POLO Rael OR Tele) Nomadic Pastoralists In the mountains On the plateaus, plains and deserts Colonial rule and pastoral life + the Gujjar Bakarwals of + the Dhangar community of + drastic changes in the life Jammu and Kashmir Maharashtra of pastoralists + the Bhotiyas, Sherpas + the Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh, + less grazing ground for ‘and Kinnauris of the Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya their cattle Himalayas Pradesh and Maharashtra + their movements being + the Gaddi shepherds + the Gollas, the Kurumas and ‘monitored ‘of Himachal Pradesh the Kurubas of Karnataka and + restrictions imposed on + the Gujar cattle ‘Andhra Pradesh the pastoralists to access herders in Garhwal + the Raikas of Rajasthan the forests ‘and Kumaon + increased revenue for the British + decline of their agricultural stock decline of their craftsrorrrey 1 Pastoralists in the Modern World Introduction Pastoralists are people who take care of animals such as sheep, goats and cattle, move from one place to the other and sometimes farm along the line of their travel. Movement in the Mountains Migrated during the ninteenth century, the Gujjar Bakarwals, a pastoral community of Jammu and Kashmir used to move annually between the high mountains and the low hills during the winters and the summers respectively. Towards the end of September, when the winter in the mountains became unbearable, they came down with their herds to live in the low hills of the Siwalik range. The herds found pasture in the dry scrub forests there. With the onset of summer, around April, they began their upward march towards the high mountains in search of grazing grounds. A large number of households moved together in this journey, forming what is known as a kafila. The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh followed a pattern similar to the Gujjar Bakarwals. During this to and fro from the high mountains to the Siwaliks, the Gujjars made a pit stop in the villages of Lahul and Spiti to sow and reap their harvest. Many other pastoral communities of the Himalayas, which include the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris, followed the same cyclic pattern of movement between summer and winter pastures. This movement allowed the pastures to regrow, and also prevented their overuse. Movement in Plateaus, Plains and Deserts Pastoralists were not only restricted to the mountains; some were found in plateaus, plains and deserts too. In Maharashtra, a community mostly of shepherds, blanket weavers and buffalo herders called Dhangars, lived in the semi-arid region of the central plateaus during the monsoon season. The region receives low rainfall, and is covered with thorny scrubs. Bajra was sown here during the monsoons, and harvested in October. At the end of their one-month-long journey, they reached the flourishing agricultural tract with high rainfall and rich soil in Konkan. There, the pastoralists received rice from the peasants in Konkan and took it back with them to the plateau where they had scarcity of grain. The constant rotation of the monsoon and the dry seasons led pastoralists like the Gollas, the Kurumas, and the Kurubas to shift places. The Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra also moved from one place to the other in search of pasture land for their cattle. They followed the barter system and sold their cattle in exchange for fodder and grains. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life All uncultivated lands were wastelands according to the British, as they neither were used for agriculture nor generated any revenue.The British government thus tried to transform all grazing grounds into large cultivated farms as they believed that cultivation alone could bring revenue for the country. Wasteland rules thus were implemented and all uncultivated lands used as grazing tracts for cattle and by the herds of pastoralists were cleared. The British introduced Forest Acts, Through these, they increased the production of timber mainly deodar and sal, which were commercially valuable. The land/forests, where these were grown, were made inaccessible to pastoralists and declared ‘reserved’. These newly imposed restrictions in the movements of pastoralists hampered their cattle, as valuable forage was now beyond the reach of the forest people. In an effort to have control over the population of India, the British preferred people to dwell in fixed areas. They even became suspicious of the movements and the lifestyle of the pastoralists. Craftsmen and traders, who had to change their locations in search of good pastures and sell their wares, were considered criminals. With the introduction of the Criminal Tribes Act, many of the nomadic communities were classified as Criminal Tribes by birth and nature. In addition to this, these tribals were expected to live only in the designated areas in the villages, and prohibited from moving to other places without a permit. Taxes were imposed on a variety of resources that were used by the nomadic communities water, salt, trade, goods and even on animals. How did these changes affect the lives of pastoralists? + less grazing ground for their cattle + their movements being monitored + forest access restricted + decline of their agricultural stock + decline of their crafts How did the pastoralists cope with these changes? + With less space for pastures, the pastoralists reduced the number of cattle. + This situation also forced other pastoralists to find new grazing lands. + The political situation in the country was tense due to the partition of India. New boundaries were set up and thus the pastoralists migrated to new lands. + The rich pastoralists bought lands and became settled peasants. + The poor pastoralists borrowed money from the moneylenders, and opted to work asa labourers. «+ Added other activities apart from pastoral activities to increase their income. Pastoralism in Africa The pastoral population of over half of the world lives in Africa. Some pastoral communities living here include Bedouins, Berbers, Maasais, Somali, Borans and Turkana. These communities raise cattle, camels, sheep, goats, sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool, People of these communities are also engaged in trade, transport and agriculture and many of them do various odd jobs to earn money. Where have the grazing lands gone? Colonial invasions have had an influence on these pastoralists similar to the ones in India. An example of this can be the Maasai community of east Africa.About three lakh Maasai cattle herders lived in southern Kenya and one lakh fifty thousand in Tanzania, With the colonial desire to take over Africa, Maasailand was halved between British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885. As with most colonial patterns of encroachment, Britishers took over the best grazing lands and left the Maasais with a small area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. This small land was an arid zone, had uncertain rainfall, and thus, was poor pastureland. The colonial government encouraged the expansion of cultivation, and with it decreased the area for pasturelands of the Maasai community. Grazing lands of vast areas were converted into game reserves, namely the Maasai Mara and the Samburu National Reserve. These areas prohibited the entry of the pastoralists. Thus, the area for grazing and hunting of the Maasais decreased, which traditionally had only been reserved for them The borders are closed Like in India, the pastoral community in Africa enjoyed free access to all pasture lands before their entry was restricted in the late nineteenth century by the colonial government. Special permits were required to move out with their stocks. These permits were difficult to obtain and people were punished for disobeying laws. Market places marked for the whites remained inaccessible to the pastoralists and they were forbidden from trading, The links with the blacks were however not severed as they were required by the whites. to work as labourers in the bore mines, construction of roads, ete. When pastures dry Rain facilitates the growth of grazing lands. Thus, with the lack of rain, pastures will be dry and there is a good chance for the pastoralists to search for grazing land elsewhere. With the implementation of colonial rules, the Maasais were confined to specific places, Being cut off from the best grazing lands, their cattle suffered and many died of starvation and disease. Not all were equally affected The Maasai community was divided into two distinct social groups elders and warriors. The elders took over administrative control and looked into settling disputes, while the warriors looked after the tribe and conducted cattle raids The British government intervened in the working of the Maasais and appointed chiefs for different sub-groups of Maasai. This created a division among the Maasai community, mainly based on the differences in their economic condition, Some had a steady flow of income, bought lands, cattle, goods, and land and lent money to their poorer counterparts. Thus, a social change, bringing with it economic instability dwelled upon them. All over the world, pastoralists have adapted themselves to changing times, seeking different sources of income. Recent times saw environmentalists and economists advocating for their rights and recognising their way of life as suitable for hilly and dry terrains.NCERT Questions Q1. Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement? ‘Ans. Nomads are people who move from one place to another, as a community, with all their belongings. They move from place to place in search of food and livelihood. The nomadic pastoralists rear goats and sheep, or camels and cattle. Their constant movement is primarily focused on finding pastures for their herds. In search of new pastures, the nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. It is important for them to adapt to seasonal changes and use pastures effectively. The nomadic tribes usually move to some other area when the grassland in a particular area (previously inhabited by them) is completely exhausted and the weather condition of that area becomes inconducive. Due to the cyclic movement of the pastoralists, natural vegetation gets sufficient time for restoration. In the foothills and on the higher reaches of the mountains, vegetation is not allowed to overgrow, as humans and animals use it for food and shelter. As pastoralists move continuously through the pastures, manure is added to the fields and pastures are able to recover. These pastures are used to graze, which prevents the overuse of the land for cultivation. Q2._ Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how these laws changed the lives of pastoralists. + Wasteland Rules + Forest Acts + Criminal Tribes Act + Grazing tax Ans. Wasteland rules: Under the Wasteland Rules, uncultivated land was brought under cultivation. The main aim of the colonial government was to increase its land revenue by expanding cultivation. In England, crops like jute, cotton and indigo were used as raw materials, Therefore, the British government wanted to bring more and more areas under the cultivation of these crops. The grazing lands were given to big landlords under this act. This resulted in the shrinking of the nomads’ grazing grounds, As a result of the shrinking of grazing grounds, the agricultural stock of the nomads declined, and their trade and crafts were adversely affected, Forest Acts: These acts were passed to protect and preserve forests for timber which was of commercial importance. These acts changed the life of pastoralists. They were now prevented from entering many forests, which had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. They were issued permits that monitored their entry and exit into forests. They could not even stay in the forests as per their own will because the permit also specified the number of days and hours they could spend in the forests. Criminal Tribes Act: In 1871, several communities of traders, artisans and pastoralists were declared criminals by the Criminal Tribes Act. These pastoralists were obliged to stay in particular villages under close inspection of the local police. They had to acquire permits to move to other areas, Thus, several restrictions were imposed on the activities of pastoralists,Grazing Tax: The colonial government imposed several taxes on nomads and herders for using resources. Taxes on grazing were introduced in all the pastoral areas in the mid ninteenth century, Between the 1850s and the 1880s, the government granted contractors the right to collect taxes on their behalf. These contractors collected very high taxes from the local people. The government then began to directly collect taxes in the 1880s. As a result, pastoralists had to sell their animals to pay high taxes imposed by the government. They also started borrowing money from moneylenders. Thus, the livestock owned by the pastoralists started to decline QB. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands. Ans. The lives of the African pastoralists have changed drastically in the colonial and the post- colonial phases. In the 19th century, the European powers were fighting for colonies, They occupied several regions of Africa which were divided by multiple international borders. The British and the Germans divided the Maasailand. As a result, the Maasai community was pushed into a small area, reducing their grazing lands substantially. During the colonial times, using pasturelands for cultivation was greatly encouraged by the British, Herders were restricted from moving around these settlements. The Maasais, therefore, lost their grazing areas. The Maasais were forced to live in a dry area where there was little water and poor pastures. They could not graze their herds in such areas. As a result, there were not many pasture tracts left for the Maasai community, their livestock declined and their economic conditions became worse. Q4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders. Ans. The European colonial powers ruled India and East Africa with similar intentions and objectives. Colonial powers took control of the pastures in both of these places and cultivated them, thus, destroying the pastures for both the pastoral communities. Both in India and East Africa, forest laws were made and the pastoralists were not permitted to use the forests for grazing or collecting any forest produce. Thus, the pastures or the grazing land declined and created a lot of hardship for the pastoral communities. Rr Renee etd @ who are hotiyas, Sherpas and @ Gaddis were an important pastoral Kinnauris? community of a. pastoral communities of Africa a. Gujarat b. cattle herders of Rajasthan b. Maharashtra c. shepherd communities of c. Himachal Pradesh Maharashtra d. Chhattisgarh d, pastoral communities of the Himalayas@ _byseptember the Gaddi sheperds come down from dhars. What are chars? a. high meadows b. deep valleys c. fertile plains d. desert land The pastoral community of the Raikas belongs to a. Himachal Pradesh b. — Rajasthan Maharashtra d. Jammu and Kashmir What does the word Maasai mean? a, pasture land b. shifting cultivation wasteland d. my people The Maasai cattle herders live primarily in . south Africa east Africa west Africa north Africa eaogse the Wasteland Rules were implemented in various parts of India. a 17th century b. early 18th century ¢. mid-19th century d. late 19th century Since Name the crop grown by the Dhangars in the central plateau region of Maharashtra. a rice b. wheat <. bajra d. jowar @ The Criminal Tribes Act was passed in a 1871 b. 1781 c 1817 d. 1787 @ tcentity the taximposed by the colonists on the pastoralists in India. a. Land Tax b. Canal Water Tax Grazing Tax d. Salt Tax @ the alternation of monsoon and dry seasons defined the cyclic movement of the a. Gaddis b. — Gujar Bakarwals Berbers d. Gollas @ wren did a severe drought take place in the Maasai Reserve? a, 1933 and 1934 b. 1961 and 1962 ©, 1945 and 1946 d, 1956 and 1957 @ 11885, the Maasailand was divided into half with an international boundary between . a. Kenya and Tanganyika b. Kenya and Ethiopia & — Congo and Angola d. Angola and Botswana @® what per cent of land was lost by the Maasais as a result of the division of Maasailand? a. percent b. 25 percent c 35percent d, 60 percent@ Which autumn crops are usually @® when did Tanganyika come under the harvested between September and British control? October? a = 1915 a. rabi crops b. 1917 b. — zaid crops c 1918 c._kuruvai crops d. 1919 d.— kharif crops @ he Serengeti National Park was created @ the pastoralist community who herded by taking over of the Maasai cattle in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh grazing land. were known as , a. 14,500 km a Kurumas b, 14,760 km b. Gaddi c. 15,000 km c — Gujars d. 1,476 km dd. Dhangars @ Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form @ who was the Deputy Conservator of the Republic of in 1964, Forests at Darjeeling in the year 1913? a. Tanzania a. HS, Gibson b. Zambia b. Lord Dalhousie c. Zimbabwe Francis Hamilton d, Tswana d. Warren Hastings Pm ers Q1_ To which part of India do the Gujjar Bakarwals belong? Q2 Where do the Gaddi shepherds spend their winters? Q3 Why were the Wasteland Rules imposed by the colonial officials? Q4 Where do the Maasai cattle herders primarily live? Q5 Name the pastoral communities of the mountains. Q6 — When did the European imperial powers divide Africa into different colonies? Q7 What kind of permit was given to the pastoralists by the forest department in India? Q8 — What was the status of the Maasai pastoralists in pre-colonial times? Q9 Who were called ‘the elders’ in the Maasai society? Q.10 What are the main occupations of Raikas? Q.11_ Who were Dhangars? Q12_ What are the major activities of the pastoral communities of Africa? Q.13 Where is the Serengeti National Park located? Q14 Whatis bugyar Q15__ When are rabi crops usually harvested? Q.16 Where are the Banjaras found? Q.17 In Maasai community, what kind of duty was assigned to the warriors?Qi8 Qi9 Q20 Who were known as Criminal Tribes? During the pre-colonial times, which two social categories was the Maasai society divided into? Name two pastoral communities of Africa. AC eerie Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Qs Q6 Q7 Qs Q9 Q10 Qu Qi2z Qi3 Qa Qis Who are nomadic pastoralists? Discuss three factors on which the life of pastoralists depends. Who are the Guijar Bakarwals and the Gaddis? What are the similarities between them? In what way does the interaction of the pastoralists with other communities benefit both the communities? What happened to the animal's stock when pasturelands were turned into cultivated lands? Describe how the movement of the Kurumas and the Kurubas is defined by the requirement of their cattle. How does the arrival of the Dhangars in the Konkan land benefit the local peasants as well as the Dhangars? Discuss the main features of the pastoral nomads of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Name the pastoral communities of Africa. Where are they found? What are their occupations? How did the policy of the British colonial government reverse the position of the Maasai and their agricultural neighbours by the end of colonial rule? How did grazing lands of Africa use for other activites? Explain any three restrictions imposed on the pastoral groups of Africa. How did the Forest Acts change the life of pastoralists? What was the impact of frequent droughts on the pasture lands of Maasai community? What kind of life did the chiefs appointed by the colonial government lead in Massai? Oa ker sd Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Qs Q6 Where do the Raikas live ? Mention the characteristics of their economy and life. Discuss the main features of the life of Dhangar pastoral community of Maharashtra. Why were the forest lands considered as wastelands? Why did the British want to transform these lands into cultivable farms? Explain the classification of forests done by the Britishers in India, What was its impact on the lives of pastoralists? Mention any three points State any five ways in which the various laws passed by the Britishers affected the Indian pastoralists. Why did the colonial government introduce the Forest Acts? In what ways did this impact the lives of pastoralists?Q7 Qs Q9 Q10 Qu Qi2 Q13 Qi4 Qis Why did the colonial government pass the Criminal Tribes Act and impose Grazing Tax? Why were the British officials suspicious of nomadic people? State any five reasons. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands. How were the Maasai herders affected by the drawing of an international boundary between British, Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885? How did drought affect the pastoral life in Africa during the colonial period? What measures were introduced by the British to administer the affairs of the Maasai community? Describe the position of the appointed Maasai chiefs in their society? How were the chiefs of Maasai community appointed by the colonial government benefitted? How did the pastoralists in Africa adapt themselves to cope with the bad times? What were the social changes that occurred in the Maasai pastoral community?