 A fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing. It has no definite shape of its own.

It assumes the shape of

its container.

 Both liquid and gases are fluids.

 Ex. Water, milk, Kerosene, Petrol, Emulsion

 Flow of fluids: It involves the motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced forces. This motion continues as
long as unbalanced forces are applied.

 For example, if you are pouring water from a mug, the velocity of water is very high over the lip, moderately
high approaching the lip, and very low at the bottom of the mug. The unbalanced force is gravity, and the
flow continues as long as the water is available and the mug is tilted.

 .Fluid flow has all kinds of aspects such as they can be steady or unsteady, compressible or incompressible,
viscous or non-viscous, and rotational or irrotational.

 These characteristics reflect properties of the liquid itself, and others focus on how the fluid is moving.

 As mentioned earlier, fluid flow can be steady or unsteady and it depends on the fluid's velocity.

 In steady fluid flow, the velocity of the fluid is constant at any point where as in case of unsteady, the fluid's
velocity can differ between any two points.

 Viscosity is a measure of the thickness of a fluid, and very gloppy fluids such as motor oil or shampoo are
called viscous fluids.

 The volume of fluid replaced in a given interval of time is called the fluid expressed as flow rate. It is
expressed as
 Mass flow rate = ρAV

 Where ρ =density

 V= velocity

 A= Area

 Thus Flow rate = Area x Velocity

 Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates, such as L/sec or kg/sec,
respectively.

 Fluid flow measurements are related by the material's density. There are several types of flow meter that
works, either by measuring the differential pressure within a constriction, or by measuring static and
stagnation pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.

TYPES OF MANOMETERS

 The term manometer is derived from the ancient Greek words 'manós', meaning thin or rare, and
'métron‘meaning measure .
  A manometer works on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for measuring the pressure
(static pressure) exerted by a still liquid or gas. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point
in a fluid at rest is equal, and its value is just the weight of the overlying fluid.

The manometer is the simplest instrument used for gauge pressure (low-range pressure) measurements by
balancing the pressure against the weight of a column of liquid. The action of all manometers depends on

the effect of pressure exerted by a fluid at a depth.

Following are the advantages of manometeters:

(i) Simple and time proven.

(ii) They have high accuracy and sensitivity.

(iii) Availability of a wide range of filling fluids of varying specific gravities.

(iv) It has reasonable cost.

(v) There are suitable for low pressure and low differential pressure applications.

Types of Manometer: There are different types of manometers used for the measurement of the pressure by the
height raised of the liquid column by comparing it with standard liquid. In most of the cases, it was preferred as
mercury. There are two categories of manometer which are shown below:

1) Simple manometer

2) Differential manometer

Simple manometer : A Simple manometer is a manometer that is made up of a glass tube having one end
connected to a point where the pressure can be measured and the other end of the tube will be open to the
atmosphere. They are many types

Simple manometer

Piezometer U-tube Manometer Single column Manometer

Differential manometer :

A differential manometer is a type of manometer which is used for calculating the difference in pressure between
two points in a pipe. There are two types of differential manometer which are shown below:

Differential manometer

U-tube differential manometer Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Piezometer: For measuring the pressure inside a vessel or pipe in which liquid is there, a tube is attached to the
walls of the container or pipe in which the liquid remains so liquid can rise in the tube. The rise in the liquid column
will give the pressure at that point.

The pressure at point A is PA will be evaluated with the help of given formula which
 PA = ρ xg x h

ρ = density of liquid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

h= rise of liquid in piezometer glass tube

Limitation: Not used to measures gas Pressure

It can not be used when large pressure measured on very long tubes

U-Tube Manometer: it is used in measurement of liquid or gas pressure

It is a manometer that consists of a glass tube that is bent in a U-shape where one end of the tube is connected to a
point where the pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.

The gauge pressure at reference level (3) is determined with the help of the given formula

P =ρ2gh2−ρ1gh1

ρ₁ = density of light liquid

h1 = height of light liquid above reference line.

Ρ2 = density of heavy liquid

h₂= height of heavy liquid above reference line

Single Column Manometer

It is the modified form of the U-tube manometer in which a reservoir (a section of a large cross-section area nearly
100 times more than the area of the tube) is placed in the manometer. The presence of the reservoir becomes the
reason for the variation in the pressure and the change in height in the liquid column gives the value of pressure. It is
of two types which are shown below:
Vertical single-column manometer

Inclined single-column manometer

Vertical Single Column Manometer

In a Vertical single-column manometer, one limb of the manometer consists of a large container-like structure which
is termed a reservoir and another limb of the manometer is a simple tube. The height raised in the tube will define
the pressure.

P = p2gh₂- p1gh1

Where, p1 = The density of low-density liquid

p2 = The density of high-density liquid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

h1,= Height of low-density liquid above the reference line XX‘

h₂= Height of high-density liquid above the reference line XX'

Inclined single-column manometer (slant manometer)

In the Inclined single-column manometer, it is just like the previous type of manometer. It has one large section
which is termed a reservoir and another limb of the manometer is a simple tube that is inclined to a certain angle.
The rise of the fluid in the tube will determine the pressure.

P = p2gh₂Sin θ- p1gh1
Where, p1 = The density of low-density liquid

p2 = The density of high-density liquid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

h1,= Height of low-density liquid above the reference line XX‘

h₂= Height of high-density liquid above the reference line XX‘

Θ= angle in inclination
 Differential U-tube Manometer

 A differential manometer is a device that measures the difference in pressure between two places. They can
range from simple to complex digital equipment.

 Standard manometers are used to measure the pressure in a container by comparing it to normal
atmospheric

pressure. Differential manometers are also used to compare the pressure of two different

containers.

 They are used to know which container has greater pressure and how large the difference between the two
is.

 The simplest differential manometer is a U-shaped tube with both ends at the same height. A liquid usually
used is water or mercury and it rests at the bottom of the tube.

If one end of the tube is in a place with higher air pressure, the pressure will push down the liquid on that side of the
tube. By measuring the difference between the heights of liquid,

 it is possible to calculate the difference in pressure. To calculate the difference in pressure, difference in
height is multiplied by the density of the gas and the acceleration due to gravity.

 There are two types of differential manometer namely;

 (i) U-tube differential manometer.

 (ii) Inverted U-tube differential manometer.

 There are two types of U-tube differential manometers.

 (a) U-tube differential manometer at the same level.

 (b) U-tube differential manometer at the different level

The first type of manometer has two pipes in parallel position, This type of manometer is used for measuring the
fluid pressure difference between these two pipes arranged at same level. The second type of manometer, is used
where two pipes are at different place and are not in parallel condition.

 This type of manometers is used for measuring the fluid pressure between these two pipes arranged at
different levels.

 Differential manometers have a wide range of uses in different disciplines. One example is that they can be
used to measure the flow dynamics of a gas by comparing the pressure at different points in the pipe.
Inverted U-tube Manometer: It consists of an inverted U-tube containing a light liquid, and is mainly used in
the measurement of the difference between two pressure heads.

 As the name suggests, it consists of an inverted U-tube filled with a light liquid. Both the ends of the inverted
U-tube are connected to the points where pressure difference is calculated at point A and B an inverted U-
tube differential manometer is connected.

 PA= ρ1gh1 – ρ2gh2 – ρ3gh3+ PB

 PA-PB = ρ1gh1 – ρ2gh2 – ρ3gh3

Applications of Differential Manometers

 They measure the air flow pressure.

 It is used to measure the pressure of the fluids using mechanical properties of fluids.

It is also used to measure vacuum.

It is also used to measure the flow of the fluid.

It is used to measure the filter pressure drop of the fluids.

It is also used for meter calibrations.

 REYNOLDS NUMBER AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

 When liquid flows through the pipe, it hits the pipe. The engineers make sure that the liquid flow

through a pipe all over the city should be as steady as possible.

Sir George Stoke introduced this concept for the first time. Later on, it was popularized by

Osborne Reynolds, then the name of this number was given as Reynolds number.

 He identified the fundamental dimensionless parameter that characterizes

the behaviour of flowing fluids known as Reynolds number

 Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the type of

flow pattern as laminar or turbulent while flowing through a pipe. Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of
inertial forces to that of viscous forces.

 Reynolds number= Inertial force/ Viscous force.

 Definition:

 Inertial force: a force opposite in direction to an accelerating force acting on a body

 Laminar flow: (Streamline flow) the flow of a fluid when each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path,
paths which never interfere with one another. One result of laminar flow is that the velocity of the fluid is
constant at any point in the fluid.

 Turbulent flow: (usually occurs when the liquid is moving fast) irregular flow that is characterized by tiny
whirlpool regions. The velocity of this fluid is definitely not constant at every point.

 Viscous force: in a fluid are proportional to the rate at which the fluid velocity in changing in space or a
measures of a fluids resistance to flow .


In a classical Reynolds experiment, the fluid flow through a closed channel (e.g., pipeline) may be either turbulent or
viscous. An apparatus for Reynolds experiments consists of a glass tube connected to a reservoir filled with water.
With the help of a valve, the flow of water through the tube can be regulated by increasing or decreasing.

 One end of the glass tube is connected to the reservoir of the coloured solution with the help of nozzle(s).
Thus, into the glass tube coloured solution is introduced in the form of a fine stream.

On the basis of this experimental set-up of Reynolds experiments, types of flow can be categorised into:

1) Laminar or Viscous Flow: In this type of flow, fluid particles move in the form of laminar or layer, i.e., one
layer of fluid particle slides over another. Thus, there is no exchange of fluid particles of two layers.
Therefore, transfer of lateral momentum to the adjacent layer is not seen.

2) Turbulent Flow: In this type of flow, any eddy or steady current of fluid particle is not seen due to a certain
velocity. Under this velocity, all the fluid particles get disturbed and mixed with each other, therefore, a
constant transfer of momentum to adjacent layers results in a diffused flow which is termed as turbulent
flow.

 The changeover of the flow from viscous to turbulent is a critical factor. Critical velocity is defined as the
average velocity of any fluid at which viscous flow changes into a turbulent flow.

ρ VD
Re=
µ

Where,

Re= Reynolds number

p = Density of fluid

V = Average velocity of fluid

D= Diameter of pipe

μ= Viscosity of fluid
Reynolds number is a number constant therefore it does not have any dimension and unit.

p=kg/m3

V = m/s

D= m

µ = kg/m s

Hence, Re = Kg/ m3 x m/s x m x ms/ Kg it can be seen that all the units cancel out, i.e., Re is dimensionless.

Reynolds number is used to demonstrate the characters of flow under the given set of conditions or circumstances.
For example, if Reynolds number is approximately 4000, the flow will be turbulent; and if Reynolds number is less
than 2000, the flow will be laminar.

the Reynolds Number signifies the nature of the flow of a fluid across a cross-section. On a wide basis, there are two
types of flowing styles that a liquid can flow in.

 One is laminar flow and the other is turbulent flow.

 Reynolds number is used to determine the type of flow of a fluid.

If Reynolds Number < 2000, then the liquid follows the laminar flow

If Reynolds number between 2000-4000 then flow change from laminar to turbulent

If Reynolds number >2900, the liquid follows the turbulent flow

 Bernoulli’s theorem

 Bernoulli’s theorem is the principle of energy conservation for ideal fluids in steady or streamline flow. This
theorem describes relation among the pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving fluid such as liquid or
gas.

 According to this theorem the compressibility and viscosity (internal friction) are negligible and the flow is
steady, or laminar.

 First derived (1738) by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, the theorem states

that ‘the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid comprising the energy associated with
fluid pressure, the gravitational potential energy of elevation, and the kinetic energy of fluid

remains constant.

 In simple terms Bernoulli's theorem can be described as ‘within a

horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less pressure than points of

slower fluid speed’.

 Incompressible fluids have to speed-up when they reach a narrow constricted section in order to maintain a
constant volume flow rate. This is why a narrow nozzle on a hose causes water to speed-up. If the water is
speeding-up at a constriction means it is gaining kinetic energy. To give kinetic energy is to do work. So if a
portion of fluid is speeding-up, something external to that portion of fluid must be doing work it.

 For example, consider that water flowing along streamlines from left to right, As the outlined volume of
water

enters the constricted region it speeds up. The force from pressure P1 on water pushes to the right and does positive
work. The force from pressure P2 on the fluid pushes to the left and does negative work since it pushes in the
opposite direction as the motion of the fluid.

 The pressure on the wider/slower side P1 has to be larger than the pressure on the narrow/faster side P2.
This inverse relationship between the pressure and speed at a point in a fluid is called Bernoulli's principle

Assumption of Bernoulli's Theorem:

 The assumptions made to derive Bernoulli’s equation are as follows:

 The fluid is excellent or perfect, with zero viscosity.

 The flow is constant.

 While flowing, there is no energy loss.

 It is not possible to compress the flow.

 Irrotational flow is present.

 Except for gravity, there is no external force acting on the liquid.

 It states that the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) of an incompressible
and non–viscous fluid in a steady flow through a pipe remains constant throughout the flow, provided there
is no source or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe.

 This statement is based on the assumption that there is no loss of energy due to friction.
Mathematically, for a unit mass of fluid flowing through a pipe.
P1 + ½ ρv2 + ρgh1 =constant
Consider a fluid of negligible viscosity moving with the laminar flow, as shown

Work done = force x distance =p×volume

Net work done per unit volume =P1−P2
 Application of Bernoulli’s theorem
 Lift of an aircraft wing : the rounded shape of the wing on the top surface and the slight inclination allows
the air to move faster on top of the wing than below it. Hence, the pressure on the top is much less
compared to the lower part, thereby allowing an upward net force to act on the wing as well as on the
aircraft.

 Blowing of roofs: During a storm, the roofs of huts or tinned roofs are blown off without

any damage to other parts of the hut. The blowing wind creates a low pressure P1 on top of the

roof. The pressure P2 under the roof is however greater than P1.

Due to this pressure difference, the roof is lifted and blown off with the wind.

(iii) Bunsen burner: In a Bunsen burner, the gas comes out of the nozzle with high velocity.

Due to this the pressure in the stem of the burner decreases. So, air from the atmosphere rushes

into the burner.

 (iv) Motion of two parallel boats : When two boats separated by a small distance row parallel to each other
along the same direction, the velocity of water between the boats becomes very large compared to that on
the outer sides. Because of this, the pressure in between the two boats gets reduced. The high pressure on
the outer side pushes the boats inwards. As a result of this, the boats come closer and may even collide.
 Energy Losses

 When a fluid through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which part of energy is lost. This
loss of energy is classified as

Energy Losses

Friction Losses in Enlargement

losses fitting losses

According to the law of conversation of energy, energy balance have to be properly accounted

Friction losses
 During flow of fluids frictional forces causes a loss in pressure (ΔPf, Pascals). The fluid flow can be either
viscous or turbulent, which also influences the losses

 In general pressure drop (ΔPf) will be PRESSURE DROP α VELOCITY (u), m/s

 α Density of fluid (p), kg/m³a

 α Length of the pipe (L), m

 α a 1/ diameter of the pipe (D), m

 These relationships are proposed in Fanning equation for calculating friction losses

 Fanning equation ΔPf = 2fu2 L ρ / D (viscous/turbulent)

 where, ΔPf is pressure drop

 f = frictional factor

 U is velocity of fluid (m/s)

 ρ is density of fluid (kg/m3)

 L is length of pipe (m)

 D is diameter of pipe (m)

 For viscous flow pressure drop Hagen -Poiseullie equation (Viscous equation):

 ΔP = 32 Luµ/ D2

 µ=viscocity of the liquid

 ΔP - Pressure drop

 By adding a soluble high molecular weight polymer in very little amount frictional loss in turbulent flow of
Newtonian liquids can be achieved.

Losses in fitting
 Fanning equation is applicable for losses when liquid flow through straight pipe. But various types of fitting
in straight pipe cause disturbance in flow. This results additional loss in energy because of turbulence.

 Fluid head loss through a fitting can be calculated by the following equation:

 h= KV2/2g

 Where h = pressure loss in terms of fluid head, i.e. fluid head loss

 K = manufacturer's published 'K' factor for the fitting

 g= acceleration due to gravity

 v= velocity of fluid

Enlargement losses
 If the cross-section of the pipe is decreased or increased gradually, the fluid adapts itself to the change in
section without disturbances and there will not be any energy loss.

 But in case of a sudden change in cross-section of pipe , loss of energy occurs due to the formation of eddies
or currents.

 On sudden enlargement with turbulent flow, the loss of energy is

 ΔHe = (u, –u₂)2 /2g

 Where ΔHe = Loss in head due to enlargement (m).

 u1 and u2 =velocity in smaller and larger cross-section (m/s) respectively

Contraction losses
 When cross section of pipe reduced suddenly, energy is lost because flow of fluid get disturbed. The point at
which diameter of fluid stream get less than initial volume of diameter is called vena contracta.

 Sudden contraction losses: ΔHc= Ku22 /2g

 Where ΔHc= loss of head due to sudden Contraction (m)

 u2 is velocity (m/s)

 k is constant
.
 FLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES
 Fluid flow measurement is needed mainly in chemical industry for optimization of process parameters.

 This is also useful in planning (e.g., industrial or town planning of water supply) and cost of usage, like cost of
water used in industry and houses.

 The selection of particular flow-measuring equipment depends primarily on the nature of the metered fluid
and the demands of the associated plane For example, an aircraft fuel meter requires to be compact and
must not be affected by the changes in orientation, but has to handle only a clean and non- corrosive fluid.

 On the other hand, many industrial flow meters have to work with fluids which may be corrosive in nature or
may contain foreign matters, but the equipment may be relatively large and of fixed type.

 Additionally, the other factors that govern the choice of a particular flow metering device are range,
accuracy, repeatability, linearity, dynamic response, type of output like analogue/digital, etc,

Devices

Orifice Venturi Pitot tube Rotameter.

meter meter
 Orifice meter/Variable head meter
 An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate , for reducing pressure or for restricting flow. An
orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. When a fluid (whether liquid or
gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up slightly upstream of the orifice. but as the fluid is
forced to converge to pass through the hole, the velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases.

 Principle: Orifice meter works on the principle of Differential Pressure Measurement

On the basis of bernaollies theorem provide correlation in increase in velocity with decrease in pressure.
 Construction of Orifice meter
 The orifice meter is made-up of stainless steel, phosper bronze, nickel. Diameter of orifice is generally 0.5
times the diameter of pipe it may be vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

 An orifice meter provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement for the measurement of flow through a pipe.

 Orifice is a thin circular plate with a sharp edged concentric circular hole in it.

 The main part of an orifice flow meter is a stainless steel orifice plate which is held between flanges of a pipe
carrying the fluid whose flow rate is being measured.

 An orifice plate is fitted between the flanges which are at a certain distance. In order to maintain laminar
flow

conditions the pipe carrying the fluid is straight.

 Openings are provided at two places (a) and (b) for attaching a differential pressure sensor (U-tube
manometer, a differential pressure gauge) .

 parts of an Orifice Meter.

 components of a typical orifice meter are orifice plate, manometer and flange

or carrier ring.

Orifice Plate – are metal plates having an equal diameter ofthe pipeline with a drilled hole in it which reduces
the volumetric flow rate to reduce the pressure

Manometer –an instrument measuring the between the inlet and the outlet section of an orifice

Flange/Carrier Ring –used for orifice meters for the purpose of holding the orifice plate
 Working of Orifice meter

 Working: Orifice meter involves the measurement of pressure variation across a fixed constriction in the
path of flow comprising a constant area; thus orifice meter Orifice known as a variable head meter.

 at point B, the fluid velocity rises when fluid stream is passed over the cross-section of the orifice.

 This increases the pressure at point A than that at point B.

 Fall in pressure head and rise in velocity head is correlated on the basis of Bernoulli's equation.

 By using a manometer associated to the points A and B, the pressure difference (Δ H meters) can be
recorded.

 Bernoulli's equation can be applied for points A and B under the experimental conditions:

 Total energy of fluid is equal at point A and B

 Pressure energy + potential energy + Kinetic energy at point A= Pressure energy + potential energy +
Kinetic energy at point B

 Pa/ ρg + Z1 + U2a/2g = Pb/ ρg +Z2 + U2b/2g

 Pa/ ρg + U2a/2g = Pb/ ρg + U2b/2g

 Pa/ ρg - Pb/ ρg =U2b/2g- U2a/2g

 1/ ρg (Pa-Pb) = 1/2g (U2b-U2a )

 2g/ ρg (Pa-Pb) = U2b-U2a

 √ 2g Δ H = √ U2b-U2a

 √ U2b-U2a = C0 √ 2g Δ H

 Ub= Fluid velocity at the point of orifice meter (m/s)

 Ua-Fluid velocity at the point A, i.e., before orifice meter (m/s)

 C0 = Constant

 Δ H = Difference in head (m)

 The value of Ua might be ignored if it is small in comparison to Ub, when orifice diameter is 1/5 of the
diameter of the pipe. U2b = C0 √ 2g Δ H

 Pressure energy + potential energy + Kinetic energy at point A= Pressure energy + potential energy +
Kinetic energy at point B

 Pa/ ρg + Z1 + U2a/2g = Pb/ ρg +Z2 + U2b/2g

  Pa/ ρg + U2a/2g = Pb/ ρg + U2b/2g

 Pa/ ρg - Pb/ ρg =U2b/2g- U2a/2g

 1/ ρg (Pa-Pb) = 1/2g (U2b-U2a )

 2g/ ρg (Pa-Pb) = U2b-U2a

 √ 2g Δ H = √ U2b-U2a

 √ U2b-U2a = C0 √ 2g Δ H

Use

 Orifice meter is used for the following purposes:

 It is commonly used for continuous measurement of fluid in pipes.

 Measure volume of liquid flow per hrs.

 It is used in some small river systems to measure flow at locations where the river passes through a culvert
or drain.

 In the natural environment, large orifice meters are used to control onward flow in flood relief dams.

 In floods, the flow rate rises and floods out the orifice plate which can then only pass a flow determined by
the physical dimensions of the orifice.

Advantages:

(i) It is very cheap and easy method.

(ii) It has predictable characteristics and requires less space.

(iii) It can be used to measure flow rates in large pipes.

Demerits

 The upstream pipe must be straight to obtain laminar flow.

 Chances of clogging the orifice when the suspended fluid flows.

 The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this there may be inaccuracy in determination.

 The orifice plate has low physical strength.

 The coefficient of discharge is low.

 Venturimeter
 A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.

 It is a device in which pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy and is used to measure the rate of
flow through a pipe. Or in other words, a venturimeter is a tube with a constricted throat that increases
velocity and decreases pressure.

 Principle: working principle of venturimeter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem

 It sates that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point of fluid is
constant. The total energy , pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy.

 Construction: it consists of 3 parts

Converging part : It is the part of the venturimeter where the fluid converges .

Throat : It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of venturi. Throat has generally a
diameter of throat is half the diameter of pipe. The diameter of the throat remains same through out its length.

In the throat portion the cross section is much less than converging and diverging portion. When the reaches the
throat, its velocity increases and pressure decreases.

Diverging part: It is the part of the venturimeter where the fluid gets diverges and the cross-section area increases.
  Working:

Venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation i.e when velocity increases pressure decreases .

 Cross section of throat is less than cross section of inlet pipe. Since the cross -section decreases from inlet
pipe to throat, the velocity of the fluid increases and hence the pressure decreases.

 Due to decrease in pressure, a pressure difference is created between the inlet pipe and throat of the
venturimeter .

 This pressure difference can be measured by placing a differential manometer between the inlet section and
throat section or by using two guages at inlet section and throat. After getting the pressure difference flow
rate through pipe is calculated..

 √ U2v-U2a = Cv √ 2g Δ H

 Where, Uv= Velocity at the constriction (m/s)

 Ua- Velocity at point A (m/s)

 Cv, Coefficient ( = 0.98)

 Δ H = Difference in pressure head

 The value of U2a might be ignored if it is small in comparison to U2v when smaller portion diameter is
1/5th of the diameter of the pipe or less. In such a case,

 U2v = Cv √ 2g Δ H

 By using a manometer, the pressure difference (Δ H) can be directly measured in meters. Therefore,
measurement of flow velocity might be done. The average velocity of the flow is the value produced by
venturi meter.

Applications:

(i) Venturimeter can be used for the measurement of flow of water, liquids, gases, dirty, liquids etc.

(ii) They are commonly used in water supply industry.

Advantages:

 The power loss is considered low compared to other types of fluid measuring instruments.

 These are employed where a small head is available.

 Accuracy will achieve higher over a wide flow range.

 In Venturimeters, the co-efficient of discharge is very high.

 These devices are easy to handle and are also used for compressive and incompressible fluids.

 The Venturimeters are commonly used for high flow rates or discharge.

 Disadvantages:

 (i) It has space limitations due to larger size.

 (ii) Due to large size, the cost of Venturimeters is higher.

 (iii) Very small diameter of throat results into cavitations of fluid in the throat.

 (iv) It is more susceptible to errors due to burrs or deposits round the downstream (throat) tapping.


 Pitot Tube

 Pitot tube is a device, invented by Henri Pitot, a French engineer in 18th century, used to measure the fluid
flow. The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was first used for measuring velocities of water in the
river. A right angled large glass tube was used for the purpose.

 Now days it is mainly used in air ventilation and HVAC system.

 It is also used in the measurement of speed in airoplane.

Fluid flow is measured through conversion of kinetic energy of flow into potential energy using pitot tube.

 Principle: The flow velocity increases when this sensing element is introduced at the center of the stream.

 This results in a fall of pressure head. Only pressure heads can be measured if the tube is situated at a right
angle. Pressure and velocity heads can be measured by the tube that pointed upstream.

 Using Bernoulli's equation, velocity head of the fluid can be written as:

 ΔHp = u2/2g

 Where, u= Velocity of the flow at the insertion point (m/s)

 ΔH, Difference in head (m)

Thus, the velocity head is measured by manometer .of

 Construction: Construction of Pitot tube is as shown in Fig. It is also known as insertion meter.

 Point A measures both velocity head and pressure head of the flowing fluid and point B situated at right
angles to the flow measures only the pressure head. Both the tubes are connected to a manometer .

 Working: : The two tubes are inserted into the stream of flowing fluid.

 Point A is having the sensing element which is small opening as compared to the size of the flow channel.

 It measures both pressure head and velocity head.

 The velocity of the fluid increases as enters into this narrow constriction. This results in decrease of the
pressure.

 Tube at right angles to the flow (point B) measures pressure head only.

 The difference in these two readings indicates the velocity head.

 According to Bernoulli's equation, velocity head of the fluid at pitot (ΔHp ) may be obtained as

 Δ Hp = u2/2g

 u2=2g. Δ Hp

 This is the theoretical velocity and actual velocity may be given as

 u=Cp √ 2g. Δ Hp

 Where Cp is the coefficient of pitot tube

 Applications:

 (i) It is widely used to measure the airspeed of aircrafts, speedboat speed and for fluid flow measurement in
industrial application.

 (ii) Pitot tubes are mainly used for gas lines.

 (iii) These may be employed where the flowing fluid is not enclosed in a pipe or duct. For example, for
measuring the flow of river water, or for measuring air flow in aero plane.

 Advantages:

 (i) Pitot tube is small and do not contain any moving parts.

 (ii) Low permanent pressure loss.

 iii) It is very cheap as compared to venturi meter, orifice plate and flow nozzle.

 (iv) Ease of installation into an existing system.

 v) It measures velocity at one point only

Disadvantages: the

 It has poor accuracy .

 It is unsuitable for dirty or sticky fluids

 It is sensitive to upstream disturbance .

 It requires high fluid velocity, of the order 15 m/s to produce a measurable differential pressure.

There is no standardization of pitot tubes. Each Pitot tube is required to be calibrated for each installation.
 Rotameter

 A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. These are the most
widely used type of variable-area flow meter. It measures flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the
fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect.

 Principle: The operation of a rotameter is based on the variable area principle.

 That is, the flow of a liquid raises the float inside a tapered tube, increasing the area

through which the liquid can pass. The larger the flow, the higher the float will be raised.

 CONSTRUCTION OF ROTAMETER:

 A rotameter is made up of a tapered tube and a float inside it.

 The glass tapered tube has a scale on the surface or a scale is placed adjacent to it, according to purpose.

 Tapered tube: The tapered tube is placed vertically in the flow channel with a conical shape inside. The
quantity measured is defined by the height of float going up. Glass tubes are used for both liquid and gas
measurement.

 Metallic tubes are used where the process fluid with high temperature and pressure.

Float: Stainless steel floats are commonly used, there are different types of metals from lead to aluminium used as
floats. A float material, shapes are also varied according to applications considering density. Spherical shape floats
are used for small flows

 WORKING-

 In these devices, the falling and rising action of a float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow rate.

 Fluid enters from the bottom of the tapered tube, then some of the fluid strikes directly into the float
bottom and others pass aside the float.

 Now the float experience two forces in opposite direction, darg force upward and gravitational force
downward.

 Fluid flow moves the float upward against gravity.

  At some point, the flowing area reaches a point where the pressure-induced force on the floating body
exactly matches the weight of the float. The float will find equilibrium when the area around float generates
enough drag equal to weight – buoyancy

As the float weight and gravity are constant, the distance float displaced upward is proportional to the flow velocity
of the fluid passing through the tapered tube.

Applications:

(i) The rotameter is used in process industries to measure fluid flow rates.

(ii) It is used for monitoring gas and water flow in plants or labs.

(iii) It is used for monitoring filtration loading.ile the other end remains open to the

Advantages:

(i) It has good accuracy for low and medium flow rates.

(ii) The pressure loss is nearly constant and small.

(iii) It can be used for corrosive fluids.

(iv) It requires no external power or fuel;

(v) It can measure liquid or Gas flows.

(vi) Low cost and low pressure drop

(vii) Clear glass can be used as this is highly resistant to thermal shock and chemical

action.

Disadvantages:

 It is not suitable for opaque fluids as float may not be visible through them.

 Glass tube may be subjected to breakage.

 It should be mounted vertically.

 Rota meters are not easily adapted for reading automatically.

 Rota meters are not generally manufactured in sizes greater than 6 inches (150 mm).
 SIZE REDUCTION
 In order to obtain uniform size particles powders are to be reduced in their size by a process called size
reduction.

Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit masses - vegetables or chemical substances into small unit
masses, coarse particles or fine particles.

 Size reduction is commonly employed in pharmaceutical industries.

 Size reduction process is also referred to as Comminution and Grinding.

 When the particle size of solids is reduced by mechanical means it is known as Milling.

The size reduction operation can be divided into two major categories depending on whether the material is a solid
or a liquid. If the material is solid, the process is called grinding and cutting, if it is liquid, emulsification or
atomization. of the.

Some of the major applications of size reduction in pharmaceutical field are :

(i) In size reduction of dosage forms such as capsules, insufflations, suppositories and ointments require particle size
to be below 60 mm size.

(ii) The therapeutic effectiveness of certain drugs can be increased by reducing the particle size.

(iii) The mixing of solid ingredients is easier if they are reduced to same particle size.

(iv) In case of suspensions particles being finer reduces rate of sedimentation.

(v) The stability of emulsions is increased by decreasing the size of the oil globules.
(vi) Particle size reduction in formulations such as ophthalmics and those meant for external application to the skin
could help to reduce irritation of the skin area to which they are applied.

(vii) The rate of drug absorption depends on particle size. The smaller the particle size, quicker and greater will be
rate of absorption.

(viii) The physical appearance of semisolids can be improved by reducing its particle size.

OBJECTIVES:

pharmaceutical practice the objective of this operation is to:

(a) Increase the surface area to enhance the rate of a physical or chemical process.

(b) Perform separation of two constituents in cases where one is dispersed in small isolated pockets.

(c) Meet stringent specifications regarding the sizes of commercial products.

(d) Accomplish intimate mixing of solids in a solid-solid operation since the mixing is more complete if the particle
size is small.

(e) Improve dissolution rate, solubility, binding strength and dispersion properties.

(f) Increase the therapeutic effectiveness of certain drugs by reducing the particle size for example, the dose of
griseofulvin is reduced to half than that of originally required.

(g) Improve mixing of several solid ingredients.

(h) Improve physical appearance of products.tu

(i) Enhance flowability, improve compression and dose uniformity.

(j) Enhance stability of dispersed system for example, stability of emulsions is increased by decreasing the size of the
oil globules.

Mechanism of size reduction:

Compression: material is crushed by application of pressure. Compressive forces are used for coarse crushing of
hard materials. Coarse crushing implies reduction to a size of about 3 mm. ex. Roller mill

Impact: Impact occurs when the material is more or less stationary and is hit by an object moving at high speed or
when the moving particle strikes a stationary surface. In both the cases the material is crushed in to smaller pieces.
Ex. Hammer mill

Attrition : In attrition, the material is subjected to pressure as in compression, but the surfaces are moving relative
to each other, resulting in shear forces which break the particles. Shear or attrition forces are applied in fine
pulverization, when the size of products can reach the micrometer range. Ex. Fluid energy mill

Cutting: Cutting reduces the size of solid materials by mechanical action (sharp blade/s) by dividing them into
smaller particles fluid . Cutting is used to break down large pieces of material into smaller pieces ex. Cutter mill
Laws governing size reduction :

 One of the mechanisms of size reduction called grinding is very inefficient and thus it is important to use
energy as efficiently as possible. It is not easy to calculate the minimum energy required for a given size
reduction process. Fortunately, there are certain theories. which are useful in approximately calculating
energy requirement. Although number of theories have been put forth to predict the energy requirements,
but none give accurate results. F

 Kicks Law: According to this law, energy required to reduce size of particle is proportional to ratio of initial
size of a typical dimension to the final size of that dimension.

 Energy α Ratio of change in size

 Where E = energy required

 Kk =Kick’s constant

 d1=Average initial size of particles

d2= final size of particles

 Von Rittinger’s law: it states that energy required in a size reduction process is proportional to the new
surface area generated.

 Energy α new surface area formed

 Where fc is crushing strength of material

 L2 & L1 are the final and intial particles sizes.

 KR is Rittinger’s constant

Bond’s law : The total work input required to reduce particle size is proportional to the square root of the diameter
of the produced particles.

Where E= energy required

W = bond work Index work required to reduce a unit weight

D1= initial dia

D2 =final dia
Factors Affecting Size Reduction:

1. Hardness: In general, the harder the material the more difficult it is to reduce in size, Hard materials with
brittleness such as glass present no problems with size

2. Stickiness: The sticky materials may adhere to the grinding surfaces or they may choke the meshes of the
screen thus cause considerable difficulty in size reduction

3. Slipperiness

Slipperiness is the reverse of stickiness. This property also gives rise to size reduction difficulties, since the material
acts as a lubricant and lowers the efficiency of the grinding surfaces. While size reduction material slips creating
problem in milling.

4. Abrasiveness: Abrasive materials can damage the surfaces of grinding machine.

Abrasiveness is a property of hard materials (minerals) that limits the mill to be used for size reduction. During the
grinding of some very abrasive substances the final powder may be contaminated with more than 0.1 % of metal
worn from the grinding mill.

5. Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy, get detormed plastically without fracturing or
breaking. It is easier to break a hard but brittle Substance than a soft but tough material. For example, it is easy to
break a blackboard chalk than a piece of rubber.

6. Moisture content: Moisture content influences hardness, toughness or stickiness of a material. Thus, high
moisture content can make the size reduction operation difficult.

7. Thermostability of drug: Heat sensitive drugs may be degraded or even charred if heat is generated during
size reduction

8. Material Structure

Materials used in pharmaceuticals are of wide variety with some are homogeneous but the majority show some
special structures.

9. Physiological Effect

Some substances are very potent and small amounts of fines generated have an effect on

the operator’s health. To avoid these fines, mills must be enclosed; in addition exhaust

systems should be provided. If possible wet grinding is performed to entirely eliminate the

problem.

10. Purity Required

Some of the size reduction equipments cause wear and tear of the grinding surfaces. Use of these equipments must
be avoided whenever high degree of purity of product is needed.
11. Bulk Density

The capacities of most batch mills depend on volume. These mills usually demand solid materials by weight rather
than volume. The output of the mill is related to the bulk density of the substance. Higher the bulk density more is
the product.

Hammer Mill
A hammer mill is an essential machine in the pharmaceutical and food processing industries.

Hammer mill is defined as the device which is used to crush the agglomerates or large sized particles into small size
particles with free-flowing properties It can be used to crush, pulverize, shred, grind and reduce material to suitable
sizes.

Principle of Hammer Mill: It works on the principle of impact. The main mechanism involved is pulverization or
grinding of the materials.
Construction of Hammer Mill: it is either horizontal or vertical shaft type.

the hammer mill consists of three basic parts as follows:

 Feed chute (hopper), which delivers the material.

 Grinding mechanism usually consisting of a rotor and stator. And The discharging chute.

 A hammer mill is essentially a steel drum containing a vertical or horizontal rotating shaft or drum on
which hammers are mounted.

 The hammers swing on the ends of the cross freely or fixed to the central rotor.

 The rotor rotates at a high speed inside the drum while material is fed into a feed hopper.

The material is impacted by the hammer bars and expelled through screens in the drum of a selected size.

Working of Hammer Mill:

1. The material is put into the hopper which is connected with the drum.

2. The material is crushed or shattered by the repeated hammer impacts, collisions with the walls of the
grinding chamber as well as particle-on-particles impacts.

3. The screen at the bottom of the mill retains coarse materials while allowing the properly Sized materials
pass as finished product.

The targeted particle size can be controlled by factors such as;

 Feed rate.

 Rotor speed/velocity.

 Clearance between the hammer's and grinding plates.

 Hit resistance.

 The size of screen opening (determines the residual time of the material)

The hammer mill is mainly operated at 1000 to 2500 rpm for the reduction of the large sized particles. High speed
rotor uses 10000 rpm speed.

Use of Hammer Mill:

1. It is used in pharmaceutical industries to process wet or dry granulations and dispersed powder mixtures.

2. It is used for powdering of drug/s, excipients, barks, leaves, roots, crystals and filter cakes.

3. It is versatile and used to mill the dry materials, wet filter press cakes, ointments and slurries.

4. Brittle and fibrous materials can also be milled by the hammer mills.

5. The milling size of 20 to 40 microns may be achieved.

6. Brittle material is best fractured by impact of blunt hammers.

Merits of Hammer Mill:

1. It has high size reduction ratio and high capacity whether used for primary, secondary or tertiary grinding.

2. It has relatively reasonable energy requirements.

3. The machine is easy to install and operate and its operation is continuous.

4. It occupies small space.

5. It is easy to maintain and clean.

6. It is inexpensive.

7. It is rapid in action.

Demerits of Hammer Mill:

1. It is not recommended for the fine grinding of very hard and abrasive material due to chances of excessive
wear.

2. It is not suitable for thermo labile, low-melting sticky and plastic-like material due to heat generation in the
mill during the operation.

3. The mill may be choked if the feed rate is not controlled, leading to decreased efficiency or even damage.
 Ball Mill/Pebble mill or Tumbling mill
 The general idea behind the ball mill is an ancient one that it was used for grinding flint for pottery.

 A pharmaceutical ball mill is a type of grinder used to grind and blend materials while manufacturing various
dosage forms.

Ball mills have been designed in standard sizes of the final products between 0.074 mm and 0.4 mm in diameter

Principle: tIt works on the principle of combined impact and attrition. Size reduction is done by impact and attrition
as the balls drop from near the top of the shell.

 In ball mill depending on the rotational speed following possible modes of the grinding media motion could
be

achieved.

(a) Low speed: Speed mode with a rolling of grinding balls without flight. Very small quantity of material will be
reduced

(b) Mixed mode (Cascade mode motion): correct speed , Speed mode with a partial rolling and a partial flight of
grinding balls.

(c) High speed (centrifugation ) Speed mode with circular motion of balls with no fall

Construction of Ball Mill:

Hollow Cylinder

 cylinder is made of a hollow metal that moves about its horizontal axis.

 the cylinder can be made of porcelain, metal, and rubber. the length of the cylinder slightly higher than its
diameter.

 About 30-50% volume of the mill remains occupied by the steel balls.

 The inner Surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined with an abrasion resistant material such as,
manganese, steel or rubber. Less wear takes place in rubber lined mills.

 The axis of the shell or vessel may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal axis.

Balls

 The balls are formed of metals and are coated with chromium. At times, they are also lined with rubber or
porcelain

 Their weight is kept constant.

 The size of balls usually depends on the diameter of the mill and the feed in the mill.
 Working of Ball Mill:

 For continuous operation the material to be ground is fed from the left of the ball mill through a 60⁰ cone
and the product is discharged through a 30⁰ cone to the right.

• As the shell rotates, the balls are lifted up on the rising side of the shell and then they cascade down (or
drop down on to the feed), from near the top of the shell.

• In doing so, the solid particles in between the balls are ground and reduced in size by impact.

 The energy of impact depends on height and the angle of impact. Also, the particles in between the balls
and in between balls and wall of the cylinder get crushed by attrition.

 After the suitable time the material is taken out and passed through a sieve to get powder of the required
size.

 In ball mills, the speed of the rotation is critically important.

 The critical speed of rotation of the ball mill is the one where centrifugal force equals gravitational force
inside the mill.

 The critical speed holds the balls to the internal wall of the cylinder.

 At a low speed the mass of the ball will slide or roll over each other and only negligible amount of size
reduction takes place.

 At a high speed, the balls will be thrown out to the walls by centrifugal force and no grinding will occur.

 At optimum or correct speed. the centrifugal force lifts the balls up almost to the top of the mill and then
they fall down on to the feed from near the top of the cylinder. Optimum speed to maximize impact
breakage is 70% to 80% of critical speed.

Types of ball mill : There are various types of ball mills used for different applications amongst which first
two are commonly used in pharmaceutical practice. These includes Pebble ball mill, Vibrating ball mill, Drum
ball mills, Jet-mills, Bead-mills, Horizontal rotary ball mills,

 Factors determining efficiency of ball mill:

 The degree of milling in a ball mill is influenced by;

 (i) Residence time of the material in the mill chamber.

 (ii) The size, density and number of the balls.

 (iii) The nature (hardness) of the balls and material to be grinded.

 (iv) Feed rate and feed level in the vessel.

 (v) Rotation speed of the cylinder.

Use of Ball Mill:

 The small and average capacity ball mills are used for the final grinding of drugs or for grinding suspensions.

• The maximum capacity ball mills are used for milling ores prior to manufacture of pharmaceutical chemicals.

• Ball mills are very effective for grinding smooth, aqueous or oily dispersions by wet grinding fl

• Ball milling has been shown effective for production of amorphous materials .

• Ball mills are an efficient tool for grinding many brittle and sticky materials into fine powder.

• The hard and abrasive as well as wet and dry materials can be grinded in the ball mills for pharmaceutical
purpose.

• Powders for ophthalmic and parenteral products can be reduced in size.

• Ball mill is used for the milling of pigments and insecticides for industrial purpose.

• Ball mills are also used in manufacture of black powder.

Blending of explosives is an example of an application for rubber balls.

Merits of Ball Mill:

1. it can be used for continuous operation, if sieve or classifier is attached to the mill.

2. It is suitable for wet or dry grinding processes.

3. It can be used to grind the toxic materials as it can be used in a completely enclosed form.

4. The cost of installation, power and grinding medium is low.

5. Its operation is easy and reliable.

It produces very fine powder (particle size less than or equal to 10 microns).

Demerits of Ball Mill:

1. The ball mill is a very noisy machine.

2. It is difficult to clean the machine after use.

3. High production cost and high unit electricity consumption.

4. Heavy equipment so very high one time capital investment.

5. Some raw materials may become damaged by steel balls.

Not suitable for sensitive and flammable substances.

 Fluid Energy Mill
 Fluid energy mill is also known as pulverizer, micronizer or jet mill. It is used for fine grinding and for close
particle size control.

 This mill is mainly used to grind heat sensitive materials to the fine powder.

Principle: Fluid energy mill based on the principle of Impact and Attrition. Size reduction takes place by a high-
velocity collision between particles.

Construction of Fluid Energy Mill

 Consists of following part:

 Elliptical pipe: It consists of a loop of a pipe, which has a diameter of 20 to 200 mm, depending on the overall
height of the loop which may be up to about 2 meters,

 2) The contact surface of the mill is constructed either of tough ceramic or of stainless steel, and is generally
in the form of lining to facilitate easy replacement or removal if the surface experiences excessive wear and
tear after being used.

 3) The grinding nozzles, generally 2-6 in numbers are located at bottom.

 4) Usually the supply of compressed air ranges between 600 kilopascals to 1.00 megapascals.

 5) Venturi feeder The feed material is injected into that same tangential circle via a venturi feeder, where it
is rapidly accelerated, causing it to impact against itself, thus fracturing the particles to the low micron
range.

 6) Classifier is fixed at the outlet of the mill to provide passage for the air to escape.

 7) Hopper: made-up of stainless steel Feed from the hopper passes through the venturi injector

and enters the grinding chamber.

 8) Oxidation of vulnerable compounds can be reduced or excluded with the help of inert gases.
 Working of Fluid Energy Mill:

 The air is injected at very high pressure through nozzles at the bottom of the loop.

 Compressed air of 600 kilopascals to 1.0 megapascals is normally used.

 This results in a high circulation velocity that produces turbulence.

 The solids are introduced into the stream through the feed inlet.

 As a result of the high degree of turbulence, impacts and attrition occur between the particles.

 A classifier is installed in the system so that only finer-sized particles are collected as products and larger
particles are sent back into the air stream for further reduction of size.

 The feed to the mill is previously of reduced size and passed through a 100-meshes screen.

 The size of the product may be 5mm or below.

Factors determining efficiency of Fluid Energy Mill

(i) The speed of air/inert gas.

(ii) Feed rate and size.

(iii) The configuration of the mill.

(iv) Design of the classifier.

(v) The position of the nozzle.

(vi) The impact between the feed and air

.Use of Fluid Energy Mill:

 This method is used where fine powders are required like micronization of griseofulvin (an antifungal drug),
sulphonamides, vitamins and antibiotics, etc.

 Suitable for laboratories where small samples are needed.

 The mill is used to grind heat sensitive material to fine powder.

 It is the choice of mill when higher degree of drug purity is required

 Merits of Fluid Energy Mill

 (i) This mill is suitable for a thermolabile substance because no heat is produced.

 ii) The particle size of the product is smaller when compared to other methods.

 iii) There is no contamination of the product.

 iv) For oxygen or moisture-sensitive materials, inert gases like nitrogen can be used instead of normal air.

 (v) There is little or no abrasion of the mill and so no contamination of the product.

 (vi) Presence of classifier permits control of particle size and particle size distribution.

 (vii) Homogeneous blend of large range of sizes available.

 (viii) The equipment is easily sterilized.

 (ix) At the end of milling product particle size between 2 and 10 μm is obtained


 Demerits of Fluid Energy Mill

 Not suitable for soft, and fibrous material milling.

 Expensive.

 High head space is required.

 Coarse feed size is not suitable.

 Formation of unwanted ultra-fine particles

Edge Runner Mill

The edge runner mill is also called as roller stone mill and is mechanized form of mortar and pestle-type compression
comminution. It crushes the materials into fine powders by the rotating stones. The edge runner mill consists of two
large rotating grinding wheels or stones turning slowly in a large bowl.

Principle: The edge runner mill mainly works on the attrition and impaction by which the crushing or grinding of the
powder material takes place.
Construction: It consists of two heavy-weight rollers attached with the help of a shaft.

 The roller moves on a bad which is made of stone or graphite and these rollers and bad are joined with a
base which gives support to it.

Edge Runner Mill Working: First of all, put the materials on the bed with the help of a scrapper.

 Start the roller and materials soon start to crush while the roller moves on it.

 The stones rotate on their axis while traveling around the shallow stone bed.

 The outer component of the wheel must travel a long distance to obtain size reduction by shearing, as does
the inner, through crushing. The material is ground for a set amount of time.

 The powder is collected and sieved to get powder of the desired size. At last crushed powder is collected
and separated out through a sieve.

Usage:

 Runner Mill is used to grinding hard materials to get fine particles.

 The mill is also used for plant-based products.

Merits

 Easy to use.

 It is free to move without any attention.

 East to clean and required less space to install.

Demerits

 As it is not much compact so chances of contamination are high.

 No use for sticky materials

 If compared to others mills like hummer and Ball mill, it required more space to install.

 The noise level is high

 The milling process is time-consuming.

 It is not used for sticky materials.

 Energy consumption is quite high.

 End Runner Mill

An automated version of mortar and pestle size reduction equipment, the end-runner mill is comparable to the edge
runner mill. The friction of material between the mortar and the pestle causes a heavy-weight pestle to revolve
when the mortar is rotated by a motor at the base.

Principle of end runner mill: The edge runner mill mainly works on the attrition and impaction (compression) by
which the crushing or grinding of the powder material takes place. The principle of size reduction by this mill are
crushing due to heavy weight of the stones or metal and shearing force.

Construction: End-runner mills are the mechanized forms of mortar and pestle-type compression comminution. This
milling equipment consists of pestle made of either stone or metal, connected by a shaft,

 The pastel rotates at its axis in a shallow steel or porcelain mortar.

 The pestle is mostly dumb-bell shaped. The mortar is fixed to a flanged plate at the bottom.

It also consists of scrappers at the centre and along side of the circular pan. The pestle is mounted horizontally and
rotating against a bed of powders.

Working: The material to be milled is fed into the centre of the circular mechanical mortar (pan) and is worked
outwards by the action of the wheels and mill is operated.

 The pestle rotates against a bed of powders. Mortar revolves at high speed and causes the pestle to revolve.

 Scrapers are employed in scraping the material constantly from the bottom of the wheel and are feed back
to the wheel were it gets crushed further.

Finally, pestle is raised from the mortar manually or automatically to facilitate emptying and cleaning.

Uses:

(i) It is used to reduce fibrous crude drugs to a fine size.

(ii) It used for grinding semisolid preparations such as ointments and pastes to fine size.

(iii) It is used for uniform distribution of the contents in viscous dispersion medium.

(iv) It can be used for both wet and dry grinding of crude drugs.
Merits:

(i) It has simple design and thus cleaning and maintenance is easy.

(ii) It utilizes less electrical power.

(iii) It produces fine and sometimes very fine particles.

(iv) Requires less attention during the milling operation.

(v) It has no problem of chocking or clogging as it has no sieves for size separation.

Demerits:

(i) It runs only on batch operation.

(ii) It is not suitable for milling sticky materials.

(iii) Unsuitable for drugs which are hard and unbroken or in slightly broken condition.

(iv) Machine noise causes lot of noise pollution.

(v) It requires scrapper adjustment intermittently.

 SIZE SEPARATION

In pharmaceutical industries, during manufacturing of various formulations, the powder (of drug or excipients) of
specific size is required. Size separation is defined as a process in which particles of required size are separated from
the material of different size. It is also called as sieving, sifting, separation or classification.

Size separation depends on size, shape, density and geometry of the particles.

Objectives of Size Separation

 In manufacturing of all solid dosage forms such as; tablet capsules, powder, granules, etc. the desired
particle size of powder is necessary. during tablet granulation, the granules should be within narrow size
range otherwise, weight variation will occur during tablet punching.

 To separate undesirable particle.

 Any solid material, after milling, never gives particles of the same size but contains particles of Varying sizes,
The size-reduced particles then undergo sieving operation to get fractions of narrow size range.

 . To control size variations in the materials. During tablet granulation the granules should be within narrow
size range, otherwise, weight variation will take place during tablet punching.

 To classify materials in to different sizes for the desired purpose.

 To enhance performance (topical powders), efficacy (powders for inhalation) and stability of dosage forms
(suspensions).

 To judge uniformity in a mixing materials.

 To specify the quality parameter of a intermediate and finished dosage forms.

 Applications of Size Separation:

 1. In formulation of uniform dosage form, size separation plays an important role.

 2. it is done to separate undesirable or unwanted particles.

 3. It helps in formation of solutions rapidly by separating small size particles from large size particles.

 4. In extraction, solvent can easily penetrate into small particles due to increase surface area. Small size
particles can be obtained by size separation

 5. Size separation is an important step in solid dosage form manufacturing such as tablet, powder, granules,
capsules, etc.

 6. Particle size is critically important in nasal and pulmonary formulations.

 7. In topical dosage forms such as; ointments, pastes and creams size separation are required.

 8. All the ophthalmic and topical preparations should be free from gritty particles to avoid irritation. So, size
separation is very important
 OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR POWDER SIZE

Standards for powders used in pharmaceuticals are reported in the British Pharmacopoeia (B.P.) which states that
“the degree of coarseness or fineness of a powder is differentiated and expressed by the size of the mesh of the
sieve through which the powder is able to pass”. The B.P. specifies five grades of powder and the number of the
sieve through which all the particles must pass,

 The B.P. specifies a use of smaller size of sieve for the coarser powders but states that not more than 40 %
shall pass through.

 the coarse powder is that wherein all the particles which pass through a No. 10 sieve and not more than 40
% through a No. 44 sieve. This is usually referred as a 10/44 powder.

Classification of Powders:

1. Coarse Powder (10/44): A powder all the particles of which pass through a sieve with a nominal mesh
aperture of 1700 um (sieve no. 10) and not more than 40% by weight through a sieve with a nominal mesh
aperture of 355 um (sieve no. 44).

2. Moderately Coarse Powder (22/60): A powder all the particles of which pass through a sieve with nominal
mesh aperture of 710 um (sieve no. 22) and not more than 40% by weight through a sieve with a nominal
mesh aperture of 250 um (sieve no. 60).

3. Moderately Fine Powder (44/85): A powder all the particles of which pass through sieve with a nominal
mesh aperture of 355 um (sieve no. 44) and not more than40% by weight through a sieve with a nominal
mesh aperture of 180 um (sieve no.85)

4. Fine Powder (85/120): A powder all the particles of which pass through a sieve with nominal mesh aperture
of 180 um (sieve no. 85) and not more than 40% by weight pass through a sieve with a nominal mesh
aperture of 125 um (sieve no. 120).

5. Very Fine Powder (120/350): A powder all the particles of which pass through a sieve with a nominal
mesh aperture of 125 um (sieve no. 120) and not more than 40% by weight pass through a sieve with a
nominal mesh aperture of 45 um (sieve no. 350).

6. Microfine Powder (350): A powder of which not less than 90% by weight of the particles pass through a
sieve with a nominal mesh aperture of 45 um (sieve no. 350).
 7. Superfine Powder: A powder of which not less than 90% by number of the particles are less than 10 um in
size.

MECHANISMS OF SIZE SEPARATION

 Size separation is done by following methods

. While doing this mechanical sieving equipment's used works on the principle of agitation, brushing and centrifugal
force

MECHANISMS OF SIZE SEPARATION

Centrifuga
Agitation Method brushing

Oscillation
Vibration
Gyration

Agitation Method: this mode of motion involves vigorous shaking of sieves in the following way

(i) Oscillation (move back and forth) In this case the sieve is mounted in inclined frame or rack that oscillates
back and forth. This is most common and simple mechanism in which material rolls on the surface of sieve
and sometimes forms a ball.

(ii) Vibration: In this method Sieve is vibrated at high speed by means of eccentric device either electrically or
mechanically.

iii) Gyration: rotatory movement small amplitude , spinning motion of particles The sieves are kept on rubber
mounting which is attached to rotary eccentric flywheel. This produces a movement of desired amplitude with
required intensity to induce motion in the material. Rotary motion allows particles to spin and pass through the
meshes.

Advantage:

Simple method

Inexpensive

 Disadvantage:

 chances of clogging of sieve if powder is not dried

 Size reduction occur due to collision between particles during agitation

Brushing Method

Material to be processed for size separation using sieving is passed through sieves by use of brushes in different
directions. For motion in circular sieves brush is rotated at centre of sieve while in horizontal cylindrical sieves it
rotates around its longitudinal axis. Brush helps to keep the meshes clean. This method is suitable for wet, greasy
and sticky materials.

Centrifugal Method

In this method vertical cylindrical type mechanical sieve is used. It consists of high speed rotor inside the cylinder
that throws particles on the sieve by centrifugal force. A current of air generated due to movement of rotor causes
particle separation. To aid particle separation further an air jet can be fixed in the cylinder.

Advantage:

 Chances of blockage of sieve is less


SIEVES

 A sieve, also called sifter, is a device for separating desired elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample. This is a device typically made-up of using a woven
sieve such as a mesh or net or metal. The word "sift" is derived from "sieve".

 A sieve has very small holes. The sieving process is comparatively inexpensive, simple in concept and easy to
use. Coarse particles are separated or broken-up by grinding against one-another and sieve openings. Sieves
are the most commonly used devices for particle size analysis.

 For separation of liquid from the solids a particular type of sieve is used known as strainers.

 Sieving plays an important role in pharmaceutical and food industries where they (often vibrating) are used
to prevent the

contamination of the product by foreign bodies. The design of the industrial sieve is of primary importance. Each
sieve has a specific number that denotes the number of meshes in a length of 2.54 cm (≈1 inch).

 Material of construction: Sieves are woven from wire of brass, bronze, stainless steel.

 Sieves should not be coated with any material.

 It should be non reactive with material used.

 The material used for construction should be resistant to corrosion.

 Generally Iron wire is used as screen material because it is cheap but their disadvantage are corrosive nature
and chances of contamination by iron.

 These disadvantages can be overcome by coating iron with galvanizing agent which increase the strength
and also make it corrosion resistant.

 Brass, Phosphor-bronze and stainless steel are the metals used due to their corrosion resistant, good
strength and non contamination qualities.

 Non metals such as nylon and terylene are also suitable because they avoid risk of metallic contamination.

 For special purpose punched plates or perforated screens are used. These sieves are made by drilling holes
of varying thickness in metal plate. The holes may be round, rectangular or square.
 For separation of fine powder Bolting cloth sieves are used. They are woven from twisted multi strand fibres
made of silk, nylon and cotton. Nylon cloths are generally designated for their micrometer opening and also
their availability in different grades.


Standards of sieve


 Holes in the screen is called Mesh.

 Mesh number indicate number of holes included in a length of 1 inch.

 Aperture of screen is the clear space between wires of screen opening and it is given in term of mm.

 Screen Number denotes number of meshes in a linear length of 25.4mm.

 Nominal aperture size indicates gap between two adjacent wires.

 Sieves may be designated by opening size.

 The common standards used for used for sieves are:

1. Tyler Standard sieve series: It is U.S. standard sieve. They are available in mesh number 4-325.

2. U.S. Standard sieve series: It is used in U.S.A.

3. British Standard sieve series (B.S.S): It is available in mesh number 5-300. It is extensively used in UK.

4. U.S.ASTM: It is "American Society of Testing Materials" standard sieve series. It is available in mesh
number 4-325..

5. German DIN (Deutsche Industrienormein): It is commonly used in Europe and Germany.

6. F.S.S.: It is French Standard Sieve. It is available in mesh number 17-38.

7. IP standard Sieve series: It is commonly used in India.

8. International test sieve series (ISO): It is used world wide.

 The specifications given below should be matched by the sieves used for Pharmacopoeial testing

1) Sieve Number: This is the number of meshes present per linear length of25.4mm.

2) Nominal Aperture Size: This is the distance between the two adjacent wires, representing the side of a
square aperture. The nominal mesh aperture size for most of the sieves is given in the I.P. 1996 (either in
mm or in um).3) Nominal Wire Diameter: The wire used in wire mesh sieves has a specified diameter which
provide a suitable aperture size and sufficient strength so that sieve distortion can be avoided.4)
Approximate Percentage Sieving Area: This is the mesh area expressed as a percentage of the total sieve
area. It depends on the wire size used for a sieve. The sieving area is appropriately maintained within 35-
40% to provide the required strength to the sieve.5) Aperture Tolerance Average Size: Some variations which
the aperture size undergoes cannot be avoided. Such variations are termed aperture tolerance average,
expressed as a percentage. It is a limit set by the Pharmacopoeia