Gypsum/anhydrite: some
engineering problems
Işık Yılmaz
Abstract The engineering properties of gypsum/
anhydrite change as a consequence of groundwater,
pressure and heat. Gypsum and anhydrite may
experience dissolution in the near-surface zone and
along the discontinuities, creating karst terrain to
depths related to present and/or past groundwater
levels. This paper reviews the problems of con-
structing on gypsum/anhydrite and their engineering
significance and provides short case histories to
illustrate some of the problems encountered.
Résumé Les caractéristiques mécaniques du gypse
et de l’anhydrite varient en fonction de la présence
d’eau, de la pression et de la chaleur. Le gypse et
l’anhydrite peuvent être soumis à des processus de
dissolution à proximité de la surface et le long de
discontinuités, permettant ainsi le développement de
réseaux karstiques en profondeur, dans des zones en
rapport avec les niveaux piézométriques actuels ou
anciens. L’article analyse les difficultés techniques
liées à la construction sur les formations de gypse ou
d’anhydrite et présente quelques courtes études de
cas pour illustrer certains des problèmes rencon-
trés.
Key words Gypsum 7 Anhydrite 7 Dissolution 7
Karst 7 Heave
Mots clés Gypse 7 Anhydrite 7 Dissolution 7
Karst 7 Gonflement
Introduction
As gypsum is susceptible to rapid dissolution wherever
there is active circulation of groundwater that is undersa-
turated with respect to calcium sulphate, substantial
underground voids and cave systems may develop. The
Received: 19 February 2000 7 Accepted: 13 May 2000
I. Yılmaz (Y)
Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Geology, 58140, Sivas, Turkey
spontaneous collapse of individual caverns allows upward
migration of voids, either by gradual caving of thinly
bedded strata or (occasionally) by the sudden failure of
more competent, thickly bedded rocks, leading ultimately
to subsidence of the overlying ground surface (Thompson
et al. 1998). As a foundation material, gypsum differs from
other rocks in that voids may be found at almost any depth
within the rock mass. They may result directly from solu-
tion weathering near the surface and along discontinuities,
or as specific cave systems at depths related to present or
past groundwater levels.
Problems caused by the presence of the gypsum/anhydrite
rock and their engineering significance are outlined in this
paper. The two basic problems that occur are subsidence
due to the solubility characteristics of gypsum and heave
due to the hydration of anhydrite (to form gypsum).
Calcium sulphate is found throughout the world and hence
the problems discussed in this paper are relevant to most
countries.
This paper uses short case histories to illustrate some of
the problems that may be encountered during construction
in areas of gypsum/anhydrite bedrock.
Engineering problems associated
with gypsum and anhydrite
Dissolution
As noted above, gypsum is susceptible to rapid dissolution
wherever there is active circulation of groundwater that is
undersaturated with respect to calcium sulphate. Gypsum
is more soluble than limestone: 2.5 kg of gypsum can be
dissolved in 1 m 3 by water according to the following
equation:
CaSO472H2OcH2O ] Ca c2cSO P2
4 c3H2O
Chemical solution tends to occur along existing discontin-
uities, e.g. joints and faults. Thus, until a late stage of
development, karstic gypsum terrains usually have cavity
patterns related to the discontinuity geometry. In a closed
system the water quickly becomes saturated, hence both
dissolution and precipitation are possible.
Karst features in the gypsum usually consist of a network
of small-diameter passages (Culshaw and Waltham 1987).
If the gypsiferous rock is massive and jointed, large open-
ings are created along preferential flow paths. Culshaw and
Bull Eng Geol Env (2001) 59 : 227–230 7 Q Springer-Verlag 227
 I. Yılmaz
Waltham (1987) describe the gypsum beds in the Podolie
region of the Ukraine (Russia) which include hundreds of
kilometres of joint-controlled caves/passages greater than
5 m in height and width. Karacan and Yılmaz (1997) also
reported similar networks of joint-controlled caves/
passages in gypsum in the south-west Sivas area of
Turkey.
Collapse passages are a characteristic feature peculiar to
gypsum karst. Cover rocks start to collapse slowly, as a
result of dissolution of the rocks (Bögli 1980; White 1988).
According to White (1988), collapse passages and are
developed longitudinally may be 100–1000 m in width and
1–15 km long.
Massive gypsum covers a large area around Sivas, Zara and
İmranlı which is extensively karstified with numerous sink
holes and depressions. Hafik Lake to the east of Sivas,
Tödürge Lake to the west of Zara and Ulaş Lake to the
south of Sivas now occupy the karst depressions. Most of
the sink holes were formed along fault traces and ground-
water discharge to the river can be observed in some places
(Alagöz 1976; Karacan and Yılmaz 1997). In addition,
dolines and collapse passages play an important role in the
groundwater flow system (Karacan and Yılmaz 1997).
Subsidence can be regarded as the vertical component of
ground movement and clearly has serious effects on build-
ings, services and communications. It may take place grad-
ually, almost imperceptibly, or it may occur quite
suddenly, affecting areas as small as a few square metres or
as large as many square kilometres (Lundgren 1999).
Gypsum is more soluble than limestone: 2100 mg/l of
gypsum can be dissolved in non-saline waters compared
with 400 mg/l of limestone; hence sinkholes and caverns
can develop in thick beds of gypsum more rapidly than in
limestone terrain. Being weaker than limestone, gypsum
does not have the same arching potential and hence
collapses more readily. Once passageways have developed
in massive gypsum, seepage flow rates increase such that
the dissolution proceeds in a rapidly accelerating manner
(Bell 1993).
Even in areas where active dissolution of gypsum is taking
place, the nature and the time scale of any associated
subsidence will vary according to both the size of the indi-
vidual cavities and the thickness and geotechnical proper-
ties of overlying strata. Cooper (1988), however, has shown
that in the Ripon area of the UK, cavities from the rela-
tively shallow gypsum deposits can eventually migrate to
the surface if the thickness of the overlying non-soluble
material is not sufficient to choke the migrating void.
If the foundations of a dam contain soluble minerals, water
seeping through the gypsiferous rocks may create voids
and any previously dry fissured material under substantial
hydraulic gradients will suffer dissolution and increasing
seepage losses. Conglomerates cemented by soluble mate-
rial will clearly also suffer significant loss of strength such
that the integrity of the foundations is compromised
(James and Kirkpatrick 1980).
The St. Francis Dam, for example, was constructed in Los
Angeles in 1926 but by 1928 had been destroyed due to the
dissolution of the conglomerate with gypsum cement in
228 Bull Eng Geol Env (2001) 59 : 227–230 7 Q Springer-Verlag
the left abutment. The damage and associated costs were
considerable, but, more importantly, 400 people died as
the result of this disaster (Ransome 1929).
The oldest dam known to be affected by gypsum karst is
the McMillan Dam in New Mexico. Seepage and collapses
occurred on the left side of the dam, following which
springs with a high discharge developed downstream of the
dam. Despite considerable efforts in 1909, the seepage in
the left abutment could not be stopped (Brune 1965).
In England, Ripon (North Yorkshire) suffers the worst
subsidence caused by gypsum dissolution. Here, at least 30
major collapses have occurred in the past 150 years and
further collapses are likely. The subsidence hollows are
commonly 10–30 m in diameter and reach 20 m in depth;
east of the city they attain dimensions of up to 80 m diam-
eter and may be 30 m deep. Numerous sags and small
collapses on farmland go undetected, but careful analysis
of historical levelling data suggests some areas of general
ground lowering. Many of the subsidence features at Ripon
have a reticulate pattern related to the intersections of the
joint systems in the rock. In the urban area of Ripon, the
catastrophic subsidence has caused about ^1,000,000
worth of damage in the last 10 years and has generated
problems for both planners and engineers (Cooper 1998).
The Marchalico Viicas landslide is a marl debris flow
carrying numerous large gypsum blocks. The flow, 3 km in
length, is traversed by the motorway and reaches Rio
Aguas, where groundwater springs and resurgences emerge
from the base of the gypsum escarpment. These egresses
were the water source for the now abandoned hamlet of
Marchalico Vinicas (Eyers et al. 1998).
Heave problems
Calcium sulphate occurs naturally in two different forms:
as anhydrite (CaSO4) and as gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). The
stability of both is a function of temperature, the amount
of water available and pressure. Only anhydrite is stable
above 58 7C at a pressure of about 100 kPa. Generally, only
gypsum is stable below 38 7C, although when water is not
present, anhydrite may still occur but in a metastable form
at these lower temperatures. When water can react with
anhydrite, the difference in specific volume between the
initial anhydrite and the subsequent gypsum is as shown in
the equation below (Wittke 1990):
ANHYDRITE ] GYPSUM
CaSO4 c 2H2O ] CaSO42H2O
(46 cm 3) (36 cm 3) (74 cm 3)
A comparison of the specific volumes indicates that the
specific volume of crystallised gypsum is greater than that
of anhydrite by DVp[(74P46/46)!100]p61%. In
contrast, as shown by the above equation, anhydrite with
two molecules of water possesses a volume 11% greater
than that of crystallised gypsum.
The anhydrite is metastable especially at shallow depths
and tends to rehydrite to gypsum as it comes into contact
with circulating groundwater within the near-surface zone
(Murray 1964; Holliday 1970; Mossop and Shearman 1973).
This involves a volume increase of between 30 and 58%

(Blat et al. 1980) which exerts pressures which have been
variously estimated at between 2 and 70 MPa. It is likely
that such hydration can take place relatively quickly. When
it occurs at shallow depths it causes expansion, but this
process is gradual and is usually accompanied by the
removal of gypsum in solution. At greater depths anhy-
drite is effectively confined during the process. This results
in a gradual buildup of pressure and the stress is finally
liberated in an explosive manner (Bell 1993).
Transition between gypsum and anhydrite in both direc-
tions of the chemical reaction causes changes in volume
between the original and resultant systems on both sides of
the reaction. Because this transition results in changes in
the crystalline structure of gypsum and anhydrite, calcula-
tion of volume changes in solid phases should be based on
the molar volumes of gypsum, anhydrite and water. The
volume change due to the hydration of anhydrite is
c62.6% for open systems, whereas it is P9.0% for closed
systems. Similarly, the volume change due to dehydration
of gypsum is P38.5% for open systems and c9.9% for
closed systems (Zanbak and Arthur 1986). A closed system
is defined as an environment where water is trapped with
calcium sulphate minerals before and after the transition
and an open system as an environment where free water
may enter into the hydration process or be released during
dehydration and leave the system. Actual volume changes
are controlled by the porosities before and after the transi-
tions (Zanbak and Arthur 1986).
Before the 1960s, structures built on anhydrite were often
oversized. A classic example is the Czernitz tunnel
(Poland) which was excavated in an anhydrite formation in
1858 (Yüzer 1982). Redfield (1963) cites the case of the
Vobarno tunnel in Italy through anhydrite and gypsum
formations. Completed in 1931, it gave no trouble until
1940 when it suddenly began to crack, fracture and
progressively heave, such that the concrete lining disinte-
grated to rubble.
Brune (1965) reports that one night in June 1948 a loud
boom was heard in the small town of Paint Rock, Texas.
Soon afterwards it was discovered that uplifting of the rock
had occurred on the Smith Brothers’ ranch in the nearby
Kickapoo Creek. The uplift extended along 300 m of the
stream channel and reached a maximum height of 3 m
above the previous channel bottom.
In 1954 a similar “explosion” took place 11 km north of
Moran, Texas. A farmer ploughing heard an explosion and
saw a cloud of dust and debris at a distance. He later found
that about 300 m of stream channel along Deep Creek had
risen by as much as 6 m, scattering rock fragments over
the surrounding countryside (Brune 1965).
Other problems
Serious structural damage can be attributed to heaving and
settlement of soils containing anhydrous calcium sulphate,
which is exacerbated when these types of soil are periodi-
cally and/or differentially exposed to wetting. Conversely,
Gypsum/anhydrite: some engineering problems
even without a rise in the level of the groundwater table,
expansive clay minerals in the vicinity of dehydrating
gypsum can take the liberated water of crystallisation and
expand to lift existing structures (Azam 1997). Dehydra-
tion of gypsum is associated with a volume decrease of up
to 38%, which may lead to excessive settlement of the over-
lying structures. Furthermore, shrinkage in the gypsum
layer and the pore pressure effects of released water from
the crystal structure of gypsum, change the state of stress
within the sediment, which may cause significant deforma-
tion and fracturing (Ko et al. 1995).
The occurrence of expansive clay minerals within evapo-
rites also exacerbates the potential problems. Montmoril-
lonite, illite and corensite are the most typical clay
minerals associated with evaporites. Many tunnels in Swit-
zerland and Germany which were excavated in the Keuper
Series exhibited deformations of up to 50–60 mm. Initially,
anhydrite was thought to be responsible for these deforma-
tions. However, subsequent research and observations
since 1960 have demonstrated that in addition to anhy-
drite, swelling clay minerals such as corrensite and mont-
morillonite may also have played a part (Grob 1972; Götz
1978; Fecker 1980; Yüzer 1982).
In gypsum karst terrain, the probability of encountering
small or large voids during tunnel construction is likely to
be high. These hollows may cause instability and there may
be water discharge related to them. Where such hollows
occur, there is likely to be a considerable increase in grout
take in order to infill these voids. Hawkins (1979) describes
the presence of such voids and the extra grout needed in
the Keuper Series of the Bristol area (UK). Where tunnels
pass through gypsiferous horizons and the lining is not
impermeable, dissolution may occur outside of the lining
such that the integrity of the tunnel may be compromised
after completion.
Gypsum can cause serious hazards when it acts as a
cementing agent as dissolution of the cement can result in
the breakdown of the soil structure, the leaching of the fine
fraction and the development of soil pipes (Abduljauwad
and Al-Amoudi 1995). Anhydrite dissolves even more
catastrophically; even small fissures are enlarged, swiftly
producing a rapidly deteriorating situation (James and
Lupton 1978). The formation of cavities due to leaching of
gypsum and anhydrite in the subsoil may trigger the
collapse of light structures without adequate warning
(Azam et al. 1998).
For the reasons discussed above, it is essential to investi-
gate the presence of any gypsum lenses that occur in the
near-surface zone where roads are to be constructed
(Livneh et al. 1998).
Conclusions
Problems associated with gypsum/anhydrite exist
throughout the world. The two main types of problems
related to these forms of calcium carbonate which are of
particular significance for engineering construction are
Bull Eng Geol Env (2001) 59 : 227–230 7 Q Springer-Verlag 229
 I. Yılmaz
dissolution and expansion, with or without the presence of
expansive clay minerals. Dissolution is the more common.
At both design and construction stages, it is important to
make allowance for the possible change in nature of the
minerals as a consequence of groundwater, pressure and
heat.
Adequate design of structures on gypsum/anhydrite should
involve a comprehensive and detailed investigation of any
karstic features and a full appraisal of the most appropriate
foundation designs in the light of these. Successful designs
include reinforced waffle/rigid concrete slabs and rein-
forced concrete piers with beam support.
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