Lecture 10

Hierarchical routing
 Outlines
• Hierarchical routing
• Routing protocol
– Interior
• Routing information protocol (RIOP)
• Open shortest path first (OSPF)
• Multicast Open shortest path first (MOSPF)
– Exterior
• Border Gateway protocol (BGP)
Introduction Hierarchical routing
 Introduction Hierarchical routing
Cont…
• A set of aggregated routers and networks
managed by a single organization called
autonomous systems (AS)
• The routers within the As exchange
information using a common routing protocol
• Routers in same AS run same routing
protocol
– “intra-AS” routing protocol
– routers in different AS can run different intra-
AS routing protocol
 Introduction Hierarchical routing
Cont…
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d • Forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
algorithm algorithm
– intra-AS sets entries for
Forwarding internal destinations
table
– inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for external
destinations
 Routing protocols
• Two classes of protocols:
–Interior
• Routing information protocol (RIP)
• Open shortest path first (OSPF)
• Multicast Open shortest path first
(MOSPF)
–Exterior
• Border Gateway protocol (BGP)
 Routing information protocol (RIP)

• Router within an autonomous system

exchange messages
• Distance vector routing using hop count
• Table entries updated using values
received from neighbors
• Maintain timers to detect tailed links
 Drawbacks of RIP
• Slow convergence for large networks
• If a network becomes inaccessible, it may
take a long time for all other routing tables to
now this
– After a number of message transfers
• Routing loops may take along time to be
detected
– Counting to infinity problem
• Too much band width consumed by routing
updates
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Widely used as the interior router
protocol in TCP/IP networks
• Basic concept:
– Computes a route that incurs the lest cost
• User configurable: delay, data rate, cost etc.
– Each router maintains a database
• Topology of the autonomous system to which
the router belongs
• Vertices and edges
 OSPF Cont..
• Two types of vertices
– Router
– Network
– Two types of (Weighted ) edges
• Two routers connected to each other by direct point
to point link
• A router is directly connected to a network
• A router calculates the least-cost path to all
destination networks
• Using Dijkstra’s algorithm
• Only the next hop to the destination is used in the
forwarding process
 OSPF Cont..
• At steady state
• All routers know the same network topology
• “Hello” packets sent every 10 seconds to
neighbors
• Link state advertisement (LSA) flooded
initially from each router
• Absence of “Hello” packets for 40 seconds
indicate failure of neighbor
– Cause LSA to be flooded again
• LSAs re-flooded every 20 minutes anyway
OSPF Header Format
 OSPF Cont..
• Packet types
– 1: Hello (check if neighbor is up)
– 2: Database Description (synchronize
database at beginning)
– 3: Link State Request (request specific LSA)
– 4: Link State Update (LSAs flooded)
– 5: Link State Acknowledgement
Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2
 Hierarchical OSPF Cont.…
• Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
– link-state advertisements only in area
– each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
• Area border routers: “summarize” distances
to nets in own area, advertise to other Area
Border routers.
• Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited
to backbone.
• Boundary routers: connect to other AS
 Multicast Link state (MOSPF)
• Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) is
extension of the OPSF protocol which is used in
unicast routing.
• It also uses the source based tree approach to
multicasting.
• If the internet is running a unicast link state routing
algorithm, the idea can be extended to provide a
multicast link state routing algorithm.
• To extend unicasting to multicasting, each router
needs to have another database, as with cases of
unicast distance vector routing to show which
interface has an active member in particular group
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

• BGP is the most widely used exterior

router protocol for the internet
• Allows routers belonging to different
autonomous systems to exchange routing
information
– Sent as messages over TCP connections
– The router table get updated
 BGP messages Cont.…..
Types of error conditions reported
• Message header error: authentication and syntax
• Open message error: syntax errors and
unrecognized options
• Update message error
• Hold timer expired: used to close a connection if
periodic messages are not received
• Case: used by a router to close a connection with
another router in the absence of any other error
 Functional Procedures in BGP
• Neighbor Acquisition
– Two routers agree to be neighbors by
exchanging message
• Neighbor Reachability
– Check the neighbor is still alive, and is
maintaining the relationships
• Network Reachability
– Each router maintains a list of the networks
that it can reach and the preferred routes
 BGP routing policy
Legend: Provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

• A,B,C are provider networks

• X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
• X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
– X does not want to route from B via X to C, so X
will not advertise to B a route to C
 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

• A advertises path AW to B
• B advertises path BAW to X
• Should B advertise path BAW to C?
– No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since
neither W nor C are B’s customers
– B wants to force C to route to w via A
– B wants to route only to/from its customers!
 Assignment
• As you are experts in the telecom
industry you are asked to make short
presentation on (what is the routing
process in your company)
• Key words
– Routing in telephone networks,
Dynamic Non-hierarchical Routing
(DNHR), Hierarchical routing; Trunk
status map routing (TSMR), real-time
network routing (RTNR)