Epistemology branch of philosophy concerned with theory of knowledge.

Scientific Inquiry: using evidence from observations/investigations to create logical explanations/answer questions.
Knowledge: requires belief, justification, and objective truth. Knowledge is acquired via: Senses (empiricism), reason (rationalism), intuition, emotion, beliefs,
experiences of others, language, imagination. Scientific knowledge (subject to revision): relies on observations, experimental evidence, rational arguments, and
scepticism. Advances through slow, incremental steps (evolutionary progression) or giant leaps of understanding (revolutionary/paradigm shifts). Attempts to
explain natural phenomena through laws (describe relationships)/theories (possible explanations with supporting evidence but no proof).
Limits: Science doesn’t make moral/aesthetic judgements, prescribe how to use knowledge or explore supernatural phenomena.
NAVIGATION: science of determining position of a vehicle + guiding it to a specific destination. Uses senses, intuition, memory, observation. Early
navigators relied on their senses staying close to shore.
 Compasses: indicate direction relative to Earth's magnetic poles: used in navigation on land, sea, and air.
 Celestial Navigation (2000 BC): uses stars, moon, sun, and horizon to calculate position. Useful on open ocean, where there are no
landmarks, using different constellations. Sextants: measures angle between horizon/celestial object.
 Radio Navigation: application of radio frequencies to determine a position of an object on the Earth. Position can be determined by
measuring time it takes to receive radio signals from stations of known locations.
 Maps: constructed through memory, communication via oral stories/written accounts/reasoning.
 GPS (highly accurate): satellite-based navigation system where GPS device receives a signal from the satellites. Calculates position based
on the time it takes for the signal to transmit and the exact position of the satellites.

EMPIRICISM: Constructs knowledge/draws conclusions after collection information from sensory experience. Tested via observations (becomes
evidence/explanations for phenomena)/experiments. Claim that individuals have no innate knowledge.
 Galileo disputed Aristotle’s geocentric model of the solar system by observing planets through his telescope  heliocentric model was
correct. When new theories are proposed, scientists look for experimental evidence to support or oppose the theory.
RATIONALISM: basing opinions/actions on reason. Believe in intuition, claiming individuals have innate knowledge when they are born. Universe
has absolute laws. E.g., Taking Einstein’s theory of general relativity to make predictions about existence of black holes.
Induction (Bacon): general theory from specific observations. Deduction (Aristotle): deriving a conclusion from a theory.
Definition used by researchers to develop ideas/hypotheses. involves starting from a set of general premises & drawing a specific
Exploratory/open-ended. Results hold true until they are conclusion. Theory = valid then deductive reasoning's conclusions
disproved  theory valid if it explains most observations. cannot be false. Theories = not true  false conclusions.
Line Generalisation: specific observation  pattern recognition  Existing theory  hypothesis  collect data/observation  analyse
tentative hypothesis  general conclusion/theory to explain data  do/don’t reject the hypothesis (confirmation). Aims to test an
related phenomena. existing theory. Often used to make predictions.
Example Charles Darwin observations: beaks of different populations of Discovery of electron by J.J Thompson: Used general theory surrounding
finches (individuals are adapted to their environments)  effect of electric/magnetic fields on negatively charged particles. Made
Inferences: Individuals with inherited traits more suited to local predictions around effects of these fields on cathode rays if they
environment are more likely to survive/pass on their traits  consisted of negatively charged subatomic particles  predictions true
theory of evolution by natural selection.  cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles  Conclusion:
atoms are not indivisible  Plum pudding model.
Influence on Empiricism: relies on repeated observations/experiments to Root of rationalism- everything in the universe functions in accordance
scientific gather data/draw conclusions. Experiments seek to test with discernible, natural principles. Allows us to deduce true conclusions
inquiry hypotheses against actual observations. To be considered about world around us through logical reasoning.
accurate, theories/hypotheses must be observed and evaluated.
Parsimony/Occam’s razor and its influence on development of science: Science works with competing ideas.
Parsimony: tells us to choose simplest scientific explanation that fits Occam’s Razor: Tool to remove unlikely explanations (simplest
evidence (more assumptions = more possibilities of it being wrong) solution is most likely the correct one).
Example God created the earth in 7 days is less simple than big bang theory. Headache  Might have the black death. More likely it’s a cold.
History Occam (14th century philosopher): other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better.
 Geocentric model of the solar system (Earth at centre of the solar system) required complicated features (e.g., epicycles) to explain
some unusual phenomena. Replaced by heliocentric model (Sun in centre).
 Validity of Occam’s razor has been debated, critics mention that it prioritises simplicity over accuracy. E.g., competing theories of
creationism vs. evolution  simplicity of an explanation depends on cultural contexts.
Influence helps scientists to modify/specify their theoretical models by “shaving away” unnecessary assumptions and start with the simplest
on hypothesis. Simpler theories cause paradigm shifts making fewer assumptions/exceptions. Cannot be applied to ideas which are equally
scientific plausible/complex. Other considerations: testable? Are some ideas better at producing broader explanations/better fit with existing ideas?
inquiry
Falsifiability: all scientific ideas should be falsifiable (be able to be proved false- confirmation comes from risky theories which could prove your
theory wrong) through testing. E.g., “All cars are red” can be proven false by observation. If a claim cannot be falsified, then it cannot be scientific-
pseudoscience e.g., God is real. Differentiates scientific ideas from non-scientific. Allows hypothesis testing: aims to reject what is false through
statistical analysis. Hypotheses can’t be proven true. Only be rejected/not based on evidence. Issues arise as complex ideas aren’t possible to falsify.
 Traditional view of doing science: observations are made  hypotheses are created  make predictions  facts tested. Hypotheses
are shown to be correct. Theories are strengthened with more evidence. Scientists have bias, only observation made is what is being
looked for (theories are shaped by our assumptions).
 Freud could use almost any data point work in service of his theory  could read past differently to maintain confirmation of his theory
 methods which served to confirm beliefs are pseudo-science (used to prove anything). Einstein used past data to ‘predict’
observations  risky science. Poppers issues with this idea of science: we shape observations to our current theories/biases.

IMPORTANCE: Generates actually scientific theories that are testable. Popper said science should be committed to the search for negative
evidence rather than confirming predictions. “Every false belief we discover gets us that much closer to the truth”. Search for positive evidence
takes us away from learning something new, no amount of positive evidence proves a law certain and absolutely true, but one contradictory piece
of evidence will disprove it. Problems:
 New theories often confirmed prior theories/fix what was wrong (no need to discard theories with 1st contradictory piece of evidence)
 Problem if apparent falsifiable information isn’t’ falsifiable but it is incorrect.
 How wrong is wrong? There are always assumptions, and gaps between theoretical and experimental data.
  Raven paradox “all ravens are black” can be observed/tested (law). 1 in 10000 ravens are albino  more visible to predators/suffer
health problems (rare). Thousands of ravens could be sampled and seeing an albino raven is very slim  dangers of generalisations.

Confirmation bias (Bad): Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s perceptions (disregard things that conflict
with your ideas). Caused by media/politics and strengthened with time (longer belief = more time to collect evidence as support and less willing to
let go). Increased status level = increase in confirmation bias. Bad because people trust scientific findings because they believe that scientists are
intelligent and follow validity to ensure results; scientists are humans and are equally likely to fall prey to bias. Causes research to become one
sided as they tend to look for and present research evidence that supports their own hypothesis. To avoid use negative or blind controls. Peer-
review of scientific research often identifies biases/ensures the robustness of scientific process.
 National pride: German engineer had just discovered x-rays. French scientist: announced he discovered N-rays + became famous
(supposedly observed as a corona around an electrical discharge from certain crystals only observed by human eye). Scientists outside
France were suspicious. US scientist visited the lab. During one of the experiments, he removed the crystal that supposedly generated
the N-rays, after which Blondlot failed to notice the absence of N-rays”  The French needed something useful to exist.
 Science is influenced by those funding projects e.g., tobacco funding research that supports their products not being harmful.
 Misinterpretation of data to conform with pre-existing ideas + Scientists may even manipulate of data to conform to expectations.

Theory-dependence of observation: observations that are dependent on theories. Prior knowledge of scientific theories may influence inferences
we draw from observations and how we analyse/interpret them. May also be responsible for professional intuition (expert may be able to arrive at
a conclusion without conducting much analysis). Can lead people to derive different conclusions from same observations.
 Gold standard trial in medicine- scientists are blinded meaning samples are coded/concealed so they cannot be identified.
 Kuhn: scientists attempt to interpret/explain their results through lens of the accepted scientific model (paradigm) that they practice in.
E.g., astronomical observations were painstakingly manipulated using methods such as epicycles to fit the geocentric model prior to the
work of Copernicus/Galileo.

Historical: Scientific knowledge and different approaches has been a powerful force for shaping evolution of societies.
Indigenous:  Aboriginal societies developed mythical tales of constellations/astronomical phenomena e.g., Warlpiri people explained a solar
(existed over eclipse as a sun-woman being hidden by the moon-man as he makes love to her. Provided information for seasonal changes, and
60,000 years): as guideposts for celestial navigation. Time, calendars, and information about seasons were developed using astronomical
develops knowledge. Rate at which a star twinkles = seasonal shifts. Starlight colour indicates likelihood of rain.
explanations  Bush medicine: historical/traditional use of native Australian plants for both physical/spiritual healing by Indigenous Australians
of natural for over 50,000 years. Research discovered active ingredients e.g., anti-canner/antiviral properties  e.g., process of preparing
phenomena. cycad seed via leaching the water-soluble toxins in an open stream to remove cycasin.
Transmitted  Smoke bush (1980s): was found to contain an active ingredient that could destroy HIV in low concentration. 1990s: an Australian
orally. pharmaceutical company was awarded an exclusive licence to develop the patent for a drug to treat HIV.
 Developed extensive knowledge about Australian ecosystems which is still used for managing ecosystem/land care.
Understanding of role of bushfires is critical for modern fire management systems. Use of fire: to protect trees, help to produce
budding/spores in plants; helps regrowth. Removing areas = no fuel left for fires. Based on imperial observations.
Greek: Geometry and mathematical proofs:
contributed to  Pythagoras Theorem: mathematical proofs and geometric discoveries are still relevant/taught.
philosophy/  Archimedes: Archimedes Principle (buoyancy), displacement/volume, centre of gravity, and Archimedes spiral. Contributed to
science in role prevalence of logic/reason in scientific and philosophical inquiry/observations.
of reason/  Aristarchus: first to develop astronomical models describing the heliocentric system (sun at centre)  advanced physics and
injury. astronomy contributed to modern knowledge of the universe (planetary movements/Earths axis etc.).
 Hippocrates: credited as being founder of modern medicine. Had a systematic and empirical investigation of diseases.
Challenged idea sickness came from demons (diseases had natural causes and could be cured with natural remedies)
Egyptian  Paper/writing: one of the 1st civilisations to create/use writing/keeping record of events/document knowledge through
hieroglyphics. Papyrus was the first form of paper from the papyrus plant.
 Ships and Navigation: used knowledge of aerodynamics to create their ships and were able to catch wind and push vessels
through water. Developed the concept of using rope trusses to strengthen beams of their ships.
 Medicine: had cures for both humans/animals through their knowledge of anatomy (practised through mummification and
preservation of the dead)  early analysation of brain provided an insight into neuroscience.
 Mathematics: decimal system  Maths/numbers were used to record business transactions.
 Use of chemical compounds: mummification  same chemical compounds can be used to fabricate thin solar cell absorbers to
help with energy conversions.
Asian: “Four Great inventions”: papermaking, printing, gunpowder, and compass: affected literature, warfare, and navigation. Had an impact on
(Song development of Chinese civilization.
Dynasty)  Herbal medicine: scientist, extracted active ingredient from the herbal remedy for Malaria to develop a therapeutic treatment.
Isolated extract, proving its effectiveness against both types of malarial parasites, determining chemical structure of the active
ingredient, Artemisinin  now an established antimalarial drug.
 Moveable Type printing: Individual clay characters where glued to an iron plate to form words and paragraphs. After printing
the hardened pieces are redistributed and pieced together into another page.
 Compass: navigational instrument that shows directions used on Chinese ships. Arab traders brought it to the West.
 First seismoscope: can detect earthquakes accurately from afar. To indicate direction of an earthquake, device dropped a
bronze ball from 1 of 8 projections (dragon head shaped) into corresponding metal object, each representing a direction.
Thomas Kuhn (1962) saw science moved ‘normal’ or ‘revolutionary’ (upheaval in accepted science creating new paradigm) phases. Paradigm
(whole way of thinking made up of cumulative discoveries e.g., laws, concepts, rules, postulates, experiments, methods, assumptions) shift:
change in scientific thinking created through new evidence/theory to explain a phenomenon which was not fully understood previously. 3 stages:
1. Normal science dominates: working within paradigm/refining it/verifying prevailing concepts via experimentation/observation.
Hypotheses supported by evidence will be retained, while those that are not, are rejected building a body of scientific knowledge.
2. Scientists note that there are anomalies to the prevailing paradigms (cannot be explained by contemporary concepts).
3. Anomalies (observations that cannot be explained by current paradigm) force scientists to search for new explanations thus more
unconventional, creative, and risky work can be done. Creates a paradigm shift which occurs via theory replacement (geocentric 
heliocentric) or theory modification (Newtonian mechanics were modified to include Einstein’s theories of relativity).
 Kuhn doesn’t believe in falsification saying scientists work within a paradigm not seeking to disprove it  Popper adjusted scientists need
observations + alternate theory before a paradigm can be rejected. Argues there is no objective truth (science doesn’t progress linearly).

Lavoisier and oxygen: Phlogiston theory (1670s dominant for 100 years): stated existence of a fire like element ‘phlogiston’ (colourless odorless
fluid, couldn’t be seen/measured) contained within combustible bodies that is released during combustion. Combustion: object decomposes into
phlogiston and ash/calx (all reactions should lose weight when burned  decreased phlogiston). Thought combustion in a closed container stop
because air becomes saturated with phlogiston. Anomaly: iron/mercury produced a calyx that weighed more than original metal (gains weight).
 Lavoisier: established combustion required oxygen to occur (in a closed container the flame goes out because it uses up all the oxygen).
He started with the hypothesis that something had to be taken out of the air rather than released into it. He repeated experiments with
production/decomposition of mercury oxide in a swan necked flask. When decomposed, mercury oxide was found to produce a gas that
could sustain life/allow flames to burn. He identified the fuel needed for something to combust was also used for animals to breathe.
Influences on Scientific Thinking:  Health programs (vaccination programs; education; public awareness programs) that focus on
Economic: production, distribution, preventing diseases have yielded huge economic benefits. Programs reduce economic burden placed on
and consumption of resources. Always the health care system (maintenance of health costs: $105.8 billion from 2022-23 Australia).
a financial gain/cost involved in  Mid-1950s: there was Scientific consensus that smoking increases the likelihood of lung cancer. But
scientific research, that can tobacco companies formed their own research teams, to claim otherwise  delayed regulations on
influence/drive research/development. tobacco companies. Richer countries can do more research.
Political: set of activities associated  Sputnik: First artificial Earth satellite (Russian) that initiated the ‘Space race’. Genetic engineering.
with the governance of a country/area.  Eugenics: practice of improving human species by selectively mating people with specific desirable
Government or political parties in hereditary traits. Aims to reduce human suffering by “breeding out” undesirable characteristics. 1900s:
power has a lot of influence on the forced sterilisation of people in mental health institutes (women could not receive funding for childcare
development of science (progress or unless they become sterile). Hitler’s time: many physically/mentally disabled Germans were euthanised
limit direction that aligns with party with lethal gas/injections. Prior to Renaissance scientists were persecuted for reporting on discoveries
ideologies). that didn’t support ideologies.
Global: whole world governs process of  Human Genome Project (HGP): international scientific research project with goal of determining
scientific inquiry as well. Aided by nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, mapping human genome. Took scientists all over the
increased international world to complete this 13-year (approx.) project. Massive collaborative effort.
communication.  World War 2: Germany/Japan’s technological prowess  massive industrial scale aiding war efforts.
Many millions of people died. US developed nuclear weaponry which led an era of fear- the ‘cold war’.
Climate long-term shifts in temperatures/weather patterns. Human activities have been main driver of climate change due to burning fossil fuels (coal,
change oil, gas), which produces heat-trapping gasses. Weber, 2015: personal experience with climate change, political ideology, age, gender,
nationality, and different models affects actions of people/countries in dealing with climate change.
 Economic: Short term economic interests e.g., China blocked Copenhagen negotiations in 2009. Climate change research can be
costly or for countries relying on fossil fuels, would represent a huge shift in domestic income. Agriculturally dependent countries
are more likely to invest in research.
 Political: Groups for climate change action: climate justice OR youth climate movement. 70% of liberal Democrats (see research in a
positive light) trust climate scientists to give full/accurate information, compared with 15% of conservative Republicans (more
sceptical). Some believe climate change research has become politicised/funded by left leaning groups  results have left bias.
 Global: affects large numbers of people leading to increased conversation and push for more research/funding e.g., UN set targets
for climate change/carbon emissions (Kyoto Protocol (1997) + Paris Agreement (2016)  adopted by UN with the aim of reducing
global warming)  has not been reached by all countries.
Society Has changed science over time e.g., during wars, governments funded war-time research (unlocking nuclear energy). Science responds to
needs of society: e.g., HIV/AIDS epidemic  increased understanding of viral infections, immune system and how it interacts with viruses.
 Funding has massive influence on science and is needed to progress. Research is expensive (salaries, lab equipment, workspace)
e.g., particle physics, needs a multi-billion-dollar particle accelerator. Indirect (political priorities shape funding e.g., National
Institutes of Health), OR direct (private foundations provide donations to support particular research or a monetary prize for solving
a particular problem e.g., 25-million-dollar prize in 2007 for invention of a viable technique for removing CO2 from atmosphere).
 Economic gain: medical treatment/drug production, biotechnology research  breakthroughs in genomic sequencing.
 Cultural influence: shape expectations, values, beliefs, and goals. Joseph Rotblat (very ethical views): understood splitting atoms
could release massive energy (atomic bomb). Worried it would be used as a weapon- avoided following up on the idea. After WW2,
Rotblat channelled his physics towards medical applications. Nobel Peace Prize (1995) for efforts towards nuclear non-proliferation.
Conclusion Scientists/funding are influenced by the interests and needs of society. It is important to be scientifically literate (understanding scientific
process/jargon, analyse information for Pros/cons, consistent/reputable, have questions) to understand world in an objective way.
Ethics: moral principles that govern a person's behaviour. Scientific ethics calls for honesty/integrity in all stages e.g., production of unbiased
scientific knowledge (critical when others try to build upon/extend findings), open publication of data, peer review, replication, and collaboration.
Human research: Conducted with or about people/their data/tissue. E.g., taking part in surveys/interviews/focus groups, undergoing psychological,
physiological or medical testing/treatment, being observed, access to personal documents, collection of body organs/tissues/fluids.
 Despite best intentions/careful planning still involves significant risks and is possible for things to go wrong (technical errors/neglect). Rare
occasions have involved deliberate/appalling violation of human beings. E.g., Stanford prison experiment (1971)- two-week simulation of a prison
environment examining participants (recruited offering $15/day) reactions/behaviours of people assigned to being prisoners/guards.
Psychological abuse of prisoners by “guards” became increasingly brutal. Psychologist instructed end of experiment. Most unethical psychology
experiments in history. Harm inflicted promoted universities worldwide to improve their ethics requirements for human subjects of experiments.
Research by Nazi doctors in WW2 was horrific e.g., forced inseminations, amputations, injections with disease. Nuremberg Code (1948) was developed: set
of 10 guideline for the ethical treatment of human participants. First international document that required obtaining consent:
1. Autonomy/informed consent: making an enlightened decision after having sufficient knowledge about experiment (purpose, duration, hazards)
2. Maleficence: No subject should be intentionally harmed. Suffering should be avoided + NO expectation of death or inquiry.
3. Beneficence: benefits should outweigh the risks (ends justified means).
4. Only qualified scientists should conduct medical research.
5. Subjects have the right to end the experiment at any time.
 6. Human experiments should be based on animal experimentation.
7. Confidentiality: respect for privacy and maintaining anonymity.
8. No-deception: open and truthful communication.
Belmont report (1979) forms basic ethical principles/guidelines when conducting of research with human subjects. 3 basic principles: Respect for persons
(consent), Beneficence, and Justice: fairness in procedures for selecting participants.
Australia: Human Research Ethics Committees review all research proposals involving human participants to ensure that they are ethically acceptable.
Animal Used to understand animal biology/models to understand human biology. E.g., veterinary science, behavioural studies.
experiments National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) has governing principles (respect for animals must underpin all decisions/ actions
involving care/use of animals for scientific purposes) and ethical framework to guide decisions/actions of all people involved in care/use of
animals. Regulated by Animal Ethics Committees. Research proposals must be cleared to adhere to this code of ethics.
 using animals (only applied to vertebrates) only when it is justified + supporting the wellbeing and minimising harm.
 Experimentation on cosmetics is banned in Australia achieved by legislation.
 applying high standards of scientific integrity. Replacement (with other methods e.g., mice, cell cultures), Reduction (in sample
size) and Refinement (of techniques used to minimise animal harm).
Currently, animals are still used in many experiments and testings for pharmaceutical products used for humans e.g., medicinal, cosmetic,
chemical. Possibility of growing human organs in other animals to be harvested for humans.
Biobanks stores biological samples (tissues/genetic analysis) for use in research. Have become an important resource in medical research, supporting
contemporary research e.g., genomics/personalised medicine. Data derived from samples can often be used by multiple researchers for
cross purpose research studies. Performing genome-wide association studies using large collections of samples which representative of a
large population to help identify disease biomarkers. Many researchers used to struggle to acquire sufficient samples before. Uses:
 Ancestry tracing + Genetic analysis of 900 crime offenders in Finland identify two genes linked with violent crime.
 Increased understanding of genetics behind certain diseases
 Might not get access to health care because of genetic discrimination revealed from biobanks.
Issues: informed consent of donors, privacy of personal/medical information- confidentiality (specimens should be anonymized), donors
have some right to return of results and to withdraw from research, commercialisation/sharing of benefits (people’s genomes can be sold
and who owns the benefits?). Public consultation: Communities should participate in writing laws/standards for research.
Use of Data is shared through peer review publications, data repositories and conference presentations. NHMRC has a code for use/sharing of
research research data, promoting the “core principle of justice”. Australian National Data Service: has a code of ethics which guides use of
data research data offering. Is continually updated to accommodate new forms of data that are available (e.g., social media).
 Encourages further scientific enquiry/innovation, leads to new collaborations. Maximises transparency/accountability, reduces
cost of duplicating data collection.
 Ethics of obtaining data from unethical research such as Nazi Human trials. Risk on how information will be used/analysed
Literature research: collect relevant, timely research topic (should have a real-world societal impact and identifies gaps/questions). Synthesizes it
into a cohesive summary of existing knowledge (figures out strengths/weaknesses to create an informed decisions about developing a research
question), gaining a wider perspective. Figures out if there is enough information, narrows down an idea to a specific testable question.
 Literature review: critical analysis of literature in a particular area providing a summary, comparison, and evaluation of the literature.
E.g., what was been accepted, problems/issues that remain unsolved, emerging trends, how research extends/builds on other research.
Introduction to research area, analysis of information and synthesis of conclusions.
 Developing research question done by looking at gaps in literature review and areas for improvement. Should be falsifiable, testable.
Hypothesis is formulated based on the question linking DV/IV, should consider: environmental/ethical impacts.
o Is the question too broad? E.g., trying to cover too much information/answers too many questions.
o Is the question too specific?  too difficult to find enough information to address question.
o Project address/relevant/important issue?
o Is it feasible? Can I access the equipment? Is it possible within the timeframe? availability of secondary/primary data?
o Fills in the gaps of the research.
Factual Looking for a casual relationship and describing it e.g., what buffer is required to separate proteins on a gel?
Comparative Usually identify 2 alternatives to a situation and compare e.g., does bioethanol produce less greenhouse gas than diesel fuel?
Predictive Constructing scenarios on how things might be in the future e.g., will a lower pH of seawater increase the rate of ice melting?
Problem solving Propose solutions to existing problems e.g., does the use of a cover reduce evaporation from swimming pools?
Paradoxical Explore an apparently contradictory situation to make a suggestion e.g., how can we fertilise crops without creating algal blooms?
 evaluate the resources associated with the initial scientific hypothesis derived from the literature.
Accuracy Parallax error, reflection of publicised results, accurate measuring devices used? Difference between measured/accepted.
Reliability Repeat experiment with consistent results (reduces likelihood of outliers). Large sample size, outliers excluded. Reliable data sets have many
citations. Author credentials, biased, reputable? Current? E.g., respected source. relevant?
Validity Control group, variables kept constant, independent variable changed, dependent kept the same, method appropriate for aim, peer viewed?
 Rationale: justification for choosing topic of study/explains why research is being performed (benefits to wider community).
 Null hypothesis: no relationship exists between the two variables. Alternative: prediction about the expected outcome.
 Methodology: describes procedure to follow. Should be developed based on difficulty making measurements, availability of equipment.
Good methods controls extraneous variables/selects controls.
Uncertainty quantitative measurement of variability (margin of doubt- true value is thought to fall within). Limits of accuracy
 Analogue instrument– half smallest division + Digital instrument- smallest measurement possibly
 Accuracy: difference between a measurement and the true accepted value.
 Precision: how closely a set of values agree with each other.
Experiment Systematic: same extent each time (consistent/reduces accuracy). Hard to detect. Cannot be eliminated by repetition. Can only be reduced
al errors by refining experimental method. Causes: Instrumental: flawed reading, poor calibration, not taring, poorly maintained instruments.
Observational: parallax error. Environment: lab conditions. Reducing: calibrate equipment and operate correctly to avoid parallax error.
Random: measurements differ in magnitude/direction from the true value randomly/inconsistently. Affects precision. Easily detected.
 Reduces reliability. Fixed by refining experimental method. Reduced by repetition. Outliers can be eliminated.
Error bars Can communicate how spread of data are around mean. When standard deviation error bars overlap  not statistically significant.
Qualitative Has categorical variables (may be represented by a name, symbol or code (can’t be measured/counted)). E.g., country of birth. Use sensory
methods (listening, observing) to gather/organise data into patterns/themes. Nominal or ordinal.
Quantitative Measures of values expressed as numeric variables. Can be discrete or continuous.
Qualitative Qualitative: Explain/gain insight + understanding of Quantitative: Explain, predict or control phenomena
v. phenomena through collection of data. Inductive through focused collection of numerical data. Deductive
quantitative Examples Open ended questions disorganised data e.g., interviews Experiments, observations, surveys.
or closed questions  restricts responses, may have pre
coded bias.
Hypothesis Tentative, and evolving. Specific, testable, stated prior to study.
Sampling Purposive: intent to select ‘small’ not necessarily Random: intent to select ‘large’ representative samples
representative samples. Written word/observations. to generalise results. Numerical.
Interpretation Conclusions are tentative reviewed on an ongoing basis. Conclusions/generalisations formed at end of study.
Advantages Can reveal extra information E.g., facial expressions. Can be analysed mathematically. Not biased. Allows for
Disadvantages Difficult to organise, produce disorganised data, responses comparison, predication, causation, and trends
can be restrictive.
Primary collected by yourself or collected at source. Need to make sure it is ethical; suitable and data set is large enough. More accurate information,
data less expensive, Current. Time consuming, Difficult to collect.
Secondary Gathering/using existing data. Less expensive, easier to collect, cost effective. Primary results can be compared to others results. Not
data current, error rate is high, questionnaire may have been poorly designed.
Continuous Data: measured on an interval scale e.g., height. Does not have a precise value.
Discrete Data: obtained by counting e.g., number of students.
Ordinal Data: numerical value and can only be placed in a suitable category e.g., grades A to E
Nominal Data: group of objects/ideas that can be collectively grouped with no inherent rank or order e.g., gender or race
Binary Data: only two possible states e.g., positive or negative.
Ways to Interview (can be structured/unstructured): series of questions a researcher addresses personally.
collect data  Full range/depth of information, misunderstandings are avoided by carefully defined terms, more likely to respond, Flexible.
 timely, costly. Biases (interviews can bias clients), hard to analysis/compare.
Observational study: used to answer a research question based purely on observations.
 Suitable in studying small number of subjects, can record events as they occur, Reduction of bias, Reliable/objective data are
obtained. Difficult to interpret behaviour, can’t observe motivation, expensive.
Experimental method: manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable.
 Absent of bias, quick data collection, more reliable/objective. Time consuming, incorrect method = incorrect results.
Census: study that obtains data from every member of a population.
 Representative of population. Hard to plan, expensive, resources costly, questions can be hard to interpret, lack of interest.
Remote sensing: detecting/monitoring physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected/emitted radiation at a distance through sensors. No
physical contact with object. Allows for real-time observations over large areas without having to make on-site observations, speeding up data collection.
 Passive remote sensors: detect natural energy that is reflected/emitted from an observed object/scene.
 Active: provide own energy. Electromagnetic radiation illuminates object/scene and detect radiation that is reflected/backscattered from that
object e.g., Radar (radio detection/ranging) or lidar (light detection and ranging) instruments.
Satellite-based sensors monitor surface of earth e.g., ocean temperatures. Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a much
larger area. Tracking clouds to help predict weather. Used to access hard to reach/dangerous location. Faster. Not disturb sensitive environments.
Streamed data: data that continuously flows from a source to a destination to be processed/analysed in real time e.g., wireless connection of sensors
through Bluetooth/Wi-Fi. Allows people to react/respond to crisis events much quicker (real time- continuous communication: “streamed” out of sensor for
further processing/analysis). Large amounts of data in a short time. Allows for collection of extremely large datasets.
Tracking wildlife using GPS sensors/measuring climatic data. Use of computers to gather/store data has made it possible to increase number of instruments
to collect data. Electronic sensors/data collectors enable scientists to take measurements very frequently/over a large time scale. Individual sensors can
contain thousands/millions of discrete measurements.
PROCESSING DATA:
 Recording data: very important to record all raw data, must consider ethical implications. Historically done on paper.
 Organising data: easily accessible/understood e.g., in a spreadsheet. E.g., by keywords, clear labels and colour coding.
DATA PROCESSING METHODS: steps taken to ensure that measurements are of good quality.
1. Manual Data Processing: processed without using any machine to get required results. All the calculations are performed manually. Data
is manually transferred. Used in an educational institute e.g., marks sheets/financial calculations (or transactions). Method usually
avoided- high probability of error, labour intensive and very time-consuming. Primitive.
2. Mechanical Data Processing: processed by using mechanical devices e.g., typewriters. Becoming redundant. Used by Examination boards.
3. Electronic Data Processing: processed through a computer automatically according to a set of instructions are given to the computer as
an input. Very fast/accurate. E.g., computerized education environment results of students are prepared through a computer.
4. Data cleansing: detecting/editing faulty measurements in datasets e.g., have things have been entered correctly. Data can be corrupted
via computer malfunctions. Ensures accuracy/validity. Extract: read from original source, Transform- manipulate data into a usable
format, ensure quality (reliability of source), Volume: high, Blanks: removed/filled, Recent: up to data.
DATA STORAGE: archiving data in electromagnetic or other forms for use by a computer/device. Remote data storage e.g., cloud computing.
Physical data storage: random access memory (stored in integrated circuits for immediate use) and secondary data storage on external drives (can
hold enormous amounts of data on a very small device). Archived for event-based access/research activities initiated by an end user. Cloud
services/other new forms of remote storage add to the capacity of devices/their ability to access data without building additional data storage.

Open data repositories: publicity accessible databases which host datasets from contributors. Reliable.
 Encourages innovation. Time efficiency, cost efficient. Immediate/permanent access to research. Allows multiple people to analyse data.
  Consent and ethics: opening people’s confidential info. Security issues, competence of those analysing data.
Large Largest/most powerful particle accelerator (two high-energy particle beams travel at close to speed of light before they are made to collide).
Hadron Releasing data: inspires global research/interconnections, highly educational/valuable. Data is at different levels of complexity from simplified
Collider analysis to ready-to-use online applications - prepared for educational purposes e.g., masterclasses which benefit over 10,000 high-school
2008 students facilitating research/knowledge. New research: a team from MIT released information in Physical Review Letters explained a feature
within high-energy particle collisions allowing a previous scientific hypothesis to be verified. Prove existence of nano particles that make up all
matter. New particles are discovered. May explain dark matter. Rapidly accelerated development of quantum mechanics e.g., discovered Higgs
Boson. Expensive ($4b), high levels of energy/heat produced. Academic property concerns.
Kepler disused space telescope launched by NASA to discover Earth-sized planets orbiting other stars. Discovered billions of hidden planets. New
telescope research: discovery of exoplanets can be increased due to the sharing of new code. Researchers discovered 2 alien planets in the archival data
2009 gathered by Kepler space telescope, using Google machine-learning techniques. Hope release of data will prove a useful starting point for
developing similar models for other NASA missions, like K2 (Kepler's second mission).
 Encouraged scientific collaboration/innovation e.g., Shallue and Vanderburg developed algorithms capable of Deep Learning,
navigating and unstructured data to identify planets of the very edge of the telescope’s sensitivity/discover new exoplanets.
Human international scientific research project with goal of determining base pairs that make up human DNA. Identifying, mapping, and sequencing all
genome of the genes of the human genome and identifying genetic markers associated with diseases.  researchers understand genetic factors.
project  Making the data available: Fuelled discovery of 1800+ disease genes. Allows for identification of causes of rare diseases. Promoted
1990 open science. New in-depth research on human health/disease  allowing for advanced screening/disease prevention measures/
treatment/diagnosis. Faster sequencing methods- can cheaply/rapidly process millions of bases. Genetic tests reveal disease
susceptibility. Wanted to be released publicly quickly to make sure no one person could claim intellectual property. Transparency.
 Ethical concerns for the usage of entire human genome. Possibility of human cloning/editing (designer babies), quick genome
sequencing may form a genetic identify. Foetal genome testing  reveals potential diseases  may increase abortion rate  lowers
human diversity. Enormous resources needed to make technological shift to open/interoperable databases for different languages.
 Outcome: discovered BRCA1/BRCA2 genes are markers for the development of hereditary breast/ovarian cancer.
Aim of a statistical test: Is to attempt to quantify evidence against a particular hypothesis being true by using significance testing.

Hypothesis: statistical tests determine whether to either accept/reject null hypothesis. Hypothesis testing: α value (usually 0.05), is set to assess
whether the null hypothesis is accepted/rejected. P value of 0.05 means less than 5% occur due to random chance.
 Null hypothesis (H0): no statistically significant difference between groups tested.
 Alternative hypothesis (H1): statistically significant difference between groups tested.
Data Pure information e.g., numbers, percentages, statistics the result of scientific inquiry e.g., the size of each seed. Has no intrinsic meaning on its
own. Only becomes right or wrong in context.
Evidenc data is only evidence when there is an opinion/furnishes proof that supports a conclusion (e.g., viewpoint/argument). Explanations need
e evidence. Evidence contextualises and critically analyses the data.
Qualitative data: use content and thematic analysis e.g., looking for patterns/recurring ideas and interpreting. Goal(s): to provide insight into texts,
identify intentions, communication trends, to determine responses to certain issues.

Content analysis: (Downe-Wamboldt/Morgan) research tool which determines presence of certain words/concepts within a text(s) researchers can
analyse presence/meanings/relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts, to make inferences within texts. Uses:
 Examine trends and relationships within the text to provide insight.
 Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups.
 To identify/present important aspects of content/To support of some argument.
STEPS: read transcripts, recordings etc. Developing an initial response category and classify all elements of discussion (ANALYSIS)  review
categories of discussion develop meaningful subcategories. Interpret responses in categories (INTERPRETATION)  develop interrelated
interpretations within sub/major categories- make inference about messages in texts (SYNTHESIS)  write detailed report (DOCUMENTATION).

Types: Conceptual analysis (establishing existence/frequency of concepts most often represented by words/phrases- surface level e.g., a poet
often writes about hunger; you can determine how many times words such as hunger, hungry, famished, or starving appear in poems) and
relational analysis (examines relationships among concepts in a text- interpretational and focused on meaning e.g., identify what other phrases
hunger appear next to and then determine what different meanings emerge as a result).
ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
 looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence  Time consuming + Subject to increased error.
gets at the central aspect of social interaction.  Often devoid of theoretical base.
 Allow for both quantitative and qualitative data.  Reductive- result in researcher missing nuance/cultural meaning.
 can provide valuable historical/cultural insights over time.  Reliability: using a subjective approach
 can be used to interpret texts.  Often disregards the context that produced the text.
 provides insight into complexities of human thought/language.  Can be difficult to automate or computerize
 Can be used on primary and secondary data
Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke): qualitative data analysis method focused on identifying patterns, themes and meanings within a dataset. E.g.,
interview, open ended q. Messy/language-based data  map of most important themes (patterns are important to research question) Process:
1. Familiarise yourself with your data.
2. Assign preliminary codes to your data to describe the content.
3. Search for patterns or themes in your codes.
4. Review themes (especially for reliability and validity) and then name them.
5. Produce report to emphasize, examine and record patterns within data.
ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Flexible: Many theories can be applied to this process across  Reliability concern due to unlike interpretations from researchers.
various range of epistemologies  Might miss variations in data + Difficulty classifying themes.
 Analysis is well suited to vast data bases.  Deductive analysis is fixed/rigid and may allow for bias.
 Permits scientists to grow study range past individual experiences.  If the analysis excludes theoretical framework, then you get
 Helps in interpretation of themes backed up by data. limited interpretive power.
 Allows for categories to evolve from data/broader ideas.  Doesn’t allow for context.
  Allows for increased detailed interpretation.  Difficult to maintain sense of continuity of data in each account.
Quantitative data sets- data represented numerically. Goal: highlights the important properties/characteristics of data, summarises relationships/
trends in visual and conclusive way e.g. graphs/charts (Useful to see patterns).
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: summarize and describe the main features of a INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: tool to draw conclusions/generalisations about a
dataset, e.g., central tendency, variability, and distribution, relationships. population (beyond data available) by examining random samples.
Organise, analyse, and present pre-existing data in a meaningful manner. Compares, tests, and predicts future outcomes. Looks at relationships and
Results shown in charts, tables, and graphs. Provide descriptions of data set distribution. Infers trends/establish significance of inferences made about a
or population. Can’t be generalized to other populations. Central tendency: larger population. Includes:
(mean, median, mode). Measures of spread/variance (range, standard  Confidence levels: gives range of values for which we are sure that
deviation, variance)- how the data deviates from the position. Measures of a given survey will overlap with the true value. 95% usually used.
shape: symmetrical/not or normal/kurtosis. Looks at frequencies. Less  Statistical/hypothesis testing/analysis of variance- deciding
obvious to determine whether there is a significant difference in means. whether the results support a theory which allies to a population.
Limitations of data analysis/interpretation: small sample size/potential bias (e.g., motivations of a company/theory-dependence- Use blind/double
blind or credibility checks or repetition), sampling methods, time consuming, subjective interpretation, low quality data, ethical implications,
difficult/inappropriate to generalise results (samples not representative, individuals should be assigned to groups randomly). Context influences
interpretation of results. Assumptions, should look for error, Participant expectations may alter data, Scope of understanding is restricted if
available theories cannot explain data, Misinterpretation of complex models may impact a researcher's understanding of a scientific concept.
 median (Used on skewed data- positive skew- right/negative skew- left): Middle of the set of numbers. Note: mean can be misleading
 Variability: how spread scores are in a distribution.
 Z-score: location of every score in a distribution.
 Standard dev: measure of spread from mean. Used to detect outliers. A small standard deviation= low variability (close). 68, 95, 99.7%.
 Bias (deviation between observations/data and an accurate description): increasing sample size doesn’t help- difficult to detect.
Preventing: measuring instrument functions well, correct technique. Random sampling. Good training for survey workers. Types:
o measurement bias: Incorrect measurements taken. E.g., poorly calibrated instruments, poorly trained survey takers.
o Sampling bias: non-representative sample.
o Expectancy bias- looking for certain results.
o Social desirability bias- respondents to answer questions that will be viewed favourably by others.
o Response-non-response- subjects only answering what they want to say/not answering what they don’t want to say.
o Reporting bias: researchers not publishing a hypothesis that was wrong or selectively using data to prove hypothesis.
Statistical tests: State hypothesis, α significance level, assumptions/requirements, Perform statistical statistics (give reasons and justify why you
picked to use this type of test), Analysis, determine statistical significance, accept/reject null hypothesis, Make real life conclusions.
1. Student’s t-test: comparing the means of two different samples.
a. One sample tests: used to compare means of a sample data to a population or a manufacturer’s claim.
b. Two sample t-test used to compare the means of: Paired: data is before and after from the same individual or group OR
Unpaired: data is from different individual or groups.
c. DF: 2 different samples of 10 (unpaired), the df is 20-2 = 18. If 1 sample of 10 before and after (paired) the df is 10-1 = 9.
d. Accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis: IF Tstat > Tcrit AND p < 0.05: null hypothesis is rejected, significant difference.
2. Chi-squared test (doesn’t have to be normally distributed): is performed on observed/categorical data that we want to compare to
expected values (from previous observation/expectation of proportions). E.g., Tulips are expected to have an equal distribution of
colours. Chi2> Chicrit AND p < 0.05: null hypothesis is rejected, significant difference.
3. F-test: comparing variance. Assumptions: independently samples sample variances are equal/normally distributed. Types:
a. Testing whether 2 population variances are equal/unequal (before a t-test): Null hypothesis: variances are equal (F-value = 1).
b. ANOVA: determine if means of multiple groups are equal. Tells you there is a difference between at least 2 of the groups
however doesn’t specify which ones- have to do individual t-tests.
c. Accepting/rejecting null hypothesis: IF Fstat > Fcrit AND p < 0.05: null hypothesis is rejected, significant difference.
4. Correlation (Pearson) coefficient: represents the correlation/relationship (mag/direction) between variables (ONLY linear relationship).
a. Linear regression: model relationships between 2 variables by fitting a linear equation to data.
b. Regression analysis: R2 value- proportion of variance in the DV that is predictable from IV.
c. Correlation: tells us if 1 variable affects another, and to what extent (size/direction). Doesn’t always mean causation.
5. Causation: indicates that 1 event is the result of occurrence of the other (causal relationship).
a. Association (between IV/DV): as one goes up/down, the other goes up/down. E.g., more smoking = more lung cancer.
b. Time order: IV must come before a DV.
c. Nonspuriousness: not due to a 3rd variable.
d. Specificity: a single specific and defined mechanism is the reason for the correlation.
e. Strength (high Pearson coefficient- r value)/consistency (almost every study conducted should have similar results).
f. Coherence/plausibility: should be compatible with existing theories and knowledge, and not defy the laws of the universe.
g. Consideration of alternative explanation.

Collective decision-making: collectively making a choice from the alternatives presented; usually better due to synergy.
Advantages Disadvantages
Collective Wider range of ideas, experts, better accountability, Increased Bias, Possible conflict, time consuming. Conformity pressures
decision making productivity, more complete info is generated. Higher quality (squashing opinions). Group decisions can be dominated by 1+
decisions. Increased solution diversity. More input. members, less conflict.
Individual Decreased conflict. Potential to be faster. Individuals don’t escape Bias. No consultation with others, including experts. May allow
decision making responsibility and are held accountable. Saves time, money and for procrastination.
energy. More focused/rational.
General relativity (1916): Einstein said that large objects (planets/stars) warp the fabric of space-time around them causing gravity.
 Predictions: collisions of very massive objects, like black holes, would cause observable ripples (gravitational waves: travel at the speed
of light) in the fabric of space-time.  (Waves are too small/weak to measure).
 Detection: Scientists have built a powerful instrument called LIGO (laser interferometer gravitational wave observatory) designed to
detect the ripples in space-time. “The success of gravitational-wave experiments rests on our ability to develop sophisticated technology
and data-analysis algorithms.”
 Observations: first detected in 2015 (although experimental evidence supporting their existence was earlier)
  Issues: Output from gravitational wave detectors is full of noise. Disentangling the signal requires decision. 2018: Danish scientists
claimed signal data was incorrectly disentangled, questioning LIGO's ability to distinguish between signal/noise (validity of detection).
 Results: Two different independent analyses confirm the detection. US National science funded the physicists. It was later analysed that
gravitational waves came from two black holes that emitted gravitational waves.
 Impact: Einstein’s prediction is confirmed. Gravitational waves might allow physicists to understand the Big Bang. I

Mechanism of disease: Before Pasteur the belief was that disease was transmitted spontaneously generation. Swan neck experiment: with a neck
mould didn’t grow. Without a neck the mould grew showing. Paradigm shift: disease is caused by air-borne microbes and is not spontaneous.
 Transmissions of disease: designed a criteria to establish a causal relationship between a pathogen and a disease. Said each infectious
disease was caused by a specific pathogen. Criteria:
o The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease but not found in healthy organisms.
o The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
o Cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism- same symptoms.
o Microorganism must be re-isolated from diseased experimental host and identified as identical to original causative agent.
 John Snow/Cholera: Miasma theory held cholera was caused by a miasma (“bad air” emitted from rotting organic matter).
o History (1854): London there was a severe cholera outbreak.
o Obtained data: via direct observation/employing epidemiological practices. Mapped outbreaks of chorea and where individuals
had sourced their water. Identifying Broad Street pump as the central source of water for all the infected residents, Snow
convinced residents to disable the pump using statistics, highlighting plausible causal relationship between sewage
contamination in water and cholera incidence.
o Significance: after the removal of the pump, the outbreak ceased. Later provided support for germ theory. Snow’s findings led
to the changes in sanitation/water supply that finally ended the cholera epidemics.

Data Modelling: applying mathematical processes to develop a mathematical representation of the data or creating a visual representation of a
whole/parts of an information system to communicate connections between data.
 Visual representation of data. Enforces business rules, regulatory compliances and government policies on the data, ensure consistency
in naming conventions, default values, emphasizes on what data is needed and how it should be organized. Process: select correct/
appropriate model, clean data, interpret/communicate findings. Often applied to very large data sets. Utilises: computers, various
programs/software, artificial intelligence (machine learning).

Model (allows for knowledge building): representation of an idea/object/process that is used to describe/explain phenomena that cannot be
experienced directly. Good models have good explanatory and predictive powers. Allows predictions to be developed/tested. There may be more
than one model proposed by scientists and will argue about the ‘rightness’ of their model.
 Climate models- climate changes cannot be simply extrapolated from past climate. Global climate models (GCMs) are based on the laws
of physics, incorporating interactions between atmosphere, oceans, sea ice and land surface. Confidence in models comes from their
basis in fundamental physical principles, and from their ability to represent important features of the current and past climate. GCMs
have shown a substantial and robust warming signal resulting from increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. Uncertainties arise, in the
details/timing of changes coming from uncertainties in choosing parameters. These uncertainties are reflected in the ranges presented
for projections - a broad suite of climate variables have been reported on for these projections. Future climate models: depends on the
evolution of future greenhouse gas concentration (human action).
Predictive predict what will happen in the future, built from data that is already known e.g., weather modelling, climate change.
 Used to make informed decisions about the future. Able to test scenarios that are not possible using physical experiments. Can
consider/incorporate a very large number of variables. Can avoid bias in the final answer. Can determine risk.
 Only as good as the data that it is built upon: availability of data, size of data set, algorithms used, data from machine learning (bias
in algorithm construction leads to biased results). May be hard to compare models if the assumptions are not the same. Future
unknown changes cannot be accounted for. E.g., contemporary COVID models are limited by the availability of data in Australia and
are not transferable to other areas.
Statistical Mathematical model that embodies a statistical assumption. Finds relationships between data/make generalisations. Includes confidence
intervals, hypothesis testing and regression analysis.
 Used to find trends/relationships. If taken from large samples the generalisability is high. Secondary data can be cheap/already
complied. Can be reused to check other variables.
 Need to correctly apply tests, researcher cannot check validity, can’t establish causation only draw patterns/correlations, can be
manipulated to show researcher POV, Often secondary data: harder to access and check; could be misinterpreted
Descriptive mean, mode, ranges, z scores. Describes a system and its relationship to its environment. Communicates a summary of data, especially large
data sets. Straightforward, simple, Can make comparisons between data sets, Prepare data for further analysis.
 Can be distorted by outliers or data cleansing. May not be representative of the data set if very non-uniform distribution. Only
allows for inferences about the data set measured. Doesn’t identify causes. Can change overtime
Graphical: e.g., line graph. Scatter plots with lines and curves of best fit. Column graphs. Pie and divided bar graphs. Box and whisker plots
data in a  Advantages: summaries data, clearly visualise data/trends, comparisons, easily interpreted, attention grabbing (consider colours,
graphical presentation, audience), easier to understand and compare
form  Data can be distorted or manipulated (graph type, scales used), misinterpreted. Bad plots can lead to loss of precision/accuracy.
Time consuming to data cleanse.
Mode of communication: means of communicating e.g., visual, linguistic, aural, spatial or gestural.
Medium: channel/system through which communications are conveyed. e.g., ads, billboards, podcast, blog, ratio, scientific journal, magazine.
 Spatial communication: through awareness of arrangement/hierarchy of room.
 Communication appropriacy: decided based on the purpose (why scientific findings are meaningful. Shorter/more engaging = better.
More specific/detailed = inform other researchers), audience: Effective communication shouldn’t exclude audiences; specialists want
more detail whereas non-specialists need simpler vocabulary, analogies, clear diagrams) and context: must be considered regarding how
they will best understand/trust message. Depending on the place of delivery, level of detail etc.)
Scientific peer-review process: of subjecting an author's scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same
field. Provides a trusted form of scientific communication. Highly competitive. E.g., The New England Journal of Medicine publishes just 6% of its
submissions. Encourage authors to meet the accepted high standards and to control the dissemination data (ensures false information is not
published). Findings should be replicable. Modern day scientists don’t have to worry about selling their findings. Reviewed by 1-4 people. Very slow
(more than a year). Bias by editors. Acts as a poor screen against plagiarism. Studies have found scientists have cognitive biases towards people
who shares characteristics with themselves e.g., nationality/gender. Papers may be sent to research competitors. People are not paid or credited
for the hours it takes to review 20-30 papers (lack of motivation to check properly). 1975-2012: Some authors created fake emails to have their
papers sent to themselves (10-fold increase in the number of scientific articles). In over 70% of cases the restrictions were due to scientific
misconduct. Some publish false information Process:
1. Scientists complete a study and write a report. Submit it to a publication.
2. Journal editors send the article to several other scientists who work in the same fields.
3. Reviewers provide feedback on the article and tell the editor if the study is of quality to publish.
4. Authors may then revise their articles and resubmit for consideration.  Good standard  Published.

Publishing in online and print journals: A journal article describes a study and report any details to evaluate the study (background information,
data, statistical research, graphs, maps). Recent times have seen mass publications of scientific articles with little/no peer review posing a risk to
advances in scientific knowledge. If selection criteria for a journal is more rigid, these journal hosting sites have reputable journals.
 Allows for the review process to occur. Informs others of work. Online journals allow greater access, increased information spread,
accessibility technology e.g., test-to-speech, easier to search for articles by keyword. Hard copies: good if difficulty reading from a screen
 Expensive (accessing restricted by paywalls). Different journals have different reputations. Pressure to publish work. Language barriers.

Presenting at conferences: structured events over 1+ days where scientists from an area meet to communicate advances in their field/disseminate
information to a wider audience. Include: Lectures and Poster presentations.
 Contribute and learn about the most recent advances in your field – work may be presented at any stage. Advocate for your discipline
(inform others). Improve your communication skills. Networking, build personal profile. Expensive, travel involved. Research in early
stages may be misreported. Race and gender bias in presenters.

Presentations in media: often directed at a general audience without a scientific background. Purpose: inform/entertain/engage. Doesn’t use
complex language. Designed to inform. Very clear/simple. Analogies often used. E.g., Media: tv, radio, books, magazines, Veritasium youtuber.
 Advantages: reaches a wide audience, informs on scientific information, may inspire interest, action, or change.
 Disadvantages: not peer reviewed, may contain misleading overly simplified or incorrect information, may cause negative side effects.