elementary ope-

rations

Ri ↔
Rj ( Ci ↔ Cj )

k "= 0 Ri → kRi ( Ci → kCi )

Ri → Ri + kRj ( Ci → Ci + kCj )

equivalent

¨ row equivalent

elementary matrix
  
2 4 −6
A= 4 8 −8 
6 12 −12
   
R3 →R3 − 32 R2
2 4 −6 2 4 −6
R →R2 −2R1
A −→  4 8 −8  2 −→  0 0 4 .
0 0 0 0 0 0

 
1 0 −1 1
 −1 1 0 2 
0 3 0 5
 
1 0 −1 1
 2 1 0 1 
−1 1 0 2

   
1 0 −1 1 1 0 −1 1
R2 ↔R3 R →R2 −2R3
 −1 1 0 2  −→  0 3 0 5  2 −→
0 3 0 5 −1 1 0 2
 
1 0 −1 1
 2 1 0 1 .
−1 1 0 2
 
1 −1 1
 1 1 2 
1 2 −1

    R2 → 1 R2
1 −1 1 R2 → R2 − R1 1 −1 1 2
R3 → R3 − 3 R2
R3 → R3 − R1
 1 1 2  −→  0 2 1  −→ 2

1 2 −1 0 3 −2
R1 → R1 + 2 R3
7
  R2 → R2 + 1 R3
 
1 −1 1 R3 → − 2 R3
7
1 −1 0
R →R1 +R2
 0 1 1  7
−→  0 1 0  1 −→ I.
2
0 0 − 27 0 0 1

A ∈ Mn (K)

• A
• A
 • A

• AX = 0

 
% & % & 1 0 2
3 −2 1 −2  2 −1 3 
, ,
4 5 3 −6
4 1 8

3.1.1

R1
% & % & % & R1 →
3
3 −2 R2 →R2 − 43 R1 3 −2 C2 →C2 +
C1
3 3 0 R2 → 3 R2
23
−→ −→ −→ I
4 5 0 23
3 0 23
3

% & % & % &

1 −2 R2 →R2 −3R1 1 −2 C2 →C2 +2C1 1 0
−→ −→
3 −6 0 0 0 0

' '
' 1 −2 ''
' =0
' 3 −6 '

     
1 0 2 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 0 2 1 0 2
R3 → R3 − 4R1 R →R3 +R2
 2 −1 3  −→  0 −1 −1  3 −→  0 −1 −1 
4 1 8 0 1 0 0 0 −1
R1 → R1 + 2R3
R2 → −(R2 − R3 )
R3 → −R3
−→ I
 ( ) A ∈ Mn (K)
n × 2n A : I I n
( )
I : A−1

 
1 0 2
A= 2 −1 3 
4 1 8

x1 + 2x3 = 2
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 12
4x1 + x2 + 8x3 = 0.
( )
A : I
   
1 0 2 : 1 0 0 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 0 2 : 1 0 0
R3 → R3 − 4R1
 2 −1 3 : 0 1 0  −→  0 −1 −1 : −2 1 0 
4 1 8 : 0 0 1 0 1 0 : −4 0 1
 
1 0 2 : 1 0 0
R2 →R3 +R2
−→  0 −1 −1 : −2 1 0 
0 0 −1 : −6 1 1
 
R1 → R1 + 2R3 1 0 0 : −11 2 2
R2 → R2 − R3
−→  0 −1 0 : 4 0 −1 
0 0 −1 : −6 1 1
 
R2 → −R2 1 0 0 : −11 2 2
R3 → −R3
−→  0 1 0 : −4 0 1 
0 0 1 : 6 −1 −1

A
 
−11 2 2
A−1 =  −4 0 1 .
6 −1 −1
 AX = B A
X = (x1 , x2 , x3 )t
B = (2, 12, 0)t
A−1

X = A−1 B
    
−11 2 2 2 2
=  −4 0 1   12  =  −8  .
6 −1 −1 0 0

row echelon form of a matrix m×n

pivot
entries

   
1 2 3 + 5i 0 2 31 4 6 0
A =  0 0 10  , B= 0 0 0 15 0 23  ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1
 
1 ln(2) 0√
 0 i 7 − 2i 
 
C = 
 0 0 1+i ,

 0 0 0 
0 0 0

A = {1, 10}, B = {2, 15, 4}, C = {1, i, 1 + i},

  
−4 1 −6
A= 1 2 −5 
6 3 −4

     
−4 1 −6 1 2 −5 R2 → R2 + 4R1 1 2 −5
R1 ↔R2 R3 → R3 − 6R1
 1 2 −5  −→  −4 1 −6  −→  0 9 −26 
6 3 −4 6 3 −4 0 −9 26
 
1 2 −5
R3 →R3 +R2
−→  0 9 −26  .
0 0 0

 
1 2 −1 3 % &
1 2 −4 11
A= 4 8 2 −4  , B=
4 8 −10 24
3 6 3 −7

   
1 2 −1 3 R2 → R2 − 4R1 1 2 −1 3
R3 → R3 − 3R1 R →R3 −R2
A =  4 8 2 −4  −→  0 0 6 −16  3 −→
3 6 3 −7 0 0 6 −16
 
1 2 −1 3
 0 0 6 −16  ,
0 0 0 0
% & % &
1 2 −4 11 R2 →R2 −4R1 1 2 −4 11
B = −→ .
4 8 −10 24 0 0 6 −20

Gauss
 GAUSS

Cramer

Gauss Gauss elimination

m
n AX = B
A = [aij ] i = [1, n] j = [1, m] X = [xi ]
B = [bj ]
    
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
     
A= , X =  , B =  .
 ...     
am1 am2 ... amn xn bm

Gauss
( )
augmented matrix A : B

 
a11 a12 ... a1n : b1
( ) 
 a21 a22 ... a2n : b2 

A : B = .
 ... : 
am1 am2 ... amn : bm

m n
m × (n + 1) n A
B

xn
xi

Gauss

x + y − 2z = 1
2x + y + z = 2
3x + 2y − z = 3
4x + 2y + 2z = 4.
    
1 1 −2 : 1 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 1 −2 : 1
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 1 1 : 2  R4 → R4 − 4R1  0 −1 5 : 0 
  −→  
 3 2 −1 : 3   0 −1 5 : 0 
4 2 2 : 4 0 −2 10 : 0
 
1 1 −2 : 1
R3 → R3 + R2
R4 → R4 − 2R3  0 −1 5 : 0 
−→  .
 0 0 0 : 0 
0 0 0 : 0

 
1 − 3z
x + y − 2z = 1 x = 1 − 3z
⇒ ⇒ X =  5z  , ∀z ∈ R.
−y + 5z = 0 y = 5z
z
Gauss
x + 2y + z = 3
2x + 5y − z = −4
3x − 2y − z = 5.

   
1 2 1 : 3 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 2 1 : 3
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 5 −1 : −4  −→  0 1 −3 : −10 
3 −2 −1 : 5 0 −8 −4 : −4
 
1 2 1 : 3
R3 →R3 +8R2
−→  0 1 −3 : −10 
0 0 −28 : −84
 
R3 →−
R3 1 2 1 : 3
−→ 28
 0 1 −3 : −10 
0 0 1 : 3
 
1 2 0 : 0
R1 →R1 −R3
−→  0 1 −3 : −10 
0 0 1 : 3
 
1 2 0 : 0
R2 →R2 +3R3
−→  0 1 0 : −1  .
0 0 1 : 3
 GAUSS

 
x = −2y 2
y = −1 ⇒ X =  −1  .
z = 3 3

( )
A : B A
B

( )
0 0 ... 0 : bk bk "= 0.

a b

x − 2y + 3z = 4
2x − 3y + az = 5
3x − 4y + 5z = b

Gauss

   
1 −2 3 : 4 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 −2 3 : 4
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 −3 a : 5  −→  0 1 a − 6 : −3 
3 −4 5 : b 0 2 −4 : b − 12
 
1 −2 3 : 4
R3 →R3 −2R2
−→  0 1 a−6 : −3  .
0 0 −2a + 8 : b − 6

a = 4, b "= 6.

a "= 4, ∀ b ∈ R.
 a = 4, b = 6.
   
x −2 + z
 y  =  −3 + 2z  .
z z

B=0
Gauss

3x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
5x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0
Gauss

% & R1 → 1 R1
3
2 3
3 1 1 1 R2 → R2 − 5 R1
3
1 1
3
1
3
1
3
−→
5 −1 1 −1 0 − 83 − 23 − 38
R1 → R1 + 1 R2
8
2 3
R2 → − 3 R2
8
1 0 1
4 0
−→ .
0 1 1
4 1

x3 x4
 
− 41 x3
x1 + 14 x3 = 0  − 1 x3 − x4 
⇒X =

4 .

x2 + 1
4 x3 + x4 = 0 x3
x4

     
6 −6 6 2 4 −2 1 1+i 2i
α)  −9 18 0   2 6 2   −2i 4 2 − 3i 
3 −21 30 6 16 8 −2i 2 + 3i 7
 R1 → − 1 R1
9
    R2 → 1 R2
6 −6 6 −9 18 0 6
R3 → 1 R3
R1 ↔R2
 −9 18 0  −→  6 −6 6  −→3

3 −21 30 3 −21 30
   
1 −2 0 R2 → R2 − R1
R3 → 1 (R3 − R1 )
1 −2 0 R3 → 13 (R3 +R2 )
 1 −1 1  5
−→  0 1 1  −→
1 −7 10 0 −1 2
 
1 −2 0 R1 → R1 + 2(R2 − R3 )
R2 → R2 − R3
 0 1 1  −→ I.
0 0 1

   
2 4 −2 R2 → R2 − R1 2 4 −2
R3 → R3 − 3R1 R →R3 −2R2
 2 6 2  −→  0 2 4  3 −→
6 16 8 0 4 14
  R1 → R1 + 1 R3
 
2 4 −2 3
R2 → R2 − 2 R3
2 4 0
R →R1 −2R2
 0 2 4  −→ 3
 0 2 0  1 −→
0 0 6 0 0 6
 
2 0 0
 0 2 0 .
0 0 6

   
1 1+i 2i R2 → R2 + 2iR1 1 1+i 2i
R3 → R3 + 2iR1
 −2i 4 2 − 3i  −→  0 2 + 2i −2 − 3i 
−2i 2 + 3i 7 0 5i 3
 
R1 → 2R1 − R2
R2 → R2 + 1 (2 + 3i)R3
1 0 2 + 7i
3
−→  0 −3 + 16
0 
3 i
0 5i 3
 
R3 →R3 −( 240 135 1 0 2 + 7i
337 − 337 i)R2
−→  0 −3 + 16
0 
3 i
0 0 3
 
R1 →R1 − 13 (2+7i)R3
1 0 0
 0 −3 + .
3 i 0
16
−→
0 0 3
    
2 4 0 4 8 0
α  2 2 2 ,  2 −2 4 
2 −2 4 6 −2 10
   
0 0 12 0 3 3 0 0
 6 6 −6 15  ,  0 0 3 0 .
15 15 −3 15 0 0 0 3

     
2 4 0 R1 → 2R1 4 8 0 4 6 0
R2 → R2 + 2R3 R2 ↔R3
 2 2 2  −→  8 −2 10  −→  2 −2 4  .
2 −2 4 2 −2 4 6 −2 10

R1 → 1 R1
4
  R2 → 1 R2
 
0 0 12 0 2 0 0 3 0
R3 → R3 − 5 R2
 6 6 −6 15  −→ 2
 3 3 −3 15 
2
15 15 −3 15 0 0 12 − 45
2

  R2 → R2 + 1 R3
 
R2 → R2 + R1 0 0 3 0 3
0 0 3 3
R3 → R3 − 4R1 R3 → − 2 R3
−→  3 3 0 15 
2
15
−→  3 3 0 0 
0 0 0 − 45
2
0 0 0 3
 
3 3 0 0
R2 ↔R1
−→  0 0 3 0 .
0 0 0 3

 
1 i 0
 i −1 1 + i 
1−i 0 2
   
1 i 0 1 i 0
R2 →(1−i)R2
 i −1 1 + i  −→  1 + i −1 + i 2 
1−i 0 2 1−i 0 2
 
1 i 0
R2 →R2 −R3
−→  2i −1 + i 0 
1−i 0 2
 
R2 → 1−i
1 i 0
2 (R2 −2iR1 )
−→  0 1 0 
1−i 0 2
 
1 0 0
R1 →R1 −iR2
−→  0 1 0 
1−i 0 2
R3 → 12 (R3 −(1−i)R1 )
−→ I.

 
    1 1 2 3
1 2 3 i 1 i  2
 2 4 5 .
α)  3 5 7   2 i 1   0 13 0 0 
3 6 9 1 1 i
0 0 0 11

   
1 2 3 : 1 0 0 1 2 3 : 1 0 0
R →R3 −3R1
 3 5 7 : 0 1 0  3 −→  3 5 7 : 0 1 0 .
3 6 9 : 0 0 1 0 0 0 : −2 0 1
   
i 1 i : 1 0 0 R2 → R2 + 2iR1 i 1 i : 1 0 0
R3 → R3 + iR1
 2 i 1 : 0 1 0  −→  0 3i −1 : 2i 1 0 
1 1 i : 0 0 1 0 1+i i−1 : i 0 1
 
i 1 i : 1 0 0
R3 →R3 + 3i (1+i)R2
−→  0 3i −1 : 2i 1 0 
0 0 − 32 + 2i
3 : − 23 + i
3 − 13 + i
3 1
 
R3 →− 34 (1+i)R3
i 1 i : 1 0 0
−→  0 3i −1 : 2i 1 0 
0 0 1 : 4 +
3 i
4
1
2 − 34 − 3i
4
 
R1 → R1 − iR3
i 1 0 : 5
4 − 3i
4
i
2 − 34 + 3i
4
R2 → − i (R2 + R3 )
 
 
 0 1 0 : − 14 +
3 3 i
−→ 4 − 4 − 2i i
4 
 
0 0 1 : 3
4 + i
4
1
2 − 34 − 3i
4
 
1 0 0 : − 21 − i
2 0 1
2 + i
2
 
R1 →−i(R1 −R2 )  
−→  0 1 0 : 3
4 − i
4 − 2i − 41 + i
4 .
 
0 0 1 : 3
4 + i
4
1
2 − 43 − 3i
4

 
− 21 − i
2 0 1
2 + i
2
 
 
 3
4 − i
4 − 2i − 14 + i
4 .
 
3
4 + i
4
1
2 − 43 − 3i
4
  
1 1 2 3 : 1 0 0 0
 2 2 4 5 : 0 1 0 0 
  R2 →R2 −2R1
−→
 0 13 0 0 : 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 11 : 0 0 0 1
 
1 1 2 3 : 1 0 0 0
 0 0 0 −1 : −2 1 0 0 
  R4 →R4 +11R2
−→
 0 13 0 0 : 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 11 : 0 0 0 1
 
1 1 2 3 : 1 0 0 0
 0 0 0 −1 : −2 1 0 0 
 .
 0 3 0 0 : 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 : −22 11 0 1

   
0 0 12 0 1 2 3
α)  6 6 −6 15   4 6 7 
15 15 −3 15 6 10 13

   
0 0 12 0 6 6 −6 15
R1 ↔R2
 6 6 −6 15  −→  0 0 12 0 
15 15 −3 15 15 15 −3 15

R1 → 1 R1
2  
R2 → 1 R2
4 3 3 −3 15
2
R3 → R3 − 5 R1  
 0 0 3 0 
2
−→
0 0 12 − 45
2

 
R1 → R1 + R2
3 3 0 15
2
R3 → − 2 (R3 − 4R2 )
15
−→  0 0 3 0 
0 0 0 3
 
R1 →R1 − 52 R3
3 3 0 0
−→  0 0 3 0 .
0 0 0 3
    
1 2 3 6 10 13
R1 ↔R3
 4 6 7  −→  4 6 7 
6 10 13 1 2 3
 
R2 → R2 − 4 R1
6 6 10 13
R3 → R3 − 1 R1  
 0 − 23
6
−→ − 53 
0 1
3
5
6
 
6 10 13
R3 →2R3 +R2
−→  0 −2 − 53  .
3
0 0 0

   
% & 4 12 4 1 0 3 1 2
2 1  8
α) , 0 16  ,  1 4 2 1 5 
1 3
−4 −12 −12 3 4 8 1 2
   
0 1 13 2 2 1 1 3
 0 0 5 16  ,  6 4 1 2 .
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5

% & % &
2 1 R2 →R2 − 12 R1 2 1
−→ .
1 3 0 5
2

   
4 12 4 R1 ↔ R2 8 0 16
R3 → R3 + R1
 8 0 16  −→  4 12 4 
−4 −12 −12 0 0 −8
 
8 0 0
R1 →R1 +2R3
−→  4 12 4 
0 0 −8
 
R2 →R2 − 12 (R1 −R3 )
8 0 0
−→  0 12 0 .
0 0 −8
    
1 0 3 1 2 R2 → R2 − R1 1 0 3 1 2
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 1 4 2 1 5  −→  0 4 −1 0 3 
3 4 8 1 2 0 4 −1 −2 −4
 
1 0 3 1 2
R3 →R3 −R2
−→  0 4 −1 0 3 .
0 0 0 −2 −7

  R1 → R3  
0 1 13 2 R2 → R1 1 5 1 5
R3 → R2
 0 0 5 16  −→  0 1 13 2  .
1 5 1 5 0 0 5 16

   
2 1 1 3 C1 → C1 − C3 1 −2 1 3
C2 → C2 − C4
 6 4 1 2  −→  5 2 1 2 
1 5 1 5 0 0 1 5
 
C1 → C1 − 5 C2
2 2 −2 2 3
C3 −→ 5C3 − C4
→  0 2 3 2 .
0 0 0 5

AX = B
  
5 9 3 4
A =  3 −5 −6  B =  2 ,
1 5 3 6

( )
A : I A

  R2 → R2 + 2R1
 
5 9 3 : 1 0 0 R3 → − 1 (R3 − R1 )
5 9 3 : 1 0 0
 3 −5 −6 : 0 1 0  4
−→  13 13 0 : 2 1 0 
1 5 3 : 0 0 1 1 1 0 : 14 0 − 14
 
R3 →R3 −
R2 5 9 3 : 1 0 0
−→ 13
 13 13 0 : 2 1 0 .
0 0 0 : 5
52
1
− 13 − 41
  
1 −1 2
A= 3 2 4 
0 1 −2

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 12
3x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 4
x2 − 2x3 = 8.
( )
A : I
   
1 −1 2 : 1 0 0 R1 → R1 + R3 1 0 0 : 1 0 1
R2 → R2 − 3R1
 3 2 4 : 0 1 0  −→  0 5 −2 : −3 1 0 
0 1 −2 : 0 0 1 0 1 −2 : 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 : 1 0 1
R2 → 14 (R2 −R3 )  
−→  0 1 0 : − 34 1
4 − 14 
0 1 −2 : 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 : 1 0 1
R3 →− 12 (R3 −R2 )  
−→  0 1 0 : − 43 1
4 − 41 
0 0 1 : − 83 1
8 − 85
 
1 0 1
 3 
A A −1
=  −4 1
4 − 14 
− 38 1
8 − 58
AX = B
A X = (x1 , x2 , x3 )t B = (24, 8, 16)

X = A−1 B
    
1 0 1 12 20
 3 
=  −4 1
4 − 14  4  =  −10  .
3 1
− 58 8 −9
8 8

Gauss

2x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 = 25

α) 7x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 10
5x1 + 5x2 − x3 = 15,

12x3 + 4x4 − 8x5 − 16x6 = 16

6x3 + 2x4 − 4x5 − 8x6 = 8
4x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 + 8x4 − 14x5 + 2x6 = 4
12x1 − 18x2 + 22x4 − 36x5 + 6x6 = 2.
   
2 2 −2 : 5 2 2 −2 : 5
R2 →R2 −R3
 7 7 1 : 10  −→  2 2 2 : 5 
5 5 −1 : 5 5 5 −1 : 5
R1 → − 1 (R1 − R2 )
 
4 0 0 1 : 0
R2 → R2 + R1
−→  4 4 0 : 10 
5 5 −1 : 5
 
0 0 1 : 0
R3 →R3 +R1
−→  4 4 0 : 10 
5 5 0 : 5
 
R3 →R3 − 54 R2
0 0 1 : 0
−→  4 4 0 : 10  .
0 0 0 : − 15
2

 
0 0 12 4 −8 −16 : 16
 0 0 6 2 −4 −8 : 8 
 
 4 −6 2 8 −14 2 : 4 
12 −18 0 22 −36 6 : 2

 
2 −3 0 11
3 − 19
3 0 : 121

 0 0 2 2 4
0 : 10 
 3 3 3 
 .
 0 0 0 0 0 2 : 12 
0 0 0 0 0 0 : 0

% &t
1 3 11 19 5 1 2 1
X= + x2 − x4 + x5 , x2 , − x4 + x5 , x4 , x5 , .
24 2 6 6 3 3 3 4

x+y = 1
tx + y = t
(1 + t)x + 2y = 3
    
1 1 : 1 R2 → R2 − tR1 1 1 : 1
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 t 1 : t  −→  0 1−t : 0 
1+t 2 : 3 t−2 −1 : 0
 
1
R3 →R3 + 1−t R2
1 1 : 1
−→  0 1−t : 0 
t−2 0 : 0

t "= 2
t=2 X = (1, 0)t

x + 2y − 3z = 4
3x − y + 5z = 2
4x + y + (a2 − 14)z = a+2

   
1 2 −3 : 4 R2 → R2 − 3R1 1 2 −3 : 4
R3 → R3 − 4R1
 3 −1 5 : 2  −→  0 −7 14 : −10 
4 1 a − 14 : a + 2
2
0 −7 a − 2 : a − 14
2

 
R2 → − 1 R2
7 1 2 −3 : 4
R3 → R3 − R2  
−→  0 1 −2 : 10
7 
0 0 a2 − 16 : a − 4
 
1 0 1 : 87
R1 →R1 −2R2  
−→  0 1 −2 : 107 .
0 0 a − 16 : a − 4
2

a = −4

a "= ±4
 8a+25 
7(a+4)
 
X= 10a+54
7(a+4) .
1
a+4
 a=4
z

 8

7 −z
 
X = 7 + 2z
10
.
z
a b
x+y−z+w = 1
ax + y + z + w = b
3x + 2y + aw = 1+a
a=b=2

 
1 1 −1 1 : 1 R2 → R2 − aR1
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 a 1 1 1 : b  −→
3 2 0 a : 1+a
 
1 1 −1 1 : 1 R2 → −R3
R3 → R2
 0 1−a 1+a 1−a : b−a  −→
0 −1 3 a−3 : a−2
 
1 1 −1 1 : 1
R3 →R3 +(a−1)R2
 0 1 −3 3−a : 2−a  −→
0 1−a 1+a 1−a : b−a
 
1 1 −1 1 : 1
 0 1 −3 3−a : 2−a .
0 0 4 − 2a (1 − a)(a − 2) : −a2 + 2a + b − 2
4 − 2a "= 0 ⇒ a "= 2

w
a=b=2
 
1 1 −1 1 : 1
 0 1 −3 1 : 0 .
0 0 0 0 : 0

 
1 − 2z
 3z − w 
X=
 z
.

w
 X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 )t ( ) AX = B
A : B

 
1 2 0 3 1 : 5
 0 3 9 3 6 : 9 
 .
 0 0 0 2 2 : 8 
0 0 0 0 0 : 0

x3 x5
 
−5 + 6x3 + 4x5
x1 + 2x2 + 3x4 + x5 = 5  −1 − 3x3 − x5 
 
3x2 + 9x3 + 3x4 + 6x5 = 9 ⇒X=
 x3 .

2x4 + 2x5 = 8  4 − x5 
x5

bi i∈R

x − 3y = b1
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = b1
3x + y = b2
α) 2x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 = b2
x + 7y = b3
x1 + 8x3 = b3
2x + 4y = b4

Gauss

   
1 −3 : b1 1 −3 : b1
R2 → R2 − R1
 3 1 : b2  R3 → R3 + R1  2 4 : b2 − b1 
  −→  
 1 7 : b3   2 4 : b3 + b1 
2 4 : b4 2 4 : b4

bi

b4 = b3 + b1
b4 = b3 + b1 = b2 − b1 ⇒
b2 = b3 + 2b1 .
 b1 b2

   
1 2 3 : b1 1 2 3 : b1
R2 →2R2 −5R1
 2 5 3 : b2  −→  −1 0 −9 : 2b2 − 5b1 
1 0 8 : b3 1 0 8 : b3
 
R2 → 8R2 + 9R3 1 2 3 : b1
R3 → −(R3 + R2 )
−→  1 0 0 : 16b2 − 40b1 + 9b3 
0 0 1 : −2b2 + 5b1 − b3
 
R1 →
R1 −R2 −3R3 0 1 0 : −3b3 − 5b2 + 13b1
−→ 2
 1 0 0 : 16b2 − 40b1 + 9b3  .
0 0 1 : −2b2 + 5b1 − b3

bi

ax + y = a2 ax + y = a3
α)
x + ay = 1 x + ay = 1.

4 5 4 5
a 1 : a2 R1 ↔R2 1 a : 1
−→
1 a : 1 a 1 : a2
R1 → R1 − aR2 4 5
R2 → R2 − aR1 1 − a2 0 : 1 − a3
−→ .
0 1 − a2 : a2 − a

a a = ±1 a=1
(x, y) = (k, 1 − k) a = −1

4 5 4 5
a 1 : a3 R1 ↔R2 1 a : 1
−→
1 a : 1 a 1 : a3
R1 → R1 − aR2 4 5
R2 → R2 − aR1 1 − a2 0 : 1 − a4
−→ .
0 1 − a2 : a3 − a

a = ±1 (x, y) =
(k, 1∓k) (x, y) =
(1 + a2 , −a) a "= ±1
 α Gauss

x + 2y − w = a
2x + z = b
x + y + 2w = c

x, y, z w a, b, c

x + 2y − w = 13
2x + z = 11
x + y + 2w = −22.

   
1 2 0 −1 : a R1 → −(R1 − 2R3 ) 1 0 0 5 : −a + 2c
R3 → −(R3 − R1 )
 2 0 1 0 : b  −→  2 0 1 0 : b 
1 1 0 2 : c 0 1 0 −3 : a−c
 
1 0 0 5 : −a + 2c
R2 →R2 −2R1
−→  0 0 1 −10 : b + 2a − 4c  .
0 1 0 −3 : a − c

(x, y, z, w) = (−5w − a + 2c, 3w + a − c, 10w + b + 2a − 4c, w).

(a, b, c) = (13, 11, −22)

(x, y, z, w) = (−5w − 57, 3w + 35, 10w + 125, w).

% &
a b
A= A
c d
I ad − cb "= 0

a "= 0
A

R1 → 1 R1 R1 → R1 − b R
% & a % & ad−bc 2
a b R2 → R2 − c R1
a 1 b
a
R2 → a R
ad−bc 2
−→ −→ I
c d 0 ad−bc
a

ad − cb "= 0
 a=0 bc "= 0 c "= 0
b "= 0

R1 → 1 (R1 − d R2 )
% & % & c b
0 b R1 ↔R2 c d R2 → 1 R2
b
−→ −→ I.
c d 0 b

Gauss

−3x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x1 − 3x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x1 + x2 − 3x3 + x4 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 − 3x4 = 0.

   
−3 1 1 1 R1 → R1 − R4 −4 0 0 4
R2 → R2 − R4
 1 −3 1 1  R3 → R3 − R4  0 −4 0 4 
  −→  
 1 1 −3 1   0 0 −4 4 
1 1 1 −3 1 1 1 −3
 
−4 0 0 4
R4 →R4 + 14 (R3 +R2 +R1 )  0 −4 0 4 
−→  .
 0 0 −4 4 
0 0 0 0

x4

X = (x4 , x4 , x4 , x4 )t
= x4 (1, 1, 1, 1)t

Gauss

(1 − n)x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = 0
x1 + (1 − n)x2 + · · · + xn = 0

=
x1 + x2 + · · · + (1 − n)xn = 0.
 R1 → R1 − Rn
  R2 → R2 − Rn  
1−n 1 ... 1 −n 0 ... n
 1 1−n ... 1   0 −n . . . n 
  Rn−1 → Rn−1 − Rn  
  −→  
 ...   ... 
1 1 ... 1−n 1 1 ... 1−n
 
−n 0 ... n
1  0 −n
(R1 +R2 +···+Rn−1 )  ... n 
Rn →Rn + n 
−→  .
 ... 
0 0 ... 0
xn

X = (xn , xn , . . . , xn )t
= xn (1, 1, 1, . . . , 1)t .
Gauss

x+y−z = 1
2x + y + 2z = 6
x − y + 3z = 6
x − 2y + 7z = 9.

   
1 1 −1 : 1 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 1 −1 : 1
R3 → R3 − R1
 2 1 2 : 6  R4 → R4 − R1  0 −1 4 : 4 
  −→  
 1 −1 3 : 6   0 −2 4 : 5 
1 −2 7 : 9 0 −3 8 : 8
 
1 1 −1 : 1
R3 → R3 − 2R2
R4 → R4 − 3R2  0 −1 4 : 4 
−→  .
 0 0 −4 : −3 
0 0 −4 : −4
    
2 0 −2 6 −2 2
α  4 2 0 ,  0 4 2 
2 −2 2 2 −2 2
   
1 −1 1 2 0 −1 2 3
 −2 3 0 1 ,  1 2 −1 0 
1 0 −1 3 −2 −5 4 3
   
4 0 16 4 0 4
 4 4 12  ,  0 4 4 .
8 4 28 12 4 8

   
3 3 0 3 0 3
2
 
α  3 −3 3  ,  0 3 − 23 
12 6 3 0 0 0
   
2 2 −2 5 1 1 0 0
 7 7 1 10  ,  0 0 1 0 
5 5 −1 5 0 0 0 1
% & 2 3
5 −5 5 5 5 0 0 15
2
, .
5 5 −5 10 0 5 −5 5
2

     
a 0 −a 3 −1 1 k 2k 3k
α)  2a a 0   0 2 1   k 3k 5k 
a −a a 1 −1 1 k 5k 12k
   
0 −1 2 1 2i −i 0 i
 −4 3 −3 5   i 2i i −i 
   .
 1 0 0 −1   2i 4i 4i −5i 
−1 1 0 1 2i 0 2i 0

I
     
0 9 0 1 i 0 1 0 3+i
α)  9 0 0   0 1 2+i   −3 1 0 .
0 0 − 92 0 0 −7i 0 0 1

   
5 10 5 1 1 −2
α)  10 25 −5   2 2 −3  .
15 −10 −5 3 3 −4
      
1 1 5 1 2 −3 1 2 1 1 −2 3 4
α)  4 4 6   2 4 −4 6 10   2 3 3 −1 3 
3 3 1 6 12 −12 18 26 5 7 4 1 5
   
2 −1 2 −2 3 3 −1 2 −4 1
 4 1 6 −5 8   −6 6 −10 10 −4 
   .
 2 −10 −4 8 −5   6 −4 11 −10 6 
2 −13 −6 16 −5 −6 8 −21 13 −9

 
    0 −1 2 1
1 0 2 1 2 3  −4
 3 −3 5 

α)  2 −1 2   3 9 15   1 0 0 −1 
1 2 2 1 5 12
−2 2 0 2
   
1 2 −3 1 2i −1 0 1
 2 4 1 3   2+i 1 2i 1 − i 
   
 −2 2 2 0   0 2+i 0 1 + 3i 
−2 2 −5 −1 0 −1 0 −2
 
1 a b+c
 1 b a + c .
1 c a+b

   
2 5 8 5 3 −2 1 −5
 1 2 3 1   −2 5 −2 3 
   .
 2 4 7 2   0 −2 1 0 
1 3 5 3 1 −1 0 −1

2x1 + 5x2 + 8x3 + 5x4 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + x4 = 13
2x1 + 4x2 + 7x3 + 2x4 = 10
x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 + 3x4 = 15.

 
1 0 3 1
 1 1 5 5 
A=
 2
.
1 9 8 
2 0 6 3
α A−1

x1 + 3x3 + x4 = 2
x1 + x2 + 5x3 + 5x4 = 3
2x1 + x2 + 9x3 + 8x4 = 4
2x1 + 6x3 + 3x4 = 5,
α

 
1 1 2 1  
 3 1 2 3 −3
2 −1 3 
α) 
 4
  2 −5 −3 12 
3 1 4 
7 1 8 5
2 1 −3 2
 
  0 0 5 0 15 5
1 11 21 31 41 51  0
 2  2 4 7 1 3 
.
12 22 32 42 52   0 2 4 6 0 2 
3 13 23 33 43 53
0 2 4 8 2 4

AX = B
  

1 2 2 −1 13
 1 2 3 −1   5 

α A=  B= 
1 2 0 −4   7 
1 2 2 −4 13
   
2 2 4 0
A= 2 0 −8  B= 1 
4 0 −7 2
Gauss
a
x+y = 2
x+y = a
α
t

x+y = 2
x−y = 0
6x − 3y = t
 Gauss

x+y+z = 2 x1 + x2 − x3 + 2x4 = 10
α) 2x + 3y − z = 8 3x1 − x2 + 7x3 + 4x4 = 1
2x − 2y − 2z = −16 −5x1 + 3x2 − 15x3 − 6x4 = 9

3x − y + 7z = 0 2x2 + 3x3 − 4x4 = 1

2x − y + 4z = 1
2 2x3 + 3x4 = 4
2x − 2y + 2z = 1 2x1 + 2x2 − 5x3 + 2x4 = 4
6x − 4y + 10z = 3 2x1 − 6x3 + 9x4 = 7.

2x − y + 3z = a
3x + y − 5z = b
−5x − 5y + 12z = c

c = 2a − 3b

x1 + λx2 − x3 = 1
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 5λ + 1
x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 4λ + 1
x1 − 2λx2 + 7x3 = 10λ − 1.

α
λ

X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 )t ( ) AX = B
A : B
 
1 3 2 0 6 : 4
 0 0 3 1 2 : 2 
 
 0 0 0 2 2 : 7 
0 0 0 0 0 : 0
 x + y + 2z + w = 0
x + 3y − 2z = 0 x + 2y − z + 3w = 0
α)
2x + 7y + 2z = 0 4x + 3y + z + 4w = 0
2x + y − 3z + 2w = 0

x1 + x2 = 0
4x + 5y + 8z = 0
x2 + x3 = 0
x + 3y = 0
x3 + x4 = 0
3x + 4y + 6z = 9
x4 + x5 = 0.
 Kn
vectors #u, #v
Kn

#u = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

#v = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ).

ai , b i ∈ K i = [1, n] coefficients
#u #v
dimension

K R
C

1
#u, #v ∈ Kn
Mn×1 (K)
   
a1 b1
 a2   b2 
   
#u =  , #v =  
   
an bn

M1×n (K) (#u)t , (#v )t

inner scalar
product #u, #v ∈ Kn