Cramer

Gauss
Kn

Gram-Schmidt
R2

R3
  
a11 a12 a13 ... a1n
 a21 a22 a23 ... a2n 
 
A= , m, n ∈ Z
 ... 
am1 am2 am3 ... amn

m×n A m
rows Ri i = 1, 2, · · · , m
i ∈ [1, m] n
collumns Ci i ∈ [1, n]

aij ∈ K i ∈ [1, m] j ∈ [1, n]

A i j A
(m, n) A
m×n K Mm×n (K)

K
K ≡ R
K K≡C

A = [aij ], aij ∈ K, i ∈ [1, m], j ∈ [1, n].

A = [aij ] A ∈ Mm×n (K)
i=j a11 , a22 , · · ·
 m×n Am,n
m n n
m A1,n
n∈Z Am,1
m∈Z

A = [aij ] B = [bij ] m×n

m×n
A B

A+B = [aij + bij ]

 
a11 + b11 a12 + b12 ... a1n + b1n
 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 ... a2n + b2n 
 
=  .
 
am1 + bm1 am2 + bm2 ... amn + bmn

A ∈ Mm×n (K) k∈K

A k

kA = [kaij ]
 
ka11 ka12 ... ka1n
 ka21 ka22 ... ka2n 
 
=  .
 
kam1 kam2 ... kamn

A (−A)

(−A) ≡ (−1)A.

A B

A − B ≡ A + (−B).
 {A, B, 0} ∈ Mm×n (K)

A+B = B+A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
A + (−A) = 0
A+0 = A
k(A ± B) = (kA) ± (kB), k ∈ K.

' ( ' (
5 2 3 6 7 −2
A= , B=
1 2 7 3 5 19

' ( ' (
5+6 2+7 3−2 11 9 1
A+B = = .
1+3 2+5 7 + 19 4 7 26

' ( ' (
5−6 2−7 3 − (−2) −1 −5 5
A−B = = .
1−3 2−5 7 − 19 −2 −3 −12
' (
2.1 3 2
A=
5 1 6
2A
' ( ' (
2(2.1) 2(3) 2(2) 4.2 6 4
2A = = .
2(5) 2(1) 2(6) 10 2 12
' ( ' (
5 6 2 2.1 3 2
A1 = , A2 =
3 2 1 5 1 6
' (
0 2.2 2
A3 = A1 + 2A2 − 0.5A3
3 3.5 6

' ( ' ( ' (

5 6 2 4.2 6 4 0 1.1 1
A1 + 2A2 − 0.5A3 = + −
3 2 1 10 2 12 1.5 1.75 3
' (
9.2 10.9 5
= .
11.5 2.25 10
 A = [aij ] B = [bij ]
A B A ∈ Mm×k (K)
B ∈ Mk×n (K) AB C = [cij ]
m×n ij C
i A j B
 
a11 ... a1k    
  b11 ... b1j ... b1n c11 ... c1n
 ... 
 b
  21 ... b2j ... b2n   c21
  ... c2n 

 ai1 ... aik  = ,
    
  ... ... cij
 ... 
bk1 ... bkj ... bkn cm1 ... cmn
am1 ... amk

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aik bkj

k
)
= ai! b!j .
!=1

* +
A = 7 −4 5
 
3
B= 2 
−1
1×1

 
* + 3
AB = 7 −4 5  2  = 7(3) + (−4)2 + 5(−1) = 21 − 8 − 5 = 8.
−1
' (
10 3
AB A= B=
2 −10
' (
2 0 −4
2×3
5 −2 6

' (' ( ' (

10 3 2 0 −4 20 + 15 −6 −40 + 18
AB = =
2 −10 5 −2 6 4 − 50 20 −8 − 60
' (
35 −6 −22
= .
−46 20 −68
 BA

A ∈ Mm×n (K) B, D ∈ Mn×k (K) C ∈ Mk×p (K)

(AB)C = A(BC)
A(B ± D) = (AB) ± (AD)
0A = 0"
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB), k ∈ K,

0 0" !×m !×n

A B
AB = BA

AB %= BA AB BA
A B
n×n

' ( ' (
a 0 0 b
A= B=
0 0 0 0
AB
' (
0 ab
AB = ,
0 0

BA BA = 0

transpose A
At A

 
a11 a12
2×3 A =  a21 a22 
a31 a32
3×2
' (
a11 a21 a31
t
A = .
a12 a22 a32
 m×n A n×m At

 
' (t 1 4
1 2 3
=  2 5 ,
4 5 6
3 6
 
* +t 5
5 7 8 =  7 .
8

A, B ∈ Mn×m (K) C ∈ Mm×k (K)

(A ± B)t = At ± B t
(At )t = A
(AC)t = C t At
(kA)t = kAt , k ∈ R.

AB
' ( ' (
a 1 b 1
A= B= .
0 1 1 0

(AB)t
AB

' (t ' (
t ab + 1 a ab + 1 1
(AB) = = .
1 0 a 0
' (' ( ' (
b 1 a 1 ab + 1 1
BAt t
= = .
1 0 0 1 a 0

square matrix
n×n A

A = [aij ], i, j ∈ [1, n],

 n

n×n K
Mn (K)

trace A = [aij ] i, j ∈
[1, n] tr(A)

tr(A) = a11 + a22 + · · · + ann

)n
= aii .
i=1

A, B ∈ Mn (K)

tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B)

tr(kA) = k tr(A), k∈K
tr(At ) = tr(A)
tr(AB) = tr(BA)
tr(ABC) = tr(CAB) = tr(BCA), .

identity unit matrix

I ∈ Mn (K) In n

δij
Kronecker
 
1 0 ··· 0
 0 1 ··· 0 
 
I ≡  
 ··· 
0 0 ··· 1
,
0, ∀ i %= j
= [δij ], δij =
1, ∀ i = j.

B ∈ Mn (K) BI = IB ≡ B I ∈
Mn (K)

order
 A ∈ Mn (K) n
A An

A0 = I,
An = AAn−1 , n ≥ 1,

A, B ∈ Mn (K)

Am An = Am+n
(Am )n = Amn
Am B n = B n Am
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2
(A + B)(A − B) = A2 − B 2 .

AB = BA

' (
7 4
n A=
−9 −5
' (
1 + 6n 4n
An = , n ≥ 1.
−9n 1 − 6n

n=1 An |n=1 = A
n
n+1
' (' (
1 + 6n 4n 7 4
n
A A =
−9n 1 − 6n −9 −5
' (
(1 + 6n)7 − 9(4n) 4(1 + 6n) − 5(4n)
=
7(−9n) − 9(1 − 6n) 4(−9n) − 5(1 − 6n)
' (
7 + 6n 4n + 4
=
−9n − 9 −5 − 6n
' (
1 + 6(n + 1) 4(n + 1)
=
−9(n + 1) 1 − 6(n + 1)
≡ An+1 .
 diagonal matrix

D = [dij ] dij = 0 i %= j
D = diag (d11 , d22 , . . . , dnn ) .

3×3

 
3 0 0
diag(3, −17, 2) =  0 −17 0  .
0 0 2
A=
diag(3, −17, 2)

    2 
3 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0
A2 =  0 −17 0   0 −17 0  =  0 (−17)2 0 
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 22
  
32 0 0 3 0 0
A3 = A A=
2  0 (−17)2 0   0 −17 0 
0 0 22 0 0 2
 
33 0 0
=  0 (−17)3 0 .
0 0 23

n
n

Dn = diag (dn11 , dn22 , . . . , dnnn ) .

upper/lower triangular ma-
trix A = [aij ] i, j ∈ [1, n]

,
aij , i≥j ( i ≤ j)
A=
0, i<j ( i > j).
    
8 1 2 5 0 0
 0 5 3   2 2 0 ,
0 0 1 2 0 3

symmetric matrix
A = [aij ] i, j ∈ [1, n]

At = A ⇒ aij = aji , i, j ∈ [1, n].

antisymmetric skew-symmetric matrix

,
aij = −aji i, j ∈ [1, n]
At = −A ⇒
aii = 0.

i
i

   
1 2 5 0 10 5
A= 2 3 7  B =  −10 0 −3  ,
5 7 −10 −5 3 0

 
1 2 5
At =  2 3 7  = A.
5 7 −10

 
0 −10 −5
B t =  10 0 3  = −B.
5 −3 0
 orthogonal
A

AAt = At A = I.

(x, y)
R2 R3
θ
 
' ( cos θ − sin θ 0
cos θ sin θ
A= , B =  sin θ cos θ 0 .
− sin θ cos θ
0 0 1

' (' ( ' (

cos θ − sin θ cos θ sin θ 1 0
At A = = .
sin θ cos θ − sin θ cos θ 0 1
    
cos θ sin θ 0 cos θ − sin θ 0 1 0 0
BtB =  − sin θ cos θ 0   sin θ cos θ 0 = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

AAt = I BB t = I

conjugate matrix A = [aij ]

A ∈ Mm×n (C) Ā
A

Ā = [āij ], i ∈ [1, m], j ∈ [1, n].

' (
2 + 8i 5 − 3i 4 − 7i
A=
6i 1 − 4i 3 + 2i
 ' (
2 − 8i 5 + 3i 4 + 7i
Ā = .
−6i 1 + 4i 3 − 2i

conjugate transpose matrix

A A∗

A∗ ≡ Āt .

(Ā)t = (At )

' (
2 + 8i 5 − 3i 4 − 7i
A=
6i 1 − 4i 3 + 2i

A∗ = (Ā)t
' (t
2 − 8i 5 + 3i 4 + 7i
=
−6i 1 + 4i 3 − 2i
 
2 − 8i −6i
=  5 + 3i 1 + 4i  .
4 + 7i 3 + 2i

hermitian matrix
A = [aij ] A ∈ Mn (C)
,
aij = āji , ∀i %= j
Ā = At ⇒
aii ∈ R, ∀i ∈ [1, n].
antihermitian matrix

Ā = −At .
 A B = iA

   
10 1 − 2i 4 + 7i 0 1 − 2i 4 + 7i
A =  1 + 2i 8 i  B =  −(1 + 2i) 0 2i  ,
4 − 7i −i 2 −(4 − 7i) 2i 0

unitary ortho-
normal matrix A = [aij ] A ∈
Mn (C)

A∗ A = AA∗ = I.

' √ (
√i/2 3/2
A =
3/2 i/2

' √ (' √ ( ' (

√i/2 3/2 −i/2 3/2 1
+ 3
0
AA =
∗ √ = 4 4 = I.
3/2 i/2 3/2 −i/2 0 1
4 + 3
4

A∗ A = I

inverse matrix
A ∈ Mn (K) A−1
* + * +
A A−1 = A−1 A = I.

non-singular invertible
A singular
 ' (
2 5
A =
' ( 1 3
3 −5
B=
−1 2

' (
6 − 5 −10 + 10
AB = = I = BA.
3 − 3 −5 + 6

B ≡ A−1

A, B, C, . . . , N ∈ Mn (K)

(A−1 )−1 = A
(AB) −1
= B −1 A−1
(ABC . . . N )−1 = N −1 . . . C −1 B −1 A−1
1 −1
(λA)−1 = A , λ∈R
λ
(At )−1 = (A−1 )t
1 1 1
A = diag(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇒ A−1 = diag( , , . . . , ).
a1 a2 an

At = A−1
A∗ = A−1

m n

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

=
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm ,
     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
    
  = .
 ...    
am1 am2 ... amn xn bn

AX = B,
 
x1
 x2 
 
A = [aij ] X= 
 
xn
 
b1
 b2 
 
B= 
 
bn

x+y+z = 1
x−y+z = 0

 
' ( x ' (
1 1 1  y = 1
.
1 −1 1 0
z

B=0

X=
0
 AX = 0

m n

m<n

 
' ( x
2 3 1  y =0
2 1 0
z

1.10.2

2x + 3y + z = 0 z = 4x
⇒
2x + y = 0 y = −2x.

x∈R

(x, y, z) = (x, −2x, 4x).

AX = B
A

X = A−1 B.

A−1

AX = B ⇒ A−1 (AX) = A−1 B ⇒ (A−1 A)X = A−1 B ⇒ X = A−1 B.

AX = B
A
  
1
2 0 i
2
 
A= 1
2
i
2
i
2 
  i 1
2 0
−1 1 −i
K =  2i −2i 0 
−3i i 1

1 i
x1 + x3 = i
2 2
1 i i
x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
2 2 2
1
ix1 + x2 = 5i.
2

AX = B B = (i, 1, 5i)t
X = A−1 B A−1 = K
  
−1 1 −i i
X =  2i −2i 0  1 
−3i i 1 5i
 
3 − 2i1

=  −(1 + i)  .
3( 21 + i)

A ∃A−1
AX = 0 X=0
A

m×n

A = [aij (xk )], i ∈ [1, m], j ∈ [1, n] xk ∈ K, k ∈ Z.

K A
 dA
A" =
dx
- .
d
= (aij (x)) .
dx
A ∈ Mm×k (K) B ∈ Mk×n (K)

(A + B)" = A" + B "

(aA) "
= aA" , a∈R
(f (x)A)" = f (x) A + f (x)A"
"

(AB)" = A" B + AB "

(eAx )" = AeAx
= eAx A, K≡R C

' (
x sin 2x
A= .
ln x e4x
A

' (
1 2 cos 2x
A" = .
1
x 4e4x

/ -/ .
A(x) dx = aij (x)dx .
' (
x2 −5ex
A=
cos x 1

/ ' x3
( ' x3
(
+ c1 −5ex + c2 −5ex
Adx = 3 = 3 + C,
sin x + c3 x + c4 sin x x
C = [cij ] 2×2
cij ∈ R
    
3 0 ' ( 5 2
4 −1
A =  −1 2  , B= , C = 3 5 
0 2
1 1 6 7

α A + 5C
AB A − 2C

     
3 0 25 10 28 10
A + 5C =  −1 2  +  15 25  =  14 27  .
1 1 30 35 31 36

   
3(4) + 0 3(−1) + 0 12 −3
AB =  (−1)4 (−1)2 + 4  =  −4 5 .
4 + 0 (−1) + 2 4 1

     
3 0 10 4 −7 −4
A − 2C =  −1 2  −  6 10  =  −7 −8  .
1 1 12 14 −11 −13

' ( ' (
1+i 2 2 2
A= , B=
i −2 + 3i 6i 2i

α A2 , AĀ
AB A − B B̄

' (' (
1+i 2 1+i 2
A 2
=
i −2 + 3i i −2 + 3i
' (
(1 + i)2 + 2i 2(1 + i) + 2(−2 + 3i)
=
i(1 + i) + i(−2 + 3i) 2i + (−2 + 3i)2
' (
4i −2 + 8i
= ,
−4 − i −5 − 10i
' (' (
1+i 2 1−i 2
AĀ =
i −2 + 3i −i −2 − 3i
' (
2 − 2i −2 − 4i
= .
4 + 3i 13 + 2i
 ' (' (
1+i 2 2 2
AB =
i −2 + 3i 6i 2i
' (
2 + 14i 2 + 6i
= .
−18 − 10i −6 − 2i
B B̄

' (' (
2 22 2
B B̄ =
6i 2i
−6i −2i
' (
4 − 12i 4 − 4i
= ,
12 + 12i 4 + 12i
' ( ' (
1+i 2 4 − 12i 4 − 4i
A − B B̄ = −
i −2 + 3i 12 + 12i 4 + 12i
' (
−3 + 13i −2 + 4i
= .
−12 − 11i −6 − 9i
' (
−1 0 1
A = 3×2 B
0 1 1
AB = I
 
a b
B =  −a − 1 1 − b  .
a+1 b
(BA)2 B =
B
 
x1 y1
B =  x2 y2  AB = I
x3 y3


   x3 = 1 + x1
' ( x1 y1 ' ( 

−1 0 1  x2 1 0 x2 = −x3
y2  = ⇒
0 1 1 0 1 
 y1 = y3
x3 y3 
y2 = 1 − y3 .
 
x1 y1
B =  −1 − x1 1 − y1 
1 + x1 y1
x1 = a y1 = b

(BA)2 B = (BA)(BA)B = B(AB)(AB) = BI 2 = B.

 ' ( ' (
25 3 6 3i 3 + 3i * +
A= , B= , C= cos 2θ sin θ .
7 9 2 3 + 3i 3i

3×2 2×2 2×1



25 7 ' (
cos 2θ
At =  3 2  , B t = B, Ct = .
sin θ
6 2
' (
a b
2×2 B=
c d
B2 = 0

B2 = 0

a2 + bc = 0
 
' ( 
  α) b = 0, a + d %= 0,
a + bc
2
(a + d)b (a + d)b = 0
=0⇒ ⇒ β) c = 0, a + d %= 0,
(a + d)c cb + d2 
 (a + d)c = 0 
 γ) b %= 0, a + d = 0.
cb + d = 0
2

α) a = b = d = 0 c %= 0,
β) a = c = d = 0 b %= 0,
2
γ) a = −d c = − ab .

' ( ' ( ' (

0 0 0 b a b
α) B = , β) B = γ) B = 2
c 0 0 0 − ab −a

B2 = 0

A B n×n
C =A+B

A = [aij ], B = [bij ] C = [cij ]

cij = aij + bij ,

cji = aji + bji , ∀ i, j.

A B aij = aji bij = bji

cij = cji , ∀ i, j.
  
7 2 3 4
 −5 −5 −5 −5 
A=
 6
.
6 7 9 
−5 2 3 10

tr(A) = 7 − 5 + 7 + 10 = 19.
 
0 2 2
A2 A3 A= 0 0 2 .
0 0 0

    
0 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 4
A2 =  0 0 2  0 0 2 = 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
    
0 0 4 0 2 2 0 0 0
A3 = A2 A =  0 0 0  0 0 2 = 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ak = 0 k ≥ 3.
m
strictly upper diagonal matrix
Ak = 0 k ≥ m.
 
1 1 2
A2 A3 A4 A= 0 1 1 .
0 0 1

    
1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 5
A2 =  0 1 1  0 1 1 = 0 1 2 .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
    
1 2 5 1 1 2 1 3 9
A3 = A2 A =  0 1 1  0 1 1 = 0 1 3 .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
    
1 3 9 1 1 2 1 4 14
A4 = A3 A =  0 1 3  0 1 1 = 0 1 4 .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
  
2 13 ;
A= ; 6 ; 
22 ; 5

a21 = a12 = 13
a13 = a31 = 22
a23 = a32 = k, ∀k ∈ R.

 
2 13 22
A =  13 6 k , ∀k ∈ R.
22 k 5
' (
a b
A=
c d
' ( ' (
1 0 a 0
B= C=
0 0 0 a
2×2
A B
' (' ( ' (' (
a b 1 0 1 0 a b
AB = BA ⇒ = ⇒
c d 0 0 0 0 c d
' ( ' ( ,
a 0 a b c = 0
= ⇒
c 0 0 0 b = 0.
' (
a 0
A=
0 d
C C = aI
C 2×2
D
CD − DC = (aI)D − D(aI) = aD − aD = 0.
R(θ)
' (
cos θ − sin θ
R(θ) = .
sin θ cos θ
α θ 1 , θ2 R(θ1 )R(θ2 ) = R(θ1 + θ2 )
A = R(θ)
' (
cos 2θ − sin 2θ
A = 2
.
sin 2θ cos 2θ
An n
X = (1, 2) t

X π/2
 sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2
cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2

' (' (
cos θ1 − sin θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ2
R(θ1 )R(θ2 ) =
sin θ1 cos θ1 sin θ2 cos θ2
' (
cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 −(cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )
=
sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 + cos θ1 cos θ2
' (
cos(θ1 + θ2 ) − sin(θ1 + θ2 )
=
sin(θ1 + θ2 ) cos(θ1 + θ2 )

= R(θ1 + θ2 ).

θ1 = θ2
A A2 k
A ' (
cos kθ − sin kθ
A =k
k ∈ Z.
sin kθ cos kθ

k+1

Ak+1 = Ak
' A (' (
cos kθ − sin kθ cos θ − sin θ
=
sin kθ cos kθ sin θ cos θ
' (
cos(kθ + θ) − sin(kθ + θ)
=
sin(kθ + θ) cos(kθ + θ)
' (
cos(k + 1)θ − sin(k + 1)θ
= .
sin(k + 1)θ cos(k + 1)θ

4 ' (' ( ' (

π5 0 −1 1 −2
R θ= X= = .
2 1 0 2 1
' (
k 3
n .
0 0
 ' (2 ' ( ' (3 ' (
k 3 k2 3k k 3 k3 3k 2
= = .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

n
' (n ' (
k 3 kn 3k n−1
= .
0 0 0 0

(n+1)

' (n+1 ' (n ' ( ' (' (

k 3 k 3 k 3 kn 3k n−1 k 3
= =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
' (
k n+1 3k n
= .
0 0
' (
1 2
A=
2 −2

f (x) = x2 + 5 g(x) = x3 − x2 + 1.

α A2 A3 + I f (A) g(A)

' (' (
1 2 1 2
A2
=
2 −2 2 −2
' (
1+4 2 + 2(−2)
=
2 + (−2)2 2(2) + (−2)(−2)
' (
5 −2
= .
−2 8

' (' ( ' (

5 −2 1 2 1 0
A3 + I = +
−2 8 2 −2 0 1
' (
5 + 2(−2) + 1 5(2) + (−2)(−2)
=
−2 + 8(2) (−2)2 + 8(−2) + 1
' (
2 14
= .
14 −19

' ( ' ( ' (

5 −2 1 0 10 −2
f (A) = A + 5I =2
+5 = .
−2 8 0 1 −2 13
 ' ( ' ( ' (
2 14 5 −2 −3 16
g(A) = A3 − A2 + I = − = .
14 −19 −2 8 16 −27
' (
4 −3
A= A2 =
1 0
4A − 3I
3n − 1 3 − 3n
An = A+ I, ∀ n ≥ 1.
2 2
n=1 n=2
n n+1
' (
3n − 1 3 − 3n 3n − 2 2 3 − 3n
An A= A+ I A= A + IA
2 2 2 2
3n − 1 3 − 3n 4(3n − 1) + (3 − 3n ) 3n − 1
= (4A − 3I) + A= A−3 I
2 2 2 2
3(3 ) − 1
n
3(3 ) − 3
n
3 n+1
−1 3−3 n+1
= A− I= A+ I
2 2 2 2
= An+1 .

A n B
n×m B t AB
m×m

* +t (1.8) (At =A)

(B t AB)t = B t (AB) = (AB)t (B t )t = B t At B = B t AB.

(m × n)(n × n)(n × m) = m × m

' (' (
x + iy z + it a + ib c + id
, ∀x, y, z, t, a, b, c, d ∈ Z
−z + it x − iy −c + id a − ib

' (
(x + iy)(a + ib)+(z + it)(−c + id) (x + iy)(c + id)+(z + it)(a − ib)
=
(−z + it)(a + ib)+(x − iy)(−c + id) (−z + it)(c + id)+(x − iy)(a − ib)
' (
X + iY Z + iW
−Z + iW X − iY
 X = xa − yb − zc − td,
Y = ya + xb − ct + dz,
Z = xc − yd + za + bt
W = yc + dx + at − zb.

√ √
x" = 2 (x +
1
√ 3y) x"" = 2 (−x √
1 "
+ y" 3)
, ,
y" = 2 (−x 3
1
+ y) y "" = − 2 (x" 3 +
1
y")
x"" , y "" x, y

' ( ' √ (' (

1
x"
= √1 3 x
y" 2 − 3 1 y
' ( ' √ (' " (
x"" 1 −1 3 x
= √ ,
y "" 2 − 3 −1 y"

* +t
x" y"
* +t
x"" y ""
* +t
x y
' ( ' √ (' √ (' (
x"" 1 −1 3 1 3 x
= √ √
y "" 4 − 3 −1 − 3 1 y
' √ √ (' (
1
= √−1 −√3 − 3 + 3 x
4 − 3+ 3 −3 − 1 y
' (' (
1 0 x
= −
0 1 y
' (
x
= − .
y

x"" = −x
y "" = −y.

' (' (
* + 5 −7 x
x y = 30
7 3 y
 ' (' ( ' (
* + 5 −7 x * + x
x y = 30 ⇒ 5x + 7y −7x + 3y = 30
7 3 y y
x2 y2
⇒ (5x + 7y)x + (−7x + 3y)y = 30 ⇒ 5x2 + 3y 2 = 30 ⇒ + =1
6 10

√ O(0, 0)
y √ 2 10 x
2 6

 
1 0 5i
A =  −4i 8 0 .
2 1+i 0

At Ā A∗

A
 
1 −4i 2
At =  0 8 1 + i ,
5i 0 0
 
1 0 −5i
Ā =  4i 8 0 ,
2 1−i 0
 
1 4i 2
A∗ =  0 8 1 − i .
−5i 0 0
Pauli

' ( ' ( ' (

0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = .
1 0 i 0 0 −1

A ∈ Mn (K)
Ā = At σ1 σ3
σ2
' (
0 i
σ̄2 = = σ2t .
−i 0
 x
' (
−2 + x −10
B=
3x + 4 2x − 4

x−2 = 0
⇒ x = 2.
2x − 4 = 0
' (
0 −10
B= .
10 0

x y
' (
a b
A= a2 + b 2 = 1
x y

AAt = At A = I
' (' ( ' (' ( ' (
a b a x a x a b 1 0
= =
x y b y b y x y 0 1


a2 + b 2 = 1 



x2 + y 2 = 1 


ax + by = 0 x2 = 1 − a2 = b2 x=b y = −a
⇒ ⇒
a2 + x2 = 1 
 y 2 = 1 − b 2 = a2 x = −b y = a.


b2 + y 2 = 1 


ba + xy = 0
' ( ' (
a b a b
A= A=
b −a −b a

' (
cos(ln(x)) sin(ln(x))
A= x > 0.
− sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x))
9
α At , A" , Adx A−1 = At
A x
 A

' (
cos(ln(x)) − sin(ln(x))
At = ,
sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x))
' (
1 − sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x))
A = "
,
x − cos(ln(x)) − sin(ln(x))
/ ' (
x cos(ln(x)) + sin(ln(x)) − cos(ln(x)) + sin(ln(x))
Adx = ,
2 cos(ln(x)) − sin(ln(x))) cos(ln(x)) + sin(ln(x))

A A∗ = At A∗ A =
A A=I
∗
' (' (
cos(ln(x)) sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x)) − sin(ln(x))
AA t
=
− sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x)) sin(ln(x)) cos(ln(x))
' (
cos2 (ln(x)) + sin2 (ln(x)) 0
=
0 cos2 (ln(x)) + sin2 (ln(x))

= I.
At A = I
A−1 = At
x=1 A≡I

   
4 2 + 3i 4 − 5i 6 2−i 4+i
α)  2 − 3i 10 6 + 2i   2−i 16 i 
4 + 5i 6 − 2i −14 4+i i 5
 
2 −3 5
 −3 1 1 
5 1 −3

Ā = At

A = At

C = A∗ A
' (
1 i 0
A=
i 0 1
 3×3 C
   
1 −i ' ( 2 i −i
1 i 0
C =  −i 0  =  −i 1 0 
i 0 1
0 1 i 0 1

C∗ = C

√
 √ 
1/√3 i/ 2 ;
U =  1/√ 3 0√ ; 
i/ 3 1/ 2 ;

* +t
U x y z ∈C
U

U U ∗ = U ∗U = I ⇒
 √ √ √  √ √ 
1/√ 3 1/ 3 −i/√ 3 1/√3 i/ 2 x
 i/ 2 0 1/ 2   1/√ 3 0 √ y =I ⇒
x̄ ȳ z̄ i/ 3 1/ 2 z
 x+y−iz

1 0 √
3
 
 = I.
i(x+iz)
 0 1 − 2
x̄+ȳ+iz̄
√
3
ix̄+z̄
√
2
|x| + |y| + |z|2
2 2

1
x = −iz, y = 2iz, |z|2 = .
6
* +t
−iz 2iz z |z|2 =
1/6 U ∗U = I

Z = [zij ]
A = [aij ] K = [kij ] Z = A+K
zij = aij +ikij Z A = (Z +Z ∗ )/2
aij = (zij + z̄ij )/2

' ( ' (
3+i 4 + 2i i i
Z1 = , Z2 = .
0 5 −i i
 Z+Z ∗
Z = A+K Z = A+K A = 2
⇒ ⇒
Z∗ = A∗ + K ∗ Z∗ = A + (−K) K = Z−Z ∗
2 .

Z1
,' ( ' (: ' (
1 3+i 4 + 2i 3−i 0 3 2+i
A1 = + =
2 0 5 4 − 2i 5 2−i 5
,' ( ' (: ' (
1 3+i 4 + 2i 3−i 0 i 2+i
K1 = − = .
2 0 5 4 − 2i 5 −2 + i 0

Z2
,' ( ' (: ( '
1 i i −i i i 0
A2 = + =
2 −i i −i −i 0 −i
,' ( ' (: ' (
1 i i −i i i 0
K2 = − = .
2 −i i −i −i 0 i

3×3 A = [aij ] B = [bij ]

1
aij = i − 2j, bij = .
j+3
AB, BA A2

AB BA
' ( ' (
a b q r
A= , B= .
c d s t

AB − BA %= I

  

6 0 ' ( 5 2
4 −1
A =  −2 4  , B= , C= 3 5 
0 2
2 2 6 7

4A + 5C AB A − 2C

   
6 0 1 5 2
A =  −2 4  , B =  −1 1 0 ,
2 2 −4 1 3
  
−3 −1 ' (
4 −1
C = 2 1 , D= .
2 0
4 3

A + B, A + C, AB, BA, CD, DC, D2 .

' (
a b
A=
c d

A2 − (a + d)A + (ad − bc)I = 0.

 
0 2i −1
A =  −i 2 0 .
3 0 10 + 5i

At , Ā Āt
' (
6 15
A2 A=
9 3
a, b, c ∈ R aI + bA + cA2

 
2 1 0
X2 =  0 2 1  X
0 0 2
 
a b c
 0 a b 
0 0 a
C
 
1 1 1
B= x y z 
x2 y2 z2

 
a + bx + cx2 a + by + cy 2 a + bz + cz 2
A =  c + ax + bx2 c + ay + by 2 c + az + bz 2  .
b + cx + ax2 b + cy + ay 2 b + cz + az 2
A = CB

' (
(n + 1)an −nan+1
A = n
, ∀n ≥ 1.
nan−1 (1 − n)an
 
0 r s
B= 0 0 t  B3 = 0
0 0 0
   
1 2 −2
X= 3 4  Y = 6 
5 6 8
XX t X tX Y Y t Y tY

' (' (
* + 1 −7 x
x y = 30
7 1 y

 
7 2 3 4  
 −5 −5 −5 −5  10 −7 0
 ,  −3 2.099 6  .
 6 6 7 9 
5 −1 5
−5 2 3 10

B B̄B %= B B̄
 
3 3 −3
A= 0 0 3 
6 3 6
α A3 = 9A2 − 27A + 27I
A4 A2 , A, I
Pauli
' ( ' ( ' (
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = .
1 0 i 0 0 −1

α σ12 = σ22 = σ32 = I.

σ1 σ2 = −σ2 σ1 , σ1 σ3 = −σ3 σ1 , σ2 σ3 = −σ3 σ2 .
σ1 σ2 − σ2 σ1 = 2iσ3 .

P −1 AP = B P −1 An P = B n
n≥1

' ( ' (
1 1 1 2 0
A= , B= , C = AB.
2 1 1 0 −2
A2 , A3 , B 2 , B 3 , C 2 C3
 k
 
n −1 −1 −1
 −1 n −1 −1 
A=
 −1

−1 n −1 
−1 −1 −1 n

 
k 1 1 1
1  1
 k 1 1 
.
A−1 =
(n + 1)(n − 3)  1 1 k 1 
1 1 1 k

   
12 −2i 3+i 4i −2i 3+i
A =  2i 13 5 − 2i  , B =  −2i 6i −5 + 2i 
3−i 5 + 2i 1 −3 + i 5 + 2i 2i
 
1 −i −1 + i
1
C=  i 1 1 + i .
2 1+i −1 + i 0
* +t
x"" y "" z ""
* +t
x y z

x" = √12 (x − z) x"" = √12 (y " − z " )

√ √
y " = 12 (x + y√2 + z) y "" = − 12 (x" √2 + y " + z " )
z " = 12 (x − y 2 + z), z "" = 12 (−x" 2 + y " + z " ).

; √ √ <  
1 −i −1 + i
4 (1 +i 3)
1 √3 (1 + i) 1
A= √ 2 2 √ , B=  i 1 1+i 
− 2√2 (1
3
+ i) 4 (i +
1
3) 2
1 + i −1 + i 0

A = diag(2, 3, 5) B = diag(7, 0, 4)
α AB, A2 , B 2 f (A), f (B), f (AB) f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2

x
' (
−4 x + 10
B=
2x − 1 x + 2
 ' ( ' (
1 1−i i 1 1−i 1+i
A= √ , B=
3 −i −1 − i 2 1+i 1−i

x, y, z
 
2 x+i yi ' (
y x−i
A= 3−i 20 10 + zi  , B=
3+i z+2
2i 10 − xi −2

 
cos(2x) sin(x2 ) 12x cos(x)
A(x) =  2 cos2 (2x) sin2 (x)  .
3 + 5x 2 ln(x) 4

α 9 At A2
A(x)dx A" A""
A

 
cos(3 ln(x)) − sin(3 ln(x)) 0
A =  sin(3 ln(x)) cos(3 ln(x)) 0 
0 0 1

x>0 9
α At , A" , Adx A−1 = At
A x

X
X = CX + D
' ( ' (
0.1 0.5 50000
α C= D= .
0.6 0.2 30000
' ( ' (
0 0.6 36000
C= D= .
0.5 0.2 22000
   
0.2 0.2 0 4000000
C =  0.1 0 0.2  D =  8000000  .
0.3 0.1 0.2 6000000
    
1/3 −2/3 2/3 1 −2a 2a2
1
α)  2/3 −1/3 −2/3  .  2a 1 − 2a2 −2a  .
2/3 2/3 1/3 1 + 2a2 2a2 2a 1

 
2 1 2
A= 3 0 3 
−2 3 0
 3

2 −1 − 21
B= 1 − 32 0 
− 32 4
3
1
2

2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 4
3x1 + 3x3 = 6
−2x1 + 3x2 = 10.

B A

' ( ' (
5 −2.5 0.3 0.25
α) A= , B= .
−2 3 0.2 0.5
' ( ' (
5 2.5 0.3 −0.25
A= , B= .
2 3 −0.2 0.5

x" = 2x − y x"" = x" + y "

y" = −x + 3y y "" = −x" − y "

x"" , y "" x, y