CE 138

Civil Engineering Laws, Engineering Ethics and Engineering

Contracts

Activity 2.1
Diagnostic Technical Engineering Skills
- Diagnose ---- identify the nature of (an illness or other problem) by examination
of the symptoms.

What did diagnosed mean?

(DY-ug-NOH-sis) The process of How do you diagnose a patient?

identifying a disease, condition,
Making a diagnosis involves multiple
or injury from its signs and
symptoms. A health history,
physical exam, and tests, such
as blood tests, imaging tests,
and biopsies, may be used to
help make a diagnosis.
What are other words for
diagnosed?
steps including taking a medical
history, performing a physical
exam, obtaining diagnostic tests,
and then examining the data to
come to the best explanation for
the illness. Taking a medical
history is the first step in making a
diagnosis.

Synonyms of diagnosed
Diagnostic --- A test used to help figure
identified.
out what disease or condition a
found. person has based on their signs
and symptoms. Diagnostic tests
evaluated.
may also be used to help plan
assessed. treatment, find out how well
treatment is working, and make a
located. prognosis.
recognized.

investigated.

distinguished.
What is diagnostic test and
example?
Diagnostic assessment examples include
pre-assessment tests that give you
a snapshot of or diagnose
knowledge to screen students. For
instance, if a teacher wants to start a
lesson on two-digit multiplication with
young pupils, they can use diagnostic
assessment to make sure the lesson
is delivered well.
What is the main purpose of
diagnostic test?
Diagnostic assessments are intended to
help teachers identify what
students know and can do in
different domains to support their
students' learning. These kinds of
assessments may help teachers
determine what students
understand in order to build on the
students' strengths and address
their specific needs.
What is a diagnostic test in
school?
A diagnostic test in education aims to
assess criteria in the field of
teaching and learning. This can
be learning conditions such as
knowledge, competences,
motivation, self-regulation,
learning disabilities, and learning
achievements, or more general,
such as intelligence or school
qualification.
What are the two types of
diagnostic exam?
Diagnostic tests are either invasive and
non-invasive. Invasive diagnostic
testing involves puncturing the skin
or entering the body. Examples are
taking a blood sample, biopsies, and
colonoscopies. Non-invasive
diagnostic testing does not involve
making a break in the skin.
What are 4 types of diagnostic
testing?
Diagnostic tests:
Biopsy. A biopsy helps a doctor
diagnose a medical condition. ...
Colonoscopy. ...
CT scan. ...
CT scans and radiation exposure in
children and young people. ...
Electrocardiogram (ECG) ...
Electroencephalogram (EEG) ...
Gastroscopy. ...
Eye tests.
What is the most common
diagnostic test?
Chest x-rays are one of the most commonly
performed diagnostic medical tests. This
test provides a black-and-white image of
your lungs, heart, and chest wall.
When do you give a diagnostic
test?
A diagnostic assessment must happen at the
beginning of a learning experience such
as a new semester or lesson unit. It
should focus on understanding a
student's current knowledge base. A
diagnostic assessment must identify the
strengths and areas of improvement for
the student.
What kind of test is diagnostic
test?
Diagnostic tests are variety of procedures
done by physicians to screen for, detect
and monitor diseases and conditions. It is
used to gather clinical information
necessary for making a diagnosis.
How do I prepare for a diagnostic
test?
For 6 hours before your test, do not eat or
drink (except water). Do not even
chew gum. If you have been advised
to take your medications with food,
eat nothing more than a few soda
crackers 4-8 hours prior to your
exam.
 What type of study is a diagnostic
test?
The most valid study design for assessing the
accuracy of diagnostic tests is a non-
experimental cross-sectional study that
compares a test's classification of a
diagnosis with a reference standard's
classification, in a relevant study
population.
What is a diagnostic test vs lab
test?
7. Pathology test:---- A pathology
Lab tests and diagnostic procedures are tests
used to check if a person's health is
normal. For example, a lab can test a
sample of your blood, urine or body
tissue to see if something is wrong. A
diagnostic test, like blood pressure
testing, can show if you have low or high
blood pressure.
Positron emission -- A procedure in
which a small amount of
radioactive glucose (sugar) is
injected into a vein, and a
scanner is used to make
detailed, computerized pictures
of areas inside the body where
the glucose is taken up.
"the PET scans showed a spike in
the activation of the brain's
opioid receptors"
test is a test that examines a sample
of your body's tissues. Pathology
tests give more information about
your health. They can be used to
help diagnose or monitor a medical
condition, screen for certain health
conditions to find them early, and
monitor your response to medicines
and other treatments.

What are the 7 commonly

performed diagnostic tests? Civil Engineering Diagnostic Tests
and Techniques
The 7 most common diagnostic tests are
the following: What are the tests in civil
1. X-rays. ... engineering?
2. CT scan. ... 1. Concrete Laboratory
3. MRI. ... 2. Compression Testing Machine
(200 tonne)
4. Mammogram. ... 3. Ultrasonic Pulse velocity
5. Ultrasound. ... concrete tester.
4. Rebound Hammer.
6. PET scans. ... --- an image made 5. Flexural Testing Machine.
using Positron Emission 6. Cement Tensile Testing Machine.
Tomography, especially one of the 7. Heat of Hydration Apparatus.
brain. 8. Humidity chamber.
9. Vee Bee consistometer.

1. Concrete Laboratory
Concrete Laboratory Overview
Laboratory Purpose
The primary purpose of the Concrete Laboratory is to conduct research to
develop a better, more durable, cost-effective, and sustainable concrete
infrastructure by:

Investigating and characterizing concrete component materials used for

highways including cement, aggregate, supplementary and alternative
cementitious materials, and admixtures.
 Assessing and improving durability aspects of concrete.
Developing and evaluating new test methods or enhance existing testing
procedures.
Collaborating with academia and industry in advancing new emerging
technologies.
Performing forensic investigations requested within the Agency, by State
departments of transportation (DOTs), and other governmental agencies.
Supporting Performance Engineered Mixtures (PEM) initiative by assessing and
validating methodologies and criteria.

Laboratory Description
The Concrete Laboratory conducts research in many areas related to concrete
materials, such as fly ash, slag cement, and alternative cementitious
materials with little or no hydraulic cement. The laboratory collaborates with
academia, other government agencies, and industry, leveraging expertise in
conducting research to address issues of national significance. The Concrete
Laboratory is inspected by the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory
(CCRL) and accredited by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Materials Reference Laboratory.

2. Compression Testing Machine (200 tonne)

What is a compression testing machine?

A compression testing machine is a universal testing machine (UTM)

specially configured to determine a material's strength and deformation behavior
under compressive (pressing) load. A typical compression tester consists of a
load cell, crosshead(s), compression test tools, electronics, and a drive system.
What is concrete compression machine?
The purpose of a Concrete Compression Machine is straightforward; it uses
compressive force to load different types of concrete specimens to ensure the
material meets design and structural strength requirements. These versatile
machines are the centerpiece of any concrete testing lab.

What is compression testing machine CTM?

Compression Testing machine is used to evaluate the maximum
compressive load capacity of concrete cubes or cylinders. It is mainly used to
assess the grade of concrete.
What are the two types of compression testing?
What are the Types of Compression Testing?
1. Flexure/Bend.
2. Spring Testing.
3. Top-load/Crush.

What is the name of compressive test machine?

 A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials
testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength
and compressive strength of materials.
What is an example of compression test?

Examples of common tests include measuring the point at which a concrete

cylinder breaks under a compressive load, or determining the load at
various displacements when compressing a block of polyurethane foam.

How many types of compression machines are there?

Basically, the tablet compressions are divided into two types which are [1]
single rotary tablet press and [2] double punch rotary press.

What are the uses of compressive machine?

Automatic Compression Machines are used to determine compressive, splitting

and flexural strengths, usually applied to materials of high compression
but low tensile strength, in which the specimen is subjected to
increasing compressive forces until failure occurs.

What are the two types of compression and how do they work?
Any particular compression is either lossy or lossless. Lossless compression
reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy. No
information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression
reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information.

4. Ultrasonic Pulse velocity concrete tester.

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METER
1. Objective And Principle
Objective
The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used to establish:

(i) the homogeneity of the concrete,

(ii) the presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections,

(iii) changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time,

(iv) the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements,

(v) the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another, and

(vi) the values of dynamic elastic modulus of the concrete.

Principle
The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical transducer. When the
pulse is induced into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple
reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within the concrete.
A complex system of stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal
(compressional), shear (transverse) and surface (Rayleigh) waves. The
receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves, which is the
fastest.
 Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the
material through which they pass and depends only on its elastic properties,
pulse velocity method is a convenient technique for investigating structural
concrete.
The underlying principle of assessing the quality of concrete is that comparatively
higher velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete in terms of density,
homogeneity and uniformity is good. In case of poorer quality, lower velocities
are obtained. If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the concrete which comes in
the way of transmission of the pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it
passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the path length longer.
Consequently, lower velocities are obtained. The actual pulse velocity obtained
depends primarily upon the materials and mix proportions of concrete. Density
and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also significantly affect the puise
velocity.

2. Apparatus Required

3. Reference
IS-516(Part 5/Sec 1):2018 “Part 5 Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete- Section 1
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing"

4. Procedure
1. In this test method, the ultrasonic pulse is produced by the transducer which is held in
contact with one surface of the concrete member under test. After traversing a known path
length L in the concrete, the pulse of vibrations is converted into an electrical signal by the
second transducer held in contact with the other surface of the concrete member and an
electronic timing circuit enables the transit time (T) of the pulse to be measured. The pulse
velocity (V) is given by:

V = L/T

2. Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of the material, the maximum energy is
propagated at right angles to the face of the transmitting transducer and best results are,
therefore, obtained when the receiving transducer is placed on the opposite face of the concrete
member (direct transmission or cross probing). However, in many situations two opposite faces
of the structural member may not be accessible for measurements . In such
cases, the receiving transducer is also placed on the same face of the concrete members
(surface probing). Surface probing is not so efficient as cross probing, because the signal
produced at the receiving transducer has an amplitude of only 2 to 3 percent of that produced
by cross probing and the test results are greatly influenced by the surface layers of concrete
which may have different properties from that of concrete inside the structural member. The
indirect velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity on the same concrete element. This
difference may vary from 5 to 20 percent depending largely on the quality of the concrete under
test. For good quality concrete, a difference of about 0.5 km/ sec may generally be encountered.

3. To ensure that the ultrasonic pulses generated at the transmitting transducer pass into the
concrete and are then detected by the receiving transducer, it is essential that there be
adequate acoustical coupling between the concrete and the face of each transducer. Typical
couplants are petroleum jelly, grease, liquid soap and kaolin glycerol paste. If there is very
rough concrete surface, it is required to smoothen and level an area of the surface where the
transducer is to be placed. If it is necessary to work on concrete surfaces formed by other
means, -for example trowelling, it is desirable to measure pulse velocity over a longer path
length than would normally be used. A minimum path length of 150 mm is recommended for the
direct transmission method involving one unmoulded surface and a minimum of 400 mm for the
surface probing method along an unmoulded surface.

4. The natural frequency of transducers should preferably be within the range of 20 to 150
kHz. Generally, high frequency transducers are preferable for short path lengths and low
frequency transducers for long path lengths. Transducers with a frequency of 50 to 60 kHz are
useful for most all-round applications.

5. Since size of aggregates influences the pulse velocity measurement, it is recommended

that the minimum path length should be 100 mm for concrete in which the nominal maximum
size of aggregate is 20 mm or less and 150 mm for concrete in which the nominal maximum
size of aggregate is between 20 to 40 mm.

6. In view of the inherent variability in the test results, sufficient number of readings are taken
by dividing the entire structure in suitable grid markings of 30 x 30 cm or even smaller. Each
junction point of the grid becomes a point of observation.

7. Transducers are held on corresponding points of observation on opposite faces of a

structural element to measure the ultrasonic pulse velocity by direct transmission, i.e., cross
probing. If one of the faces is not- accessible, ultrasonic pulse velocity is measured on one face
of the structural member by surface probing.

8. Surface, probing in general gives lower pulse velocity than in case of cross probing and
depending on number of parameters, the difference could be of the order of about 1 km/sec.

5. Influence of Test Conditions

5.1 Influence of Surface Conditions and Moisture

Content of Concrete
Smoothness of contact surface under test affects the measurement of ultrasonic pulse
velocity. For most concrete surfaces, the finish is usually sufficiently smooth to ensure good
acoustical contact by the use of a coupling medium and by pressing the transducer against the
concrete surface. When the concrete surface is rough and uneven, it is necessary to smoothen
the surface to make the pulse velocity measurement possible.
 In general, pulse velocity through concrete increases with increased moisture content of
concrete. This influence is more for low strength concrete than high strength concrete. The
pulse velocity of saturated concrete may be up to 2 percent higher than that of similar dry
concrete. In general, drying of concrete may result in somewhat lower pulse velocity.

5.2 Influence of Path Length, Shape and Size of the

Concrete Member
As concrete is inherently heterogeneous, it is essential that path lengths be
sufficiently long so as to avoid any error introduced due to its heterogeneity. In field work, this
does not pose any difficulty as the pulse velocity measurements are carried out on thick
structural concrete members. However, in the laboratory where generally small specimens are
used, the path length can affect the pulse velocity readings.
The shape and size of the concrete member do not influence the pulse velocity unless
the least lateral dimension is less than a certain minimum value, for example the minimum
lateral dimension of about 80 mm for 50 kHz natural frequency of the transducer. Table 1 gives
the guidance on the choice of the transducer natural frequency for different path lengths and
minimum transverse dimensions of the concrete members.

5.3 Influence of Temperature of Concrete

Variations of the concrete temperature between 5 and 30°C do not significantly affect the pulse
velocity measurements in concrete. At temperatures between 30 to 60°C there can be reduction
in pulse velocity up to 5 percent. Below freezing temperature, the free water freezes within
concrete, resulting in an increase .in pulse velocity up to 7.5 percent.

5.4 Influence of Stress

When concrete is subjected to a stress which is abnormally high for the quality of the
concrete, the pulse velocity may be reduced due to the development of micro-cracks. This
influence is likely to be the greatest when the pulse path is normal to the predominant direction
of the planes of such micro-cracks. This occurs when the pulse path is perpendicular to the
direction of a uniaxial compressive stress in a member.

This influence is generally insignificant unless the stress is greater than about 60
percent of the ultimate strength of the concrete.

5.5 Effect of Reinforcing Bars

The pulse velocity measured in reinforced concrete in the vicinity of reinforcing bars
is usually higher than in plain concrete of the same composition. This is because, the pulse
velocity in steel is 1.2 to 1.9 times the velocity in plain concrete and, under certain conditions,
the first pulse to arrive at the receiving transducer travels partly in concrete and partly in steel.
The apparent increase in pulse velocity depends upon the proximity of the
measurements to the reinforcing bar, the diameter and number of the bars and their orientation
with respect to the path of propagation.
6. Interpretation Of Result
1. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete is mainly related to its density and modulus of
elasticity. This in turn, depends upon the materials and mix proportions used in making concrete
as well as the method of placing, compaction and curing of concrete.
For example, if the concrete is not compacted as thoroughly as possible, or if there is
segregation of concrete during placing or there are internal cracks or flaws, the pulse velocity
will be lower, although the same materials and mix proportions are used.
2. The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of internal flaws, cracks
and segregation, etc, indicative of the level of workmanship employed; can thus be assessed
using the guidelines given in Table 2, which have been evolved for characterising the quality of
concrete in structures in terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.

3. Since actual values of the pulse velocity obtained, depend on a number of parameters, any
criterion for assessing the quality of concrete on the basis of pulse velocity as given in Table 2
can be held as satisfactory only to a general extent. However, when the comparison is made
amongst different parts of a structure, which have been built at the same time with supposedly
similar materials, construction practices and supervision, the assessment of quality becomes
more meaningful and reliable.
4. The assessment of compressive strength of concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity values is
not adequate because the statistical confidence of the correlation between ultrasonic pulse
velocity and the compressive strength of concrete is not very high. The reason is that a large
number of parameters are involved, which influence the pulse velocity and compressive
strength of concrete to different extents. However, if actual concrete materials and mix
proportions adopted in a particular structure are available, then estimate of concrete strength
can be made by establishing suitable correlation between the pulse velocity and the
compressive strength of concrete specimens made with such materials and mix proportions,
under environmental conditions similar to that in the structure. The estimated strength may vary
from the actual strength by 20 percent. The correlation so obtained may not be applicable for
concrete of another grade or made with different types of materials.
What is the principle of ultrasonic pulse velocity test?

An ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is an in-situ, nondestructive test to check the quality of
concrete and natural rocks. In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock is assessed
by measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse passing through a concrete structure or natural
rock formation.
What is the conclusion of ultrasonic pulse velocity test?
This study indicates that UPV gives an important result of decision- make about the
conditions of concrete structures. It can be concluded that, by means of UPV, it is possible to
contribute with the deterioration control and concrete structures quality.

What characteristics we can determine by ultrasonic pulse velocity test?

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing (UPV) is used to evaluate the internal (volumetric)
condition of materials. It differs from Ultrasonic Testing (UT) in that the stress or sound wave is
not directly used to determine the internal boundaries of defects.

What is the purpose of ultrasonic testing?

Ultrasonic testing is done in materials to determine whether there are flaws or defects
present in a material, and also to determine the thickness of a material. Ultrasonic testing
methods use sound waves to find defects and measure thickness.
What is the basic principle of ultrasonic testing?
Ultrasonic testing (UT) comprises a range of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques
that send ultrasonic waves through an object or material. These high frequency sound waves
are transmitted into materials to characterise the material or for flaw detecting.
What are the advantages of ultrasonic pulse velocity test?
The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is one of the most useful nondestructive methods to
determine the properties of concrete. It is also important in structural engineering where it can
detect defects and determine deterioration.

What are the factors affecting ultrasonic pulse velocity?

The UPV technique is affected by several factors. The most significant include
presence of reinforcement in the pulse vicinity, water-cement ratio, path length and the
positioning of the transducers.

Which defects can be detected by ultrasonic test?

UT technology can detect small defects such as corrosion, pitting, abrasions, and
cracking. It can also spot abnormalities on a volumetric level and can detect anomalies that
other NDT methods may miss. However, certain UT techniques are more adept at reading flaws
than conventional UT.
How is ultrasonic velocity measured?
The measurement of ultrasonic velocities depends upon generating a dynamic
pressure wave (pulse) into a material of known thickness and measuring the transit time of the
emerging acoustic pressure wave. The generation and detection of an acoustic wave is usually
accomplished by a piezoelectric transducer.
What are the limitations of ultrasonic pulse velocity test?
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test method to has some limitation. The manual operation
of the instrument requires careful attention by experienced technicians. If the surface is
irregular, it is difficult to estimate the pulse velocity. The test object must be water resistant.

What are the three types of waves used in ultrasonic testing?

There are four dispersion types of ultrasonic waves; shear (transverse) waves,
longitudinal waves, surface or Rayleigh waves and plate or Lamb waves

What is pulse velocity of good quality concrete?

When UPV of concrete is higher than 4.5 km/s, the concretes are classified as
good and high-quality concrete grade, the concrete are in a good concrete grade with UPV of
3.5–4.5. Figure 11.4. The change of the ultrasonic pulse velocity value of dioctyl terephthalate
concrete.

What do higher pulse velocities indicate?

Explanation: Higher velocities indicate good quality and continuity of the material, while slower
velocities may indicate concrete with many cracks or voids.
What is the normal frequency range for the ultrasonic testing?
Most ultrasonic testing is available within 400 kHz to 25 MHz. These vibrations
are beyond the audible range and propagate in the test material as waves of particle vibrations.
Sound beams of all frequencies can penetrate fine-grained material without difficulty.

What is the conclusion of ultrasonic testing?

CONCLUSION: Among the non-destructive testing methods, the ultrasonic test is almost quite
accurate because it provides the approximately correct information required from the sample
without damaging it. It is possible to maintain the material condition at low cost, such as
aeroplane check-up, using the method.

What are the three uses of ultrasonic?

Ultrasound is used in many different fields such as navigation, medicine, imaging, cleaning,
mixing, communication, testing etc.
What are the benefits of ultrasonic?
Advantages of Advanced Ultrasonic Testing
1. Speed. Advanced ultrasonic techniques like phased array (PAUT) and time of flight
diffraction (TOFD) can provide immediate results. ...
2. Ease of Use. ...
3. Depth. ...
4. Accuracy and Sensitivity. ...
5. Portability. ...
6. Imaging Power. ...
7. Versatility. ...
8. Software.
How do we perform ultrasonic testing step by step process?
Ultrasonic Testing Steps/Procedures:
1. Surface preparation.
2. Equipment calibration.
3. Material propagation angle and mode.
4. System calibration.
5. Straight beam calibration.
6. Calibration confirmation.
7. Distance range points.
8. Examination.

What is the minimum thickness for UT testing?

The minimum thickness noted in this standard is 8mm.
What are the four limitations of ultrasonic testing?
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing Techniques:
[1] More expensive than other methods. [2] Difficult to use on thin materials. [3] Part Geometry
can cause complications. [4] Needs relatively smooth surface to couple transducer.
Which instrument is used for ultrasonic pulse velocity test?
UTC-3034 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester is a microprocessor incorporated equipment which
can be connected to a PC through the RS 232 output. It can also be connected to an
oscilloscope and can perform transit time measurement from 0.1 to 1999.9 μs with a resolution
of 0.1 μs.

5. Rebound Hammer.
The rebound hammer is a nondestructive testing apparatus, whereby the rebound
of the spring driven mass is measured after its impact with concrete surface. The output
of the rebound hammer is referred to as rebound number and are correlated with surface
hardness of concrete.

What is Rebound Hammer (Schmidt Hammer)?

The rebound hammer is a nondestructive testing apparatus, whereby the rebound of
the spring driven mass is measured after its impact with concrete surface. The output of the
rebound hammer is referred to as rebound number and are correlated with surface
hardness of concrete . The internal mechanism of a typical Schmidt Hammer is illustrated
in Fig. 1. The plunger is pushed against the concrete, perpendicular to the surface. As the
hammer body is pushed towards the concrete, the force of the causes the latch to release, and
make an impact on the concrete. At this point, the hammer impacts the shoulder of the plunger
rod & rebounds. During the rebound the slide indicator is moved from the hammer mass, and
the rebound distance is recorded. The hammer can be placed in many configurations; upwards,
downwards, horizontal vertical & at any intermediate angle. Commercial devices in the market
use different means to display the rebound number after each strike. Older generation devices
displays the rebound number through a mechanical slider. Nowadays, most modern hammers
use electrical or even wireless means of displaying the results on data loggers, or smart devices
such as a tablet.
How To Use The Rebound Hammer?
Rebound Hammer is a very simple apparatus to work with; however, in order to collect
reliable, and repeatable readings, certain conditions should be met ahead of testing.

1- Preparing Test Surface

Inspectors should pay attention to the following considerations prior to conducting a
rebound hammer test:

- The testing surface must be at least 150 mm diameter.

- Ground concrete surface (until its flat) if it is heavily textured or contains loose
mortar. Note: It is essential to know that the results from prepared surface are
generally not comparable to those obtained from unprepared surfaces.
- If there is any free moisture or water on the concrete surface, it must be removed
prior to testing.
- Do not test frozen concrete. Note: Concrete should only be tested after it has
thawed, since frozen concrete tends to have high rebound numbers.
- Avoid direct testing over steel reinforcement when cover thickness is less than 20
mm. It is recommended to use a rebar locator to avoid testing on shallow depth
reinforcement.
2- Rebound Hammer Direction
In order to perform the rebound hammer test, the inspector should start by holding the
instrument firmly, and ensuring that the plunger is perpendicular to the test surface. It is also
important to record the orientation of the instrument with respect to horizontal to the nearest 45
degree increment. If the instrument is pointing upwards, a positive angle should be used & if the
instrument points downward a negative angle must be recorded.
3- Taking Measurements
Once the device is lined up, and the angle has been recorded, the inspector then
gradually pushes the instrument toward the test surface until the hammer impacts. After impact,
maintain pressure on the instrument and, depress the side button of the instrument to lock the
plunger in its retracted position. The rebound number is then recorded to the nearest whole
number.

In order to ensure accuracy, 10 readings should be taken from each test area. In
addition, the distances between impact points should be at least 25 mm, and the distance
between impact points and edges of the member should be at least 50 mm. It is also important
to note that if the impact crushes or breaks through a near surface air void the reading must be
disregarded and another reading should be taken.

As previously mentioned, due to different effects of gravity on the rebound as the test angle is
changed, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will require separate
calibration or correction charts.

How to Calculate Rebound Number

The following example shows how to rebound number is calculated and reported. Let’s assume
that the following 10 readings are obtained from one test location:
36 | 34 | 36 | 34 | 37 | 35 | 36 | 36 | 43 | 35

The average of these 10 readings is calculated:

Average 1 = (36+34+36+34+37+35+36+36+43+35)/10 = 36.2 🡪 36

Now, discard the readings that differ from the average of 10 readings by more than 6 units and
determine the average of the remaining readings.

Upper limit: 36+6 = 42

Lower limit: 36-6 = 30

By looking into the original readings, we can see that 43 (larger than upper limit 42) should be
discarded from the list, and the average of the remaining readings calculated and reported as
the average rebound number:
Average Modified = (36+34+36+34+37+35+36+36+35)/9 = 35.4 🡪 35

Note: If more than 2 readings differ from the average by 6 units, discard the entire set of
readings and determine rebound numbers at 10 new locations within the test area.

Note: Therefore, the range of ten readings should not exceed 12.

Applications of Rebound Hammer

The main application of a rebound hammer is to measure the hardness of concrete using the
rebound principle. However, researchers have tried to use the method to assess different
properties of concrete. Among them, the following applications are widespread:

- Assess the in-place uniformity of concrete

- Delineate regions in a structure of poor quality or deteriorated concrete

- As an in-place method to Estimate Concrete Strength

Among these applications, using rebound hammer to estimate strength of concrete has
remained the most controversial use. Researchers are divided when it comes to evaluating
concrete strength by the use of rebound hammer.
Estimate Concrete Strength Using Rebound Hammer (In-Place Method)
In this section, we will review how to Estimate Concrete Strength Using Rebound Hammer.
Initially, this was made through certain calibration curves provided by manufacturers (see Fig
below)
However, further research has showed little apparent theoretical relationship between the
strength of concrete and rebound number (Malhotra and Carino, 2004). However, it is shown
that if a relationship between concrete strength and rebound number for a given concrete is
established, the rebound number might be used for in-place evaluation of strength.

How To Establish Relationship Between Concrete Strength and Rebound Number?

Different methods have been proposed to establish a relationship between rebound number and
compressive strength. The following describes two most widely used approach to establishing
relationship between concrete strength and rebound number.

ACI 228.1R
In order to establish a relationship between rebound number and concrete strength, Inspectors
should take a minimum of 2 replicate cores, from 6 or more locations (12 concrete cores in total)
with different rebound numbers. According to the ASTM C805 standard, test locations should be
selected such that a wide range of rebound numbers in the structure is obtained. Collect,
prepare, and test cores in accordance with Test Method C42/C42M. The strength relationship
will be applicable for the same orientation as used If the rebound number if affected by the
orientation of the instrument during testing, the strength relationship is applicable for the same
orientation as used to obtain the correlation date.

EN 13791
The EN 13791 requires only 9 cores (taken from 9 different locations) in order to establish the
relationship between strength and rebound number. Papworth et al. (2015) have reviewed how
to use the rebound number ro estimate the compressive strength of concrete.

Note: According to the ASTM C 805, Locations where strengths are to be estimated using the
developed correlation shall have similar surface texture and shall have been exposed to similar
conditions as the locations.

Click here if you would like to learn about other non-destructive methods for on-site evaluation
of concrete.
What Affects Rebound Hammer Readings
Although the rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of checking the uniformity
of concrete, the results can be affected by the following parameters:

- Smoothness of test surface

- Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens

- Age of test specimens

- Surface and internal moisture conditions of the concrete

- Type of coarse aggregate

 - Type of cement

- Type of mold

- Carbonation of the concrete surface

Concluding Remarks
The rebound hammer developed by Schmidt provides an inexpensive and quick method for
nondestructive testing of concrete.

When using the rebound hammer, the limitations of the test method should be recognized and
taken into account.

It is extremely important to note that the hammer must not be regarded as a substitute for
standard compression tests but rather as a method for determining the uniformity of concrete in
the structures, comparing one concrete against another, and reducing the number of core
samples.
References:
ASTM C805 / C805M-18, Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete,
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2018, www.astm.org (DOI:
10.1520/C0805_C0805M-18)

ACI 228.1R-03 In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength, American Concrete Institute
Committee 228.1R

BS EN 13791:2007 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in structures and pre-cast

concrete components

M. Malhotra, V & Carino, Nicholas. (2004). CRC Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of

Concrete. CRC Press Inc..

Papworth, Frank & Corbett, David & Barnes, Reuben & Wyche, Joseph & Dyson, Jonathon.
(2015). In-situ Concrete Strength Assessment based on Ultrasonic (UPV), Rebound, Cores and
the SONREB Method. 10.1201/b18972-37.

6. Flexural Testing Machine.

Flexural Testing Machine
Ref. Std.: IS:516, BS:1881 andASTM C78

The Flexure Strength Testing Machines are designed to test flexural strength of
concrete beams. The design provide maximum rigidity throughout their working range.
The load is applied by the downward movement of the piston. A spacer is provided for
testing different size of beams. The load is indicated on a calibrated bourdon tube type
load gauge of range : 0 -100kNx0.5kN The load gauge is calibrated against National
Physical Laboratory I National Council for Cement and Building Materials certified
proving ring. Models available: Flexure Testing Machine Hand Operated, Capacity 100
 kN (AIM331) Flexure Testing Machine for Timber – Digital Capacity 200kN Sample
size 200mm x 200 mm x upto 4.8m length (AIM331-DG-1)Flexure Testing Machine
Electrically Operated, Capacity 100 kN (AIM332 )Digital Flexure Testing Machine,
Capacity 100 kN (AIM 332E-DG-1 )MU Flexure Testing Machine with automatic pace
rate controller, Capacity 100 kN (AIM 332E-MU-1)Automatic Flexure Testing Machine
Windows based, Capacity 100 kN (AIM 332E-FA-1 )

7. Cement Tensile Testing Machine.

Automated tensile testing on plastics to ASTM D638

What is a tensile test?

A tensile test, or tension test, is a test used to determine how a material reacts to
an applied (pulling) force. Properties that are directly measured while
performing a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation,
and reduction in area. From these measurements, the following properties
can also be determined: modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus), deformation
(Poisson's ratio), yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.

Ultimate tensile strength - the maximum tensile stress a material can withstand
before breaking

Maximum elongation – the maximum strain a material can experience before failure

Reduction in area – comparison between the original cross-sectional area of a

specimen and the minimum cross-sectional area of the same specimen after
complete fracture failure. It is used as an indicator to show to what extent a
material will deform when subjected to a tensile load.

Young’s modulus – essentially the stiffness of a material. That is, it indicates how
easily a material will bend or stretch:

Stiffness -- the resistance to a force causing a member to bend

Young’s modulus = Stress/Strain

Stress = force/cross sectional area

Strain = change in length/original length

Poisson’s ratio – the ratio of change in the width to change in length in the direction
of the stretching force.

Yield strength – the maximum tensile stress an elastic material can undergo before
permanent deformation occurs.

Strain-hardening characteristics – strain hardening, also referred to as work

hardening, occurs when a material is stretched beyond the yield point. Strain
hardening increases the mechanical resistance and hardness but decreases
ductility. Manufacturers can use this information to determine the material that
meets their ductability requirements while maintaining the highest strength
possible.
What is a synonym for stiffness?
synonyms: austerity, hardness, harshness, inclemency, rigor, rigorousness, rigour,
rigourousness, severeness, severity. type of: sternness, strictness.
 What are the different types of tensile testers?

There are 3 main types of tensile tester design; Uni-Space, Dual Space, and
Research Grade Dual Space.

How many samples are needed for a tensile test?

If the properties of material are stable, then minimum 3 samples should be
tested. Otherwise, more samples should be used until to get some normal
statistical distribution.
Tensile Testing Machines and Testers
Tensile testers from 5 kN up to 2,500 for determination of the tensile strength of
a material

A tensile tester or tensile testing machine is used to determine the strength and
deformation behavior of a material up to the point of fracture. Choosing
the right tensile testing machine depends on the material to be tested and
the standard(s) that must be followed.

8. Heat of Hydration Apparatus.

Heat of Hydration Apparatus (AIM 9934)
Ref. Std. ASTM C-186, IS 4031: Part 9, IS 11262: 1995
Heat of Hydration apparatus is used for determining heat of hydration of
cements by measuring difference between heat of solution of dry cement and
heat of solution of a separate sample partially hydrated for 7 days & 28 days.
Constant-speed stirrer maintains uniform temperature throughout liquid and
supplies sufficient agitation to keep solid reactant suspended in the acid mixture.
This equipment consists of insulated wood case, vacuum jar with stopper;
thermometer plus holder, glass funnel; stirring paddle and chuck.
Which apparatus is used in heat of hydration?
The Heat of Hydration Apparatus is manufactured to the requirements specified
in BS 4550. It comprises a Dewar flask, an internally lagged case, a
constant speed electric stirrer, filler funnel and a Beckman-type
thermometer complete with reader.

What is the heat of hydration?

Heat of hydration is the heat generated when water reacts in contact with the
cement powder. The amount of heat released depends on the cement
composition, curing temperature, water to cement ratio, and cement
fineness.

How is heat of hydration measured?

The method involves dissolving cement in an acidic mixture of nitric and
hydrofluoric acids within a calorimeter and measuring the tem- perature
rise. The heat of solution is determined from the temperature rise
corrected for heat losses from the calorimeter.

What are the laboratory apparatus used for heating?

Heating Devices. Most labs use at least one type of heating device, such as
ovens, hot plates, heating mantles and tapes, oil baths, salt baths, sand
baths, air baths, hot-tube furnaces, hot-air guns and microwave ovens.

What are the two apparatus for heating?

The common heating devices used in labs are bunsen burners, hot air ovens,
hot plates, heating mantles, muffle furnaces, hot oil baths and
microwave digestion systems.

What is an example of heat of hydration?

One application of enthalpy of hydration is the reaction of cement with water.

The reaction being exothermic releases a large amount of heat. This
heat released becomes significant in mass constructions like building
dams and big structures.

What is an example of hydration?

Hydration reactions involve water being added to the chemical structure of a
mineral. An example of a hydration reaction is when anhydrite (CaSO4)
is transformed into gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O). A consequence of
hydration is that the resulting mineral has a greater volume than the
original mineral.

What is hydration process?

In chemistry, a hydration reaction is a chemical reaction in which a substance

combines with water. In organic chemistry, water is added to an
unsaturated substrate, which is usually an alkene or an alkyne. This
type of reaction is employed industrially to produce ethanol,
isopropanol, and butan-2-ol.

Is there a tool to measure hydration?

Real-time hydration tracker

hDrop is a small device that helps you better understand your hydration status,
worn during your workouts or competitions, receive personalized
health insights and notifications to help you stay safe and improve
your times by tracking your hydration and electrolyte balance.

What is the best measure of hydration?

Plasma osmolality, urine osmolality and urine specific gravity are the most
widely used markers of hydration. However, urine colour has also
been used with reasonable accuracy when laboratory analysis is not
available or when a quick estimate of hydration is necessary.

What does a hydration test measure?

 Hydration testing is a protocol used to determine an athlete's body fluid
balance. An athlete with a normal body fluid balance is said to be
euhydrated [5]. This euhydrated status is not a specific point, but
rather a state of normal body water.

How do you calculate the heat of hydration of concrete?

The heat of hydration of the cement was calculated to the nearest kilojoule, as
follows(13) H = H 1 − H 2 − 0.4 ( t h − 25 ) Where: H = heat of
hydration of ignited cement, kJ/kg. H1 = heat of solution of dry
cement. H2 = heat of solution of partially hydrated sample.

How do you measure heat in a lab?

To measure specific heat in the laboratory, a calorimeter of some kind must be
used. A calorimeter is a well-insulated container that can measure
energy changes. The calorimeter is insulated to reduce the loss or
gain of energy to or from the surroundings.

Which apparatus determines heat of solution?

A calorimeter is a device that is used to measure the amount of heat involved
in a chemical or physical process. When a reaction occurs in solution
in a calorimeter, the heat produced by the reaction is taken by the
solution, which thereby increases its temperature.

What are the 5 types of heating systems?

Five Types of Heating Systems Found in Homes
1. Furnaces.
2. Boilers & Hydronic Heating.
3. Heat Pumps.
4. Electric Radiative Heating.
5. Direct Vent Heating.

9. Humidity chamber.
What is a Humidity Chamber?
A humidity chamber is a mechanism that creates different environments
to allow manufacturers to test their products to the harshest of conditions. It also
enables them to see how their products react to variations in humidity.
Manufacturers are able to test the various parameters of their products in the
harshest of conditions.

The purpose of humidity chambers is to test the influence of varying

environments on products to determine the length of their usefulness and at
what point they will fail. The collected data assists engineers in adjusting their
designs and selecting more resilient materials.
 The different varieties of humidity chambers allow testing to be completed
in a static or dynamic state depending on the required data and the type of
product. Humidity chambers are used as extended testing chambers to
determine a specimen‘s reaction to elevated moisture conditions when exposed
for weeks or months.
How a Humidity Chamber Works
The main components of a humidity chamber are ones that introduce
moisture and heat. There are a variety of methods used to introduce moisture
into the chamber, which can be in the form of a spray or bath. The same
concept applies to heat that is supplied in the form of coils or heating elements.

In most cases, humidity chambers are designed, manufactured, and

produced to fit the setting that the customer requires. Though there are many
varieties of chambers, the basic components of heat and moisture are
necessary to create the needed humid conditions.

How a Humidity Chamber Works

The two factors that affect the stability of a product are temperature and
humidity, with humidity being the second most damaging. It is for this reason
that manufacturers test the effects of humidity on their products since humidity
fluctuations cause expansion and contraction. The three basic methods for
creating artificial humidity are steam generators, atomizers, and water baths.
The AGREE form of test chamber is also used to test humidity as well as
temperature changes and vibrations.

Steam Generators
Steam generators have immersion heaters that heat water inside the
chamber. As the steam is generated by a tank of water, it rises to the top of the
chamber where there are heaters to create humidity. Steam generator
chambers are capable of producing heat from 300° C up to 1300° C from CNC
programmed control panels. The main benefits of a steam generator humidity
chamber is its ability to produce a high volume of moisture with consistent
excellent quality water vapor. 9. Vee Bee consistometer.

Atomizer Test Chambers

Atomizer test chambers have a spray nozzle that sprays atomized water
as a means of generating moisture and humidity. As the water passes through
the chamber heater, it is heated to create humidity. The operational process of
an atomizer test chamber is simple and easy to understand as well as being
capable of generating high volumes of moisture.

Water Bath Test Chambers

Water bath test chambers work on the same concept as a steam
generator without an enclosed box. A small water bath is fitted in the mixing
plenum with the heater. As air enters the assembly, it passes through the bath
 where it picks up the water vapors. This form of chamber provides a quick
response since it uses a small amount of water and does not require the
temperature of the water to be at the boiling point.

AGREE Test Chambers

AGREE is a military acronym for Advisory Group on Reliability of
Electronic Equipment. AGREE chambers have the same capabilities as all
humidity chambers with the added feature of being able to do vibration testing
at the same time atmospheric conditions are being tested. They were widely
used in the early to mid-1980s at the request of the United States Military. This
type of chamber is specially designed to be able to accommodate the vibration
or shaker accessory.

Two Temperature Method

A portion of the air returning from the conditioned area is directed
through a water spray area with a closely controlled temperature (dewpoint).
The water spray is adjusted to maintain the dew point temperature of the
targeted condition. As the air passes through the water spray, it is cooled
down to the temperature of the water and approaches saturation.

The air then leaves the spray chamber through a mist eliminator, which
removes any excess water vapor and is then mixed with air that has bypassed
the spray area.

After passing over an electric heater, to heat the air back to the desired
dry bulb temperature, the air is returned to the conditioned space.

The process provides very precise humidity control. The system does
not distinguish between humidifying and dehumidifying and is always setting a
dew point and reheating.

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Diagnostic Technical Engineering Skills ----
---- A Civil Engineering Core Competence that could be able to
identify, in a snapshot, the intra-structural conditions of any engineered
structures/materials based only on its extra behavioral
manifestations/compositions and its physical materials’ congenial
composition detected by gut feelings or with the used of Civil Engineering
Tools/apparatus. --- [ Engr. Rodrigo T. Templado, February’2023]

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