESTALT
a. Holistic perspective on the perception
b. Various phases of human behavior
c. GESTALT THERAPY- awareness
i. Focuses on the whole picture
ii. Whole is better
d. Has a lot of loopholes
4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
a. Unconscious in everything unless it has been brought
upon
b. SIGMUND FREUD- popular because of this
c. Unconscious moment such as dream
d. How our mind progress
e. EXPERIENCES: Phobia and Trauma
i. Ex: not aware of the past in the childhood
f. REPRESSION- unconscious forgetting
g. SUPPRESSION- conscious forgetting
h. Analyze the unconscious, hence, it is hard to prove
i. Study something that does not exist
5. BEHAVIORISM- focus on the absolute behavior rather than
internal processes
a. Something that happens all the time to manipulate
mind
b. Observable behavior
c. Mental Process is a product of observable behavior
d. Radical Behaviorist
e. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING- prepare a stimulus to
have reactions
i. Neutral Stimulus + unconditioned stimulus=
unconditioned response
ii. Conditioned stimulus=conditioned
response
iii. Ex. Little albert (has been conditioned to
fear white rats and other things because of
a “gong” sound accompanied)
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
1. PSYCHODYNAMIC
a. Originated from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis
(sec and aggression)
b. Reports everything that comes to mind
c. Conscious, pre-conscious, unconscious
d. Human Behavior depends on internal and social
manner
e. Forces conscious awareness to resolve issues
f. Convert unconscious to conscious
g. Development of self
I. Mannerism
II. Explain Behavior
III. More Motives than sex and aggression
IV. Personality lies in unconscious
2. EVOLUTIONARY
a. Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution
b. Mind is seen to be a machine that process information
I. Such as not wanting bitter tastes
c. Cognitive behavior goes through natural selection and
survival of the fittest
3. BEHAVIORAL
a. Watson
b. Behavior is not influenced by genetics, instead, it depends
on the society
c. OPERANT CONDITIONING
I. Positive reaction and negative reaction
II. What’s important is the reward and punishments
III. REWARD- strengthens behavior
IV. PUNISHMENT- avoid the behavior but it is still
there, it is subjective.
d. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT- giving/adding positive awards
(may gain)
e. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT- deductions, giving negative
f. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT- removing negative in
someone’s life
g. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT- Taking positive from a person
4. HUMANISTIC
a. Focuses on the positive to avoid feeling negativity
b. Combination of psychoanalysis and behaviorism
c. Societal norms, motivated by unseen forces
d. Unconscious theory
e. Very understanding
 f. PSYCHOTHERAPY- therapist and patient work together
g. Behavior need not to pushed
h. Focuses on the internal (Self-actualization)
i. Essence of the Person
j. Entitled to grow and learn because of freewill
k. “Your life, your own decision”
l. Goodness/growth
m. Maslow’s theory of needs
I. Physiological needs
II. Safety and security
III. Love and belongingness
IV. Esteem
V. Self-actualization
n. UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD- accepting someone
despite all of their faults
5. COGNITIVE
a. How one’s mind work- thinking, memory language
b. Very specific
c. Stages:
I. PRE-OPERATIONAL (2-7) – increase in imagination
II. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11)- thinking
completely
III. FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11+)- some people cannot
achieve this completely
6. SOCIOCULTURAL: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
a. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY- Study of groups and social roles
b. CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY- understanding totality of factors
and culture
c. Understanding culture and society that influence behavior
d. Include sex, gender, and religion
e. Look at the overall factors that affect the person before
approaching them personally
7. BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
a. Belief that peoples only use 10% of mind
I. Debunked by biopsychological through chemicals
b. 18th-19th century
c. Behavior is a result of what is happening inside the body
(hormones, chemicals, genes)
d. Study of how internal events affect behavior
e. Behavior dramatically changes
f. FRONTAL LOBE- is the part of the brain being developed as
it is in charge of problem solving
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DESIGN
DESCRIPTIVE (qualitative)
a. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - natural setting
i. Needs to be flexible
ii. SOCIAL EXPERIMENT - needs consent
iii. OBSERVER BIAS PARTICIPATION -
people will show their best behavior
(inaccurate)
iv. Must avoid bias
v. BLIND OBSERVATION - do not know what
the researchers are finding
b. LABORATORY OBSERVATION - need to control elements
i. Results are questionable because factors
are reduced
ii. Use to test hypothesis
iii. Not 100% naturalistic observation
iv. More reliable than naturalistic observation
c. CASE STUDIES - think deeper about a specific case or person
i. Better understanding about the causes
(limited only on the person)
ii. Applicability of the data is limited
iii. Can study a phenomenon
d. SURVEY - collect wide variety of data in a short period of time
i. SIMPLE because it takes the stand of a
person regarding a specific topic
ii. Obtain a large quantity data
iii. Problem is finding people to represent a
population
e. RELATIONSHIP (quantitative)
a. CORRELATIONS - simple relationships
i. Looking for the relationships between the
variables
ii. Cannot identify independent and
dependent variable
iii. +1.00 to -1.00
iv. CORRELATION COEFFICIENT - number to
be obtained in the results of statistics
v. Sign will indicate the direction
vi. + (direct relationship)
vii. - (inverse relationship)
viii. Numbers will also indicate the strength
of relationship (it is weak if the number
is near the center of the scale)
 f. EXPERIMENTAL - cause and effect
i. Sometimes too dangerous (e.g. smoking)
ii. Transfer to correlations if it is too unethical
iii. Manipulate variable
iv. Manipulation (manipulate variable to
know its effect), control, and
randomization
g. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL - try to manipulate variables but
it is innate to an individual’s (e.g. gender)
i. Look at cause and effect
ii. Variables that cannot be manipulated
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL – forms one’s behavior
● BIOLOGICAL
○ Age, gender, genetics
○ Physiologic reactions
○ Tissue health
● PSYCHOLOGICAL
○ Mental health
○ Emotional health
○ Beliefs
○ Expectations
● SOCIOLOGICAL
○ Interpersonal relationship
○ Social support dynamics
○ Socioeconomics
MENTAL HEALTH - political in nature hence, PH has low IQ
because of lack of nutrient and means

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY - focuses on the biological bases

of behavior and mental processes
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL - brain and spinal cord
a. Composed of neurons and glial cells that control
the functions of the body as well as all thoughts
b. NEURONS - transmit messages
c. GLIAL CELLS - health of neurons and ensure that
information travels to the brain
d. BRAIN - core of the nervous system
i. Sense of the information
ii. SENSATION - stimulus
iii. PERCEPTION - interpretation
iv. Makes decision and send command out
to the muscles and the rest of the bods
e. HIND BRAIN - involuntary and automatic
f. MEDULLA - above spinal cord
i. Heartbeat, breathing,
swallowing where sensory
nerves from the left and right
sides of the body crossover
ii. Controls behavior in the need for
survival
g. PONS - bridge of lower and upper section
i. Coordinate movements of left
and right
ii. Dreams and arousal
iii. RETICULAR FORMATION -
select stimulus attend to
certain kinds of information
h. CEREBELLUM - little brain
a. Involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement
i. Stores reflexes, skills, and habits
2. LIMBIC SYSTEM - controls memory and emotional process
a. Memory and emotional works together
b. Stimulus awaken memory or emotion
c. Guides reaction / nostalgia
d. THALAMUS - relays information to cerebral cortex
e. OLFACTORY BULB - information from other senses
f. HYPOTHALAMUS - body temperature, hunger,
sexual desires
 g. HIPPOCAMPUS - emotional process
h. AMYGDALA - memory
i. CINGULATE CORTEX- emotional and cognitive
processing (selective attention)
i. Implicated / responsible in many mental
disorders
ii. Allows much larger area of cortical cells
THE LOBES
1. FRONTAL LOBE
a. Higher mental functions (planning, personality,
memory)
b. Guides morality
c. Last to develop
d. Regulates the limbic system
e. MOTOR CORTEX - controls bodily movements
by sending commands to the peripheral nervous
system
f. Could be divided into 3
i. Front - cognitive
ii. Middle - both
iii. Back - motor
2. PARIETAL LOBE
a. Feeling
b. Under parietal bone
c. SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX - processes info from
skin
i. Bodily sensation
ii. Visual
3. OCCIPITAL LOBE
a. Primary visual cortex
b. VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX - makes sense of
c. what you see
4. TEMPORAL
a. Taste and hearing
ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX
1. NEURONS - making connections between sensory
information
a. Pathway for information
2. BROCA’S AREA - responsible for speech
a. Left frontal lobes
b. Production of speech
c. BROCKA’S APHASIA - inability to use either written
or spoken language
3. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES - connected by the corpus
callosum
a. Left brain - logic
b. Right brain - creativity
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE BRAIN - repetitive transcranial
- Transcranial direct current stimulation
MAPPING STRUCTURE
- Computed tomography scan (CT scan)
- Magneti reasonable imaging
- MRI spectroscopy
- Electroencephalogram
- Beta, alpha, treat, delta
- Positron emission tomography (PET)
- Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - made up of the sensory pathway
- The nervous carrying messages from the senses to the central
nervous system
- AFFERENT - approach CNS
- EFFERENT - exit CNS to other organs
- MOTOR PATHWAY - responsible for the motor output
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
● PARASYMPATHETIC - rest-and-digest
○ Restores the body to normal functioning
● SYMPATHETIC - fight-or-flight
○ Deals with the stressful events
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Release of different hormones
HORMONES
• Hormones are your body's chemical messengers. They travel
in your bloodstream to tissues or organs. They work slowly,
over time, and affect many different processes, including
growth and development.
• Pituitary gland
➢ Also known as the “master gland”-
controls or influences all of the other
endocrine glands
➢ Signals all the other glands to release and
stop giving hormones
➢ Secretes growth hormones- controls and
regulates the increase in size from infancy
to adulthood
• Pineal gland
➢ Secretes melatonin- tracks day length;
influences seasonal behaviors in
nonhuman animals and sleep-wake cycle
in humans
➢ In control of our body clock
• Thyroid gland
➢ Secretes hormones that regulate growth
and metabolism (e.g., thyroxin)
• Pancreas
➢ Secretes insulin and glucagon that control
the level of blood sugar
• Gonads
➢ Sex glands; secretes hormones that
regulate sexual behavior and
reproduction
• Adrenal Glands
➢ Divided into two sections: the adrenal
medulla and the adrenal cortex
➢ Releases epinephrine and
norepinephrine which and in
sympathetic arousal
 • Adrenal Cortex
➢ Releases corticoids (steroids) that
regulate salt intake, help initiate and
control stress reactions, and provide a
source of sex hormones
• Cortisol
➢ Released when the body experiences
stress; release of glucose to the
bloodstream and fatty acids from the
fat cells.
HPA axis or HTPA axis
• Hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal axis
NEURON
• The building blocks of the nervous system
• Specialized cell in the nervous system
Afferent (sensory) neurons
• Carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord
Efferent (motor) neurons
• Carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and
the glands
Interneurons
Electro chemical transfer
Resting or Action potentials
- The resting potential describes what occurs to a
neuron while it is at rest. When a neuron transfers
information away from the cell body and down an
axon, it experiences an action potential.
Glial Cells
- Make up 90% of the cells in the brain
- Serves as a sort of structure on which neurons develop and
work and that hold neurons in place.
- Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for neurons in the brain
and spinal cord (Central Nervous System)
- Schwann cells produce myelin for the neurons in the body
(Peripheral Nervous System)
 THE NERVE IMPULSE

Diffusion- movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration
Concentration gradients- difference in ion concentrations between
the inside of the neuron (intracellular fluid) and the outside of the
neuron (extracellular fluid)
RESTING POTENTIAL
▪ Neurons have a negative concentration gradient most of the
time (between -40 to -90 millivolts)
▪ More sodium ions (Na*) outside than inside; more
potassium ions (K*) inside than outside
▪ Neuron cell membrane is super permeable to K*, and so lots
of potassium leaks out of the neuron through potassium
leakage channels
▪ The cells want to maintain a negative resting membrane
potential, so it has a pump that pumps potassium back in
the cell and pumps sodium out of the cell at the same time
▪ During resting state, all of the voltage-gated sodium and
potassium channels- which only open once an action
potential has been triggered- are closed.
▪ Gate m- normally closed, and opens when the cell starts to
get more positive; sodium channel
▪ Gate h- normally open, and swings shut when the cell gets
too positive; sodium channel
▪ Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), a shift in
membrane potential that makes the target cell less likely to
fire its own action potential (hyperpolarizing)
▪ Depolarization- decrease in polarization; making the inside
of a cell more positive
▪ Hyperpolarization- increase in polarization; making the
inside of a cell more negative
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine- excitatory or inhibitory, involved in arousal, memory,
and controls muscle contractions
Serotonin- excitatory or inhibitory; involved in mood, sleep, and
appetite
Gaba (gamma-aminobutyric acid)- major inhibitory neurotransmitter;
involved in sleep and inhibits movement Norepinephrine- mainly
excitatory; involved in arousal and mood
Dopamine- excitatory or inhibitory; involved in control of movement
and sensations of pleasure
Endorphins- inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief
Glutamate- major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning,
memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic
plasticity
CLEANING UP THE SYNAPSE
● Some neurotransmitter drift away through the process of
diffusion
● Some end up back in the synaptic vesicles in a process
called reuptake
Sensation - Activation of special receptors in the sense organs, which
allows various of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain.
Transduction - conversion of outside stimuli into neural activity
Sensory receptors
- Specialized forms of neurons stimulated by light, chemical
substances, pressure, or temperature Sensory threshold
- Ernst Weber
- law of just noticeable differences (JND)
- Smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable
50% of the time
- Gustav Fechner
- absolute threshold
- the lowest level of stimulation that a person can consciously
detect 50% of the time
- subliminal stimuli
EXAMPLES OF ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD
Sight - A candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night.
Hearing - The tick of a watch 20 feet away in a quiet room.
Taste - 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water.
Smell - One drop of perfume diffused throughout a three-room
apartment.
Touch - A bee’s wing falling on the cheek from 1 centimeter above.
SENSORY ADAPTATION
- Constant, unchanging information from the sensory
receptors is effectively ignored.
- Occurs for all senses except vision due to micro saccades.
SENSE OF SIGHT
- Light can be seen as a particle (photon) or wave, depending on the
method we are using to measure it.
Physical Properties of Light.
● Brightness – amplitude of the wave; highness or lowness of
the wave, the higher the waves, the brighter the light
appears to be.
● Color (or hue) – length of the wave’ long wavelengths
(measured in nanometers) are found at the red end of the
visible spectrum whereas shorter wavelengths are found at
the blue end.
● Saturation – purity of the color people perceive.
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
● Cornea – bends light waves so the image can be focused on
the retina.
● Aqueous humor -clear liquid that nourishes the eye.
● Pupil – the opening that changes size depending on the
amount of light in the environment.
● Iris – colored part of the eye; its muscles control the size of
the pupil.
● Lens – changes shape to bring objects into focus through
visual accommodation.
● Vitreous humor- jelly-like liquid that nourishes and gives
shape to the eye.
● Retina – contains photoreceptors.
 ● Rods – responsible for vision at low light levels; low special
acuity.
● Cones – active at higher light levels; capable of color vision;
high spatial acuity.
● Fovea – central area of retina; greatest density of
photoreceptors.
● Optic nerve – sends visual information to the brain.
● Blind spot (optic disc) – where the optic nerve leaves the
eye; there are no photoreceptors cells here.
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
Theories of Color Vision
- Trichromatic Theory proposed by Thomas Young
and modified by Hermann Von Helmholtz; proposed
three types of cones; red, blue, and green cones-
the primary colors of sight.
- Opponent Process Theory based on the idea of
Edwald Hering; there are four primary colors; red,
blue, green, and yellow, and they are arranged in
pairs (red and green, blue and yellow)
- If one member of a pair is strongly stimulated, the
other member is inhibited; afterimage- visual
sensation that persists even after the original
stimulus is removed.
- Color blindness- caused by defective cones in the
retina; color-deficient vision is a more accurate term
❖ KINDS OF COLOR-DEFICIENT VISION
Monochrome Color Blindness
➢ No cones or have cones that do not work
Dichromatic Color Blindness
➢ One cone that does not work properly
Protanopia (lack of functioning red cones)
Deuteranopia (lack of functioning green cones)
➢ Confusion between red and green
Tritanopia (Lack of functioning blue cones)
➢ Confusion between blue and yellow
SENSE OF HEARING
Sound waves
- Vibrations of the molecules of air that surround us;
same properties of light waves-wavelength,
amplitude, and purity.
Pitch
- Interpretation of wavelengths; frequency (high,
medium, or low)
Volume
- Interpretation of amplitude; softness or loudness
Timbre
- Richness in the tone of the sound
Frequency
- Is measured in cycles (waves) per second, or hertz
(Hz); human limits are between 20 and 20,000 Hz;
dogs are between 50 and 60,000 Hz, and dolphins
can hear up to 200,000 Hz
STRUCTURES OF THE EAR
The outer ear
◼ Pinna
- Funnels the sound waves from the outside into the
structure of the ear; entrance to the auditory
(or ear) canal that runs to the tympanic membrane,
or eardrum.
The middle ear
◼ Three tiny bones (i.e., hammer, anvil, stirrup)
- Vibrate when a sound wave hits the eardrum
The inner ear
◼ Oval window
- Opening of the inner ear
◼ Cochlea
- Snail-shaped structure filled with fluid
◼ Basilar membrane
- Resting place of the organ of corti, which contains
receptor cells for hearing.
PERCEIVING PITCH
◼ Place theory
- Proposed by Hermann Von Helmholtz and modified
by Georg Von Bekesy; the higher the pitch, the
nearer the stimulated hair cells are to the organ of
corti
◼ Frequency theory
- Developed by Ernest Rutherford; the faster the
basilar membrane vibrates, the higher the pitch.

◼ Volley Principle
- Developed by Ernest Wever and Charles Bray;
accounts for pitches about 400 Hz up to about
4,000; groups of auditory neurons take turns firing
in a process called volleying
TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENTS
◼ Conduction Hearing Impairment
- Vibrations cannot be passed from eardrum to
cochlea
◼ Nerve Hearing Impairment
- Problem lies in the inner ear or in the auditory
pathway and cortical areas of the brain
Sense of taste
Taste bud
• Taste receptor cells responsible for gustation;
located on the roof of the mouth, tongue, cheeks,
and under the tongue: each has about 20 receptors
replaced every 10-14 days.
• Sense of taste and sense of smell both process
chemical information
• Temporal and Parietal lobe
five basic tastes
• Sweet
• Salty
• Sour
• Bitter
• Umami (broth like sour) (chicken) (savory) (additional)

Sense of smell
Olfactory receptors cells
• Responsible for olfaction; have about a half dozen
to a dezon little "hairs" called cilia, which have
receptor sites that send signals to the brain when
stimulated; replaced every 5 to 8 weeks.
Somesthetic senses
Skin senses
• There are about half dozen different receptors in
the layers of the skin; some of them will only
respond to one kind of stimulation; temperature,
pressure, or pain.
Different type of pain
Viscer lain- pain (and pressure) in the organs (internal)
Somatic pain- pain sensation in the skin (external)

Congenital analgesia and congenital insensitivity to pain with

anhidrosis (CIPA)- disorders that cause an inability to feel pain

Gate-control theory- proposed my melzack and wall; pain signals

must pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cord; the brain sens
signals that either open the spinal gates further or close them

The kinesthetic sense- kinesthesia, which is sense of movement and

position; special receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints

The Vestibular Sense- Located in the innermost chamber of the ear

(the three bones; hammer, anvil, stirrup)
Otolith organs- above the cochlea; tell us that we are moving
forward, backward, sideways, or up, and down.

Semicircular canals- sensation of rotation

PERCEPTION
• Method by which the brain takes all sensation to people
experiences at any given moment and allows them to get
interrupted in some meaningful fashion.
Perceptual Constancy
Size constancy
• Tendency in interpreting an object as always being
the same size, regardless of its distance from the
viewer.
Shape constancy
• Tendency to interpret the shape of an object as
constant, even when it changes on the retina
• Regardless of the area, if you know its shape it will
be embedded in your perception.
Brightness Constancy
• Tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an
object as the same even when the light conditions
change
Gestalt principles
Figure-ground relationships
• Tendency to perceive objects or figures as existing on a
background
Reversible Figures
• Figure and the ground seem to switch back and forth
> optical illusion

Proximity
• Tendency to perceive objects that are close to one another
as part of the same grouping
Similarity
• Tendency to perceive things that look similar as being part of
the same group
• E.g., Race (people tend to group people who look like each
other(
Closure
• Tendency to complete figures that are incomplete
Continuity
 • Tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a
continuous patterns rather than with a complex, broken-up
pattern
• X
Depth Perception
• Capability to see the world in three dimensions: essential in
the judgment of

Monocular cues (pictorial depth cues)

• Linear perspective
• Tendency for line that are actually parallel seem to
converge
• Relative size
• Objects that people expect to be of a certain size
appear to be small and are, therefore, assumed to
be much farther away
• Overlap
• One object seems to be blocking another object,
people assume that the blocked object is behind the
first one
• Aerial (atmospheric) Perspective
• The farther away an object is, the hazier the object
will appear to be due to particles of dust, first, and
other air pollution
• Texture Gradient
• The closer the distance, the smaller and finer the
texture becomes
• Motion parallax
• Discrepancy in motion of near and far objects
• Accomodation
• The tendency of the lens to change its shape, or
thickness, in response to the distance of objects
Binocular cues:
• Convergence
• Rotation of the two eyes on their sockets to focus
on a single object; the farther the object, the less
the converge
• Binocular disparity
• The two eyes do not exactly see the same image;
the more different the images on the retinas are,
the closer the image.
Illusion
> perception that does not correspond to reality
> muller-lyer illusion
> grid illusion
> the moon illusion
> stroboscopic motion
> the enigma

Perceptual set (expectancy)

• Top-down processing
• The use of preexisting knowledge to organize
individual features into unified whole.
• Bottom-up processing
• Analysis of smaller features and building up to a
complete perception.