MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

KAZAKH AGROTECHNICAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER

S. SEIFULLIN

KURUMBAYEVA ADELE TALGATOVNA

Improvement of the technology of restoration of the camshaft of a high-

pressure fuel pump using plasma spraying

Master's Thesis

Educational program 7M071 - "Mechanical Engineering"

Astana 2023
 KAZAKH AGROTECHNICAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER
S. SEIFULLIN

Technical Faculty
Technological equipment and machinery department

Approve:
Head of Department ______________
Userbaev MT

Master's Thesis

Topic: Improvementof the technology of restoration of the

camshaft of a high-pressure fuel pump using plasma spraying

Educational program 7M071 - " Mechanical Engineering "

Completed by: Kurumbayeva AT

Supervisor:
Candidate of Technical Sciences,
senior lecturer Mendalieva S.I.

Astana 2023

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Content
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1 ANALYSIS OF THE APPLICATION OF PLASMA COATINGS
FOR THE RECOVERY OF THE IMPACT CAMSHAFT ...................................... 7
1.1 Analysis of the operating conditions and reasons for the failure of the high-
pressure fuel pump camshaft ................................................................................... 7
1.2 Coating materials ............................................................................................. 11
1.3 Feasibility study of coating methods ................................................................ 13
1.4 The state of the scientific and methodological basis in the field of optimization
of technological processes for the application of coatings by thermal spray .......... 16
CHAPTER 2 DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF
PLASMA COATING PROCESSES...................................................................... 20
2.1 Development of a mathematical model for the calculation of the technological
modes of plasma projection of materials with high thermal conductivity ............... 20
2.2 Model for criteria-based evaluation of technical and technological capabilities
of plasma coating methods .................................................................................... 30
2.3 Development of a methodology for the calculation of the parameters of the
technological process of applying plasma coatings ................................................ 35
CHAPTER 3 METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
PROPERTIES OF PLASMA COATINGS ............................................................ 39
3.1 Particle temperature measurement technique ................................................... 39
3.2 Method to study the strength of adhesion of coatings....................................... 40
3.3 Coating Hardness Test Method ........................................................................ 43
3.4 Method for measuring the porosity of coatings ................................................ 44
3.5 Method for testing surface layers for abrasive wear ......................................... 45
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND THEIR
ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 46
4.1 Study of the energetic and thermal characteristics of the plasma torch ............. 46
4.2 Investigation of the influence of plasma spray modes on the properties of
coatings ................................................................................................................. 47
4.3 Investigations of the adhesion strength of coatings .......................................... 53
4.4 Microstructure Investigation ............................................................................ 56
4.5 Study of the hardness of coatings and porosity of the superficial layers ........... 60
4.6 Surface layer tests for abrasive wear ................................................................ 61
CHAPTER 5 PRACTICAL APPLICATION AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF
RESEARCH RESULTS ........................................................................................ 64
5.1 Methodology for choosing the method, material and deposition modes of
multifunctional coatings ........................................................................................ 64
5.2 Evaluation of the economic efficiency of the technological process of
restoration and tempering of pieces by plasma coating .......................................... 64
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 66
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 68

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 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

HPFP – high pressure fuel pump

KIM – material utilization rate
TP – technological process
𝜌h, 𝑣h, 𝑑h – density, speed and diameter of the particles
𝑊 is the velocity of the gas in the axis of the plasma jet
𝑉 is the velocity of the particle
𝑈 = 𝑊 – 𝑉 – relative velocity
𝐷 is the diameter of the particle;
𝑔 is the index of the properties of the plasma jet;
𝑝 is an index of the properties of the particles.
𝑈 - arc voltage;
𝐼 - the magnitude of the arc current
𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are the flow rates of gas 1 and gas 2, which are part of the plasma gas
(for example, argon and nitrogen)
𝐺 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 – plasma gas flow rate
𝑄 - heat losses of the plasma torch
𝑐 - coefficient obtained experimentally
𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constant depending on the design of the plasma torch
𝐶n - experimental constant of the initial section
𝐵1, 𝐵2, 𝐵3: functions of the heating of the initial jet and the composition of the
gas
𝐶pore, 𝑀pore, 𝑇pore - heat capacity, mass and temperature of the preheated
powder;

4
INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the research topic. Methods for the restoration of agricultural

machinery parts are widely used. The high-pressure fuel pump is a task aimed at
improving the reliability of the units, which is currently relevant.
The analysis showed that between 85% and 90% of the machine parts fail due to
mechanical, abrasive, hydroabrasive, corrosive-mechanical and oxidative wear, while
75% of the rejected parts are repairable.
A significant increase in the resource is relevant with the rational use of metal-
polymer coatings and powdered hard alloys. One of the promising, modern and
efficient technological methods for applying composite materials to the surface of worn
parts is plasma spraying and surface plasma, which most fully meet technical and
technological requirements (high productivity, wide possibility of alloys of coatings
applied, a wide range of regulation of the heat input to the base and filler materials, the
possibility of applying any filler material, etc.
Purpose of the study It consists of the scientific foundation of technical and
technological solutions aimed at restoring the camshaft of the injection pump.
Based on the specified purpose of the study, for its implementation, it is planned
to solve the following tasks:
- develop a mathematical model for calculating the technological modes of plasma
spraying of materials with high thermal conductivity;
- experimentally verify the optimal ways of spraying the camshaft of the high-
pressure fuel pump;
- develop methods and test samples of coatings of various materials for wear
resistance and hardness.
Subject of study – physical and mathematical model of plasma spraying of
materials, which provides a link between the technological parameters of the spraying
process and the quality of the resulting coatings.
Scientific news: Analytical dependencies that establish the connection between
the technological modes of deposition and the temperature and speed of particles with
high thermal conductivity are proposed. The research carried out in the work allowed
to obtain fundamentally new scientific results:
1. A mathematical model has been built to calculate the technological regimes of
plasma spraying of materials, based on the modeling of the heat and power
characteristics of a plasma torch, the dynamic parameters of a plasma jet and the
thermodynamic properties of plasma-forming gases and heating Particles with high
thermal conductivity. The analytical dependencies obtained establish the relationship
between the technological modes of deposition and the temperature and speed of the
particles, which allows controlling the properties of the coatings.
2. New compositions of metal-polymer coatings of bronze in combination with
fluoroplastic (25–30% fluoroplastic + 70–75% bronze) and composite materials based
on hard chromium-nickel alloys with the addition of aluminum oxide (PG-SR4 + 20%
Al2O3), providing high wear resistance and an increase in the resource of
remanufactured parts of processing equipment compared to uncoated parts.

5
 The practical meaning of work. Consists of the development of resource-saving
technologies that allow the restoration of the high-pressure fuel pump camshaft through
the plasma deposition method of wear-resistant and anti-friction coatings with
improved physical, mechanical and operational properties.
Methodology and research methods. In the work, theoretical and experimental
research methods were used. The theoretical problems were solved using the methods
of physical, mathematical modeling and mathematical statistics.
Provisions of the thesis presented for defense.
1. Mathematical model for the calculation of the modes of plasma projection of
materials with high thermal conductivity.
2. Resource-saving technologies for high-pressure fuel pump camshaft restoration
using the method of plasma deposition of anti-friction and wear-resistant coatings.
Publications.1 article was published on the topic of the thesis work.
Structure and scope of work. The dissertation consists of an introduction, five
chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and appendices. The work is presented on
70 pages, including 33 figures, 13 tables.

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CHAPTER 1 ANALYSIS OF THE APPLICATION OF PLASMA COATINGS
FOR THE RECOVERY OF THE IMPACT CAMSHAFT

1.1 Analysis of the operating conditions and reasons for the failure of the high-
pressure fuel pump camshaft

Modern trends in the intensification of production processes lead to accelerated

wear of parts, and under these conditions, the task of restoring and increasing the
durability of key parts, assemblies and assemblies of machines and equipment becomes
even more important and relevant.
Under these conditions, the real strategy to provide the injection pump camshaft
is to restore and harden the parts. Therefore, refurbished parts are 1.5 to 2.5 times
cheaper than new parts and 3 to 10 times cheaper than new parts made abroad [1].
The analysis showed that 85-90% of agricultural machine parts fail due to the
following types of wear: abrasive wear, impact abrasive wear, hydro-abrasive wear,
mechanical corrosion wear, and oxidative wear. At the same time, 75% of worn parts
are repairable.
In economically developed countries, the restoration of worn parts is highly
developed. The leading industrial enterprises of the world pay the most serious
attention to the strengthening and modernization of technological equipment. In
economically developed countries, the restoration of worn parts is highly developed.
The promotion and development of technologies for the restoration of parts is carried
out both by companies that produce machines and by firms specialized in the
restoration of worn parts.
Parts restoration is a large reserve for providing equipment with spare parts, the
cost of which currently amounts to 40-60% of the cost.
Worn camshaft cams can be restored by plasma spraying hard alloy powder in an
inert gas environment.
Plasma spray technology in various industries and agriculture to restore the
geometric dimensions of parts has been used since the 70s of the last centuries. The
thickness of the plasma spray coatings is in the range of 0.1 to 10 mm. The process of
deposition of thicknesses up to 1 mm is sometimes called plasma coating, up - plasma
surface [1]. Plasma technology for restoring the geometric dimensions of parts of
internal combustion engines and their units began to be used in the 90s of the last
centuries. For most parts of internal combustion engines and their units, wear does not
exceed 1-2 mm. Therefore, they began to use more plasma plating than plasma
surfacing. The wear of such surfaces, as the surface of the necks of crankshafts and
camshafts of engines camshafts and camshafts of high-pressure fuel pumps [1] does
not exceed the specified values of 1-2 mm. Plasma plating technology has also found
its application here.
The essence of plasma spraying lies in the fact that a sprayed material is fed into
a high-temperature plasma jet, which is heated, melted and directed to the surface of
the part (substrate) in the form of a flow of two phases. During impact and deformation,
the particles interact with the surface of the base or the sprayed material and the coating
7
is formed. The material to be sprayed may be in the form of a wand or powder. The
main advantage of plasma spraying is the absence of structural transformations and
deformations of the metal. The piece is not heated more than 200,300°C. The lining is
solid, uniform in color, without particles of unmolten metal, without cracks,
delamination’s (swelling). The roughness of the coating does not exceed 80-100
microns. The coating adheres strongly to the base metal and does not peel off during
the grid scratch test. The porosity of the coating does not exceed 21%. Coating hardness
NKS 58-62. Machining of the coating and polishing make it possible to obtain a surface
of roughness class 10-11. Coatings were also applied to the worn camshafts of the high-
pressure fuel pump at the aforementioned plasma facility. In principle, the technology
of coating the camshafts of high-pressure fuel pumps does not differ much from the
technology of coating the crankshaft journals and camshafts of engines. There is a
slight difference only in the application modes. Figure 1. 1 shows a photograph of the
plasma spraying process of the injection pump camshaft. Coatings were also applied to
the worn camshafts of the high-pressure fuel pump at the aforementioned plasma
facility. In principle, the technology of coating the camshafts of high-pressure fuel
pumps does not differ much from the technology of coating the crankshaft journals and
camshafts of engines. There is a slight difference only in the application modes. Figure
1.1 shows a photograph of the plasma spraying process of the injection pump camshaft.
Coatings were also applied to the worn camshafts of the high-pressure fuel pump at the
above-mentioned plasma facility. In principle, the technology of coating the camshafts
of high-pressure fuel pumps does not differ much from the technology of coating the
crankshaft journals and camshafts of engines. There is a slight difference only in the
application modes. Figure 1.1 shows a photograph of the plasma spraying process of
the injection pump camshaft [2]. The technology of coating the camshafts of high-
pressure fuel pumps does not differ much from the technology of coating the crankshaft
journals and camshafts of engines. There is a slight difference only in the application
modes. Figure 1.1 shows a photograph of the plasma spraying process of the injection
pump camshaft. The technology of coating the camshafts of high-pressure fuel pumps
does not differ much from the technology of coating the crankshaft journals and
camshafts of engines. There is a slight difference only in the application modes. Figure
1.1 shows a photograph of the plasma spraying process of the injection pump camshaft
[2].
Plasma spraying is a diffusion metallization process that can effectively form a
protective coating and restore worn parts of metal products. In the article we will
consider the essence of the process.
Plasma spraying is a technological process of diffusion metallization, with the
help of which it is possible to effectively form a protective coating and restore worn
parts of metal products. In the plasma method of coating, the sprayed material is heated
to a liquid state and transferred to the surface to be treated using a high-temperature
plasma flow. The material to be sprayed is available in the form of rods, powders or
wires. Then powder method is the most common. [3]

8
 Figure 1.1 - The process of plasma spraying the camshaft of the injection pump

General description of the injection pump assembly. Before starting the

assembly of the injection pump [4], it is necessary to wash and troubleshoot. It is
advisable to wash the parts of the fuel pump and the bodies of the nozzles in drum
washers operating in a closed cycle.
When troubleshooting, pay attention to the working surfaces of the camshaft,
tappets, bearings, and springs. The injection pump casing [3] must be cleaned; Before
washing, remove all remaining rings after disassembling the piston bushings.
Figure 1.2 shows the tools to install the plunger and set the pusher.

Figure 1.2 - A set of tools for installing and fixing the plunger

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 The position of the pusher latch is such that the catalog number indicated on the
pusher body is at the top and the 0 marking on the rotating portion of the latch is at the
bottom. Install and remove tappet stops on fully depressed cams to prevent breakage
of the stops.
The camshaft should be installed as shown in Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 - The position of the camshaft cams when installing and removing the
tappet stops

Install the camshaft as shown in Figure 1.4.

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 Figure 1.4 - Installation of the injection pump camshaft [5]

It should be noted that in the injection pump shown in the photo, it is more
expedient to remove and install the camshaft from the regulator side. Many models use
tapered bearings, so the camshaft must be removed from the front of the injection pump
after removing the front KV bearing cover.
The removal and installation of the camshaft in the injection pump housing [5]
must be carried out with a press or light blows through a copper or aluminum adapter.
It is recommended that all impact work be carried out with rubber hammers.

1.2 Coating materials

Based on the analysis of the operating conditions, the nature of the loads and the
causes of failure of units and parts of agricultural machinery and food processing
equipment, it is possible to identify the types of coatings that are most appropriate to
use to restore and strengthen these parts.
Figure 1.5 shows the main types of coatings currently used in industry [4]. To
solve the problems of restoration and strengthening of the camshaft of the high-
pressure fuel pump [6], the most relevant is the use of wear-resistant, anti-friction and
erosion-resistant coatings.

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 Figure 1.5 - The main types of industrial coatings

Wear resistant coatings. The purpose of applying wear resistant coatings is to

restore the lost surface and give it properties that, as a rule, surpass those of a new part.
Figure 1.6 shows the main requirements imposed by wear-resistant coatings in the
choice of coating material and the technological process of its application [6].

Figure 1.6 - Requirements for wear resistant coatings

Anti-friction coatings. It is used to reduce wear and reduce sliding friction.

Figure 1.7 shows the main requirements of antifriction coatings for the choice of
coating material and the technological process of its application [6].

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 Figure 1.7 - Requirements for antifriction coatings

To describe the coatings in the database, 28 quantities (properties) are used,

divided into 4 groups: general properties (4 properties), mechanical properties (9
properties), thermophysical properties (8 properties) and special properties (7
properties). However, for the subsequent solution of the problems of mathematical
modeling of the process, it is necessary to determine the minimum required set of the
most significant properties for wear resistant coatings. Thus, it is shown that this set
includes 2 key properties that characterize the quality of the coating: the adhesion
strength of the coating to the substrate and the porosity [6].
Given the very wide and ever-expanding variety of modern coating materials, the
choice of a particular material must be made by heuristic selection from a materials
database, according to the design and operating conditions of a part in use. particular.

1.3 Feasibility study of coating methods

Nowadays, gas thermal methods to obtain coatings are of great interest, namely:
gas flame, detonation, high velocity and plasma projection [7].
Flame spray (Figure 1.8), in addition to the low cost of the resulting coatings, it
has a number of disadvantages: low adhesion strength of the coatings to the base
material (for example, for NiAl it is 22 MPa); the thermal efficiency of the gas jet is
quite high (0.8–0.9); however, the effective efficiency of heating dust particles does
not exceed 0.15; low mechanical properties of coatings; the impossibility of
pulverizing materials with a melting point higher than 2800 K [7].

13
 Figure 1.8 - General diagram of flame spraying

The advantages of detonation spraying (Figure 1.9) are: the possibility of applying
any type of coating with low porosity (less than 1.5-2%); The coatings have a high
adhesion strength to the substrate (up to 250 MPa.
At the same time, this method has the following disadvantages: high cost of
coatings; the operation of detonation facilities is accompanied by loud noise (140 dB
or more); the need to use sealed boxes and remote control of the process [7].

Figure 1.9 - General scheme of detonation spraying

High speed spray (Figure 1.10) has the following advantages: high coating
density; high adhesive strength of the coating; minimal structural and phase changes in
coating and substrate; relatively low temperature effect on the substrate and coating;
high performance of the process [7].

14
 Figure 1.10 - General scheme of high-speed deposition

Plasma spray (Figure 1.11) has the following advantages: the ability to apply
coatings of almost any material on any substrate. The main disadvantage of the method
is the relatively low bond strength to the base, compared to blast coatings [7].

Figure 1.11 - General scheme of plasma spraying

Over the past two decades, there has been a leap in the development of technology
and technology for thermal spraying in the world, while the share of plasma
technologies in the total volume of coating methods used in the world is more than 50
%, and this share continues to grow steadily.
The results of the analysis of the technical and economic indicators of the methods
allow us to conclude that in order to solve the problems of restoration and strengthening

15
 of the camshaft of the high-pressure fuel pump [7], plasma spraying using air as
plasma- forming and transporting gases is of great interest.

1.4 The state of the scientific and methodological basis in the field of
optimization of technological processes for the application of coatings by
thermal spray

The current world level and the rate of development of science, engineering and
technology have very significantly changed the approach of engineers, researchers and
technologists to obtain, study, store and work with information. Currently, the engineer
is in a constant choice of the following alternatives: the depth of engineering
knowledge; breadth of specialization and areas of engineering knowledge; the
relevance of engineering knowledge and its conformity with the world level in this
field. At the same time, it is almost impossible to maintain a high level in all three
indicators without the use of special modern means of working with information.
One of the most popular and widespread modern means of working with
information are computer databases and knowledge bases. Currently, many specialized
databases have been developed, exist and are maintained. An engineer works with them
in 3 main ways:
1. Work directly with a database located on stationary media (hard drive, CD-ROM,
flash card, etc.) using a database management system.
2. Work directly with the database located on the company's local network or on the
global information network (Internet). An example of a web-hosted engineering
database containing information on over 83,000 different materials (metals, alloys,
non-metals, composites, etc.).
3. Work with various engineering programs that use databases for calculations.
Example: software systems for the automation of engineering calculations Ansys,
Comsol Multiphysics, Solid Works, etc.
The need to develop specialized electronic databases and knowledge bases to
solve technological problems in the field of thermal spraying was first demonstrated in
1991–1992.
The analysis carried out from open sources showed the absence of specialized
databases and knowledge bases for the design of gas-thermal coatings and the
development of technology for their application. Therefore, at this time, the
development of a specialized and knowledge database that meets the requirements
described above is an urgent and practically valuable task. Until the mid-1990s, the
deposition process was controlled by the following iterative procedure: determination
of technological parameters, deposition, study of sample properties. This procedure
was repeated until samples with satisfactory characteristics were obtained, after which
the deposition modes were fixed. However, the spraying equipment is very sensitive to
wear and therefore, the application of this method does not allow to ensure the stability
and reproducibility of the properties of the coatings. The main task of CAD is to
increase the level of intellectual activity and productivity of the technologist, and its
use allows you to search for new promising and optimal technological and design
16
solutions aimed at improving the quality of machine parts, as well as reducing time.
and cost of developing technological processes. The following key elements are
required for the development and implementation of a complete CAD for thermal
coatings, and in particular plasma, and the technology for its application: and its use
makes it possible to search for new promising and optimal technological and design
solutions aimed at improving the quality of machine parts, as well as reducing the time
and cost of developing technological processes. The following key elements are
required for the development and implementation of a complete CAD for thermal
coatings and, in particular, plasma, and the technology for their application: and their
use makes it possible to search for new promising and optimal technological and design
solutions aimed at improve the quality of machine parts, as well as reduce the time and
cost of developing technological processes. The following key elements are required
for the development and implementation of a complete CAD for thermal coatings, and
in particular plasma, and the technology for its application:
1. An engineering technique that reflects the optimal scenarios for the
development of thermal gas coatings by a technologist and the technology for their
application.
2. Corresponding physical and mathematical models that describe all the
necessary stages of the engineering methodology.
3. Software and hardware that implements the corresponding mathematical
models and links them into a single CAD system that, through a convenient interface,
ensures that the technologist effectively goes through all stages of the engineering
methodology and, ultimately, the development of a thermal spray. coating and its
application technology.
In the course of the analysis of the situation in the world with CAD for thermal
spraying, no complete systems were found that allow the complete cycle of coating
design and development of the spraying process.
Analysis of existing physical and mathematical models. To obtain high-quality
coatings, it is necessary to accurately select the deposition parameters. A coating model
to calculate process parameters is a necessary tool to develop new coatings with the
desired properties. Most of the world's research is of a purely applied nature, while
modeling of the various stages of the deposition process and the entire process as a
whole affect more than 38% of all research in the world (Figure 1.12).

Figure 1.12 - The main directions of world research in the field of modeling of
thermal spray processes

17
 An analysis of ongoing global studies has shown (Figure 1.13) that today, as 40
years ago, most of the models being developed are empirical in nature, the only
difference being that numerical modeling is used consistently. one way or another,
which is due to the rapid development of computer technology in the past 15 years.
Only 5% of the models created are analytical in nature. In this case, during the
simulation, 5 parameters that characterize the course of the spraying process are mainly
considered, presented in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13 - The main methods for modeling thermal projection processes in
the world

Figure 1.14 - The main parameters of the thermal spraying process, investigated
during the simulation

Currently, only a few works are presented in open foreign sources dedicated to
modeling the thermal spray process at all levels, from the formation of a hot jet to the
formation of a coating [7].
Among the Russian studies, the complex model of plasma spraying developed by
Prof. Puzryakov A.F., which describes all the stages of plasma spraying: from
modeling the characteristics of the plasma torch to modeling the properties of the
coatings obtained, allows us to obtain semi-empirical dependences of the basic
properties of the coating (P, KIM, SSC) on the basic parameters of spraying (I, G, C)
and is perhaps the only model practically applicable in engineering calculations. The
disadvantages of this model are its empiricism, as well as the complexity and
complexity of calculations
Several subsequent experimental data on the determination of the temperature and
velocity of particles in a plasma jet give reason to believe that particles of sprayed
18
materials with high thermal conductivity (metals, alloys, and intermetallic) are greatly
accelerated and heated in a jet. of plasma. faster than previously assumed in existing
mathematical models. The adoption of the position on shock acceleration and heating
of particles with high thermal conductivity in a plasma jet opens the possibility of
building a simplified and analytically solvable mathematical model for these particles.
An analysis of the volumes of materials used to strengthen and restore various parts
showed that in 80-90% of cases, materials with high thermal conductivity are used.
Analysis of existing specialized software. The analysis of domestic and foreign
sources revealed the practical absence in the world of specialized software suitable for
solving problems of hardening and restoration of parts by methods of gas-thermal and,
in particular, plasma spraying.
The design of the plasma spraying process is a big problem: the complexity of the
plasma torch design, the complexity
of mathematical modeling and the problems of the stability of the spraying process
require a large number of tests. Further improvement of the efficiency
of using plasma spraying is associated with the development of methods and
means of automation and computerization of the spraying process.

19
CHAPTER 2 DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF
PLASMA COATING PROCESSES

2.1 Development of a mathematical model for the calculation of the

technological modes of plasma projection of materials with high thermal
conductivity

Due to the wide variety of various physical phenomena that occur during
deposition, the development of a complex mathematical and physical computational
model requires the modeling of three main sub-processes: the formation of a plasma
jet; interaction of particles with a jet; formation of coatings, as well as their mechanical
and thermodynamic properties.
An approach to model the formation of a plasma jet. The purpose of modeling
at this stage is to obtain the relationship between the energy and thermal characteristics
of the plasma torch and the specific enthalpy, velocity and temperature of the plasma
jet at the nozzle exit. Currently, there are three methods for modeling and calculating
a plasma torch: the theoretical method, the criterion method, and the empirical method.
The theoretical method consists in solving a system of equations, which includes:
the continuity equation, the motion equation, the energy equation, the Ohm's law
equation, the Maxwell equation and the equations of state. The disadvantages of this
method are the low accuracy of solving the given system of equations, as well as the
lack of methods for calculating the integral characteristics of the arc discharge. A
limitation in the use of this method is that it is, in fact, applicable only to laminar gas
flows, which are practically not used in plasma spray technology [7].
The criteria method is based on finding the criteria dependencies of geometrically
similar plasmatrons. In this case, a generalized current-voltage characteristic of the
criterion, thermal efficiency, is used, with the help of which the specific enthalpy is
calculated, and then 𝑇0 and 𝑣0 at the nozzle exit are determined. Disadvantages of the
method: the accuracy of voltage and thermal efficiency calculations does not exceed
20-40%, which is much lower than the accuracy of the empirical method and is
insufficient for engineering and technological calculations; the calculations do not take
into account the composition of the gas, further reducing the accuracy of the
calculations. The criterion method is mainly used to calculate high power plasmatrons.
The empirical method for calculating the plasma torch is that at various flow rates
and gas compositions for a particular plasma torch, the current-voltage characteristic
(CVC) is found. The advantage of the empirical method is the high accuracy of the
calculations (5-7% error). The disadvantages are the need for a specific plasma torch
and tests to determine the experimental coefficients. However, despite this, at present,
the empirical method for the calculation of the plasma torch is the only one objectively
suitable for technological calculations [7].
In addition, various approaches to modeling the process of plasma formation and
the formation of a plasma jet are given in the works.
The article shows that in order to calculate the temperature of the particles in a
plasma jet, it is necessary to calculate the following thermodynamic properties of the
20
gas mixture: density, heat capacity, specific enthalpy and the number of grams-moles
in 1 kg of gas. gas. In the course of calculating the transport properties of the plasma-
forming gas, its viscosity and thermal conductivity are determined.
An approach to model the interaction of particles with a jet.
The model to calculate the parameters of the particles in a plasma jet has proven
to be good; It has been shown that the velocity of the particles, depending on their
density and granulation and the velocity and density of the gas flow, can be
approximated by least squares. method by relation:

where 𝜌h, 𝑣h, 𝑑h are the density, velocity, and diameter of the particles,
respectively;
𝜌п, 𝑣п are the density and velocity of the plasma jet, respectively.
Expression (2.1) is applicable: for particles with a diameter of 50 to 200 µm; by
changing the density of the particles between 3,000 and 19,300 kg/m3; at a plasma jet
speed in the range of 400–1200 m/s; at a plasma jet density in the range of 0.034–0.05
kg/m3. In this case, expression (2.1) describes the experimental data with a mean
square error of 10.5%.
The temperature of the sprayed particles is found from the heat conduction
equation, which in the mathematical model for the calculation of particles with low
thermal conductivity, under the initial condition 𝑇 (𝑟, 0) = 𝑓(𝑟) has the form (2.2):

In the general case, the problem of calculating the temperature of the particles in
this formulation has no analytical solution, but it can be solved numerically using the
finite increment method, which complicates the development and optimization of
deposition process modes.
More recent field studies have shown that during plasma spray, particles are
accelerated in the plasma jet much faster than implied from the previous model, and
from the moment they enter the plasma torch, particles move at a constant speed
(instantaneous acceleration). The fact that the particles are accelerated in the initial
section of the jet is visible in the presented scanned photographs (Figure 2.1).

21
 Figure 2.1 - Photo scans of a plasma jet with tungsten particles

The structure of the developed mathematical model and the sequence of

calculations. The developed model is based on physics and mathematics.
model. The temperature and velocity of the sprayed particles are calculated in the
following sequence (Figure 2.2).
1. According to the given values of I, flow G and composition. From the plasma-
forming gas, we determine the specific enthalpy of the gas H ud0 at the outlet of the
plasma torch nozzle.
2. We calculate the temperature Т0 and the speed ν0 of the jet at the exit of the nozzle
of the plasma torch.
3. We determine the length of the initial section of the plasma jet, where the heating and
acceleration of particles with high thermal conductivity occurs.
4. We calculate the thermodynamic and transport properties of the plasma jet.
5. We calculate the speed νh(x) and the temperature Th(x) of the particles sprayed at
different distances from the nozzle outlet of the plasma torch.
6. We found the dependence of the porosity of the coating P, the coefficient of use of
the CMM material and the adhesion force σsc with the temperature and the velocity
of the particles. [8].

22
 Figure 2.2 - Stages of the plasma spray process when building a mathematical
model

Modeling of the energetic and thermal characteristics of the plasma torch.

To determine the specific enthalpy, speed and temperature of the plasma jet at the
nozzle exit, we will use the empirical plasma torch calculation method, which has been
successfully applied in practice. To calculate the specific enthalpy of the plasma jet,
we use the dependency (2.3):

where 𝑈 is the arc voltage;

𝐼 - the magnitude of the arc current

23
 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are the flow rates of gas 1 and gas 2, which are part of the plasma gas
(for example, argon and nitrogen);
𝐺 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 – consumption of plasma gas.
𝑄 - heat losses from the plasma torch;
𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3, 𝑎4, 𝑎5, 𝑎6 are experimental coefficients that depend on the design of
the plasma torch. These coefficients are obtained in the course of experiments using a
specific plasma torch, which requires additional calculations of the modes of the
deposition process;
𝑐 - coefficient obtained experimentally;
𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constants based on the design of the plasma torch.
Furthermore, according to thermodynamic dependencies, we find the universal
gas constant 𝑅0 = 𝑓 (𝐻ud0, 𝐶) and the temperature 𝑇0 = 𝑓 (𝐻ud, 𝐶) at the nozzle outlet.
The speed of the jet at the exit of the nozzle is determined by the expression (2.4):

where 𝑃 is pressure;
d is the diameter of the nozzle.
Modeling of thermal and dynamic parameters of a plasma jet. The length of
the initial span is determined by formula (2.5):

Where 𝐶n is the experimental constant of the initial section;

𝐵1, 𝐵2, 𝐵3: functions of the heating of the initial jet and the composition of the
gas.
The coefficients 𝐵1, 𝐵2 and 𝐵3 in expression (2.5) are determined from the
dependencies (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8), respectively:

24
 For argon-nitrogen plasma, expression (2.5) after approximation will take the
following form (2.9):

Modeling of thermodynamic and transfer properties of plasma gases. It is

convenient to calculate the thermodynamic properties of plasma-forming gases using
the specialized Astra program, while the viscosity of the argon-nitrogen mixture is
determined by formula (2.10):

To determine the thermal conductivity of a gas mixture, you can use the
approximate formula (2.11):

The viscosity and thermal conductivity of pure argon and nitrogen, necessary for
the calculation of 𝜇cm and 𝜆cm, are determined by expression (2.12):

Where For goo 𝑥 = (𝑇𝑠 – 8000) ⁄7000,

TO For Thermal conductivity 𝑥 = (𝑇𝑠 – 6500) ⁄5500.
Calculation of the parameters of particles with high thermal conductivity in
a plasma jet. The experimental studies carried out have shown the possibility of
simplifying the model for particles with high thermal conductivity. An analysis of the
experimental data on the measurement of the temperature of the particles obtained in a
special device showed that the temperature of the particles with high thermal
conductivity (in particular, the tungsten particles shown in the scanned photos above)
inside the main section of the jet remains almost unchanged.
For particles in a low-temperature plasma jet, the Reynolds number (2.13)
determines the law of particle motion and the law of their heating, since the sphere's
drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 and Nusselt's criterion (2.14) are functions of the number 𝑅𝑒.

25
 With plasma spray, 𝑅𝑒~102 – 103 [9], therefore, to determine 𝐶𝐷, we will use the
LS Klyachko dependency [9] (2.15):

We introduce the following notation:

𝑊 is the velocity of the gas in the axis of the plasma jet;
𝑉 is the velocity of the particle;
𝑈 = 𝑊 – 𝑉 – relative velocity;
𝐷 is the diameter of the particle;
𝑔 is the index of the properties of the plasma jet;
𝑝 is an index of the properties of the particles.
𝑋=𝑉∙𝐷
𝑅=𝑊∙𝐷
In this case, the particle motion equation will have the form (2.16):

For the initial section of the jet, the temperature 𝑇𝑔, 𝑊, 𝜈 and the density 𝜌𝑔 can
be taken as constant values. The condition 𝑊 ≫𝑉 is always fulfilled in the initial
section, so we can use the transformation (2.17):

Where 𝛿 = 𝑉⁄𝑊 = 𝑋⁄𝑅.

Taking 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡 and denoting 𝑘 = 18 𝜌𝑔⁄𝜌𝑝 and 𝜁 = 𝑥⁄𝐷, instead of (2.16) we
can write (2.18):

Setting 𝛿 = 0 for 𝜁 = 0, after integrating (2.18) we obtain (2.19)

26
 The resulting expression (2.19) can be simplified using the following expansion:

since 𝑎 ∙ 𝛿⁄𝑏 = 1.
Then the expression (2.19) takes the form (2.20):

This relationship determines the change in the Reynolds numbers in the initial
section along the axis of the jet (2.21 and 2.22):

The more 𝑘, the faster the acceleration of the particle occurs, that is, the growth
𝑋, and the faster the decline 𝑌.
Relationship between time coordinates (2.23)

Fourier's test and the numbers 𝑋 and 𝑌 can be established using the original
equation (2.16). We obtain expressions (2.24) and (2.25), which are the analytical
solution of the equation of motion of particles in the initial section of the plasma jet:

27
 Where 𝑆0 = 𝑊𝑡⁄𝐷 – Strouhal criterion; 𝑆0 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝑃𝑒0
𝑃𝑒0 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝐷⁄𝑎𝑝 is an analogue of Peclet's criterion.
To calculate the heating of the particles in the initial section, we use the following
relationship (2.25):

in which, without much error, one can take

The index 𝑤 refers to the properties of the gas at the surface temperature of the
particle 𝑇𝑤. For temperatures 𝑇𝑤 = 1000 ... 3000 K, we can take 𝜆𝑤 = 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ∙ 𝑇𝑤.
The equation for heating a thermally thin particle without taking into account
radiation heat transfer has the form (2.26):

Where 𝜃 = 𝑇⁄𝑇𝑚;
𝜃𝑔 = 𝑇𝑔⁄𝑇𝑚;
𝑇𝑚 is the melting point of the particulate material;
𝐴1 = 12𝑎1⁄𝜆𝑝;
𝐴 = 12𝑏1 ∙ 𝑇𝑚⁄𝜆𝑝;
𝐵 = 6𝐾 ∙ 𝜆𝑔⁄𝜆𝑝.
The Reynolds test 𝑌 according to (2.25) can be written as (2.27):

Going from the 𝑟-coordinate to the spatial coordinate 𝜁 = 𝑥⁄𝐷, expression (2.26)
becomes (2.28):
28
 Considering the transformation

given that 𝐵0 ∙ 𝑟⁄𝑅 = 1, and also given the initial condition

𝜃 = 𝜃0 for 𝑟 = 0, we obtain the solution of equation (2.28) as follows (2.29):

Where 𝛾 = 𝛽 + 𝐵√𝑅;
𝛿 = 𝐴 (𝜃𝑔 – 𝜃0);
𝛽 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝜃𝑔.

Figure 2.3 shows heating graphs of tungsten particles in the initial section of the
argon plasma jet, represented according to dependency (2.29). The heating curves
determined by the dependency (2.30) are also plotted there:

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑔 – (𝜃𝑔 – 𝜃0) 𝑒−6𝐵𝑖𝑐, (2.30)

Where 𝐵𝑖 = 𝛼 ∙ 𝐷⁄𝜆𝑝 = 2𝜆𝑔⁄𝜆𝑝;
𝑁𝑢 = 𝛼 ∙ 𝐷⁄𝜆𝑔 = 2.

4000

3,500

3000

2500

2000

1500 5 6 7 9 10 11 12

x mm
Figure 2.3 - Heating graphs of tungsten particles in the initial section of the
argon plasma jet (𝑇𝑔 = 104 K, 𝑊 = 103 m/s)
1 (red) - 𝐷 = 30 µm, 2 (green) - 𝐷 = 60 µm, 3 (blue) - 𝐷 = 100 µm.
29
 Solid lines: calculation according to (2.29), dashed lines: calculation according to
(2.30).
Thus, when calculating according to (2.30), the fusion of the particles 𝐷 = 30 μm
starts at a distance of about 3.5 mm from the point of entry to the jet, while according
to the proposed method, the moment when the temperature is reached fusion
corresponds to a distance of about 10 mm.

2.2 Model for criteria-based evaluation of technical and technological

capabilities of plasma coating methods

To build a criterion model, at the first stage, the most significant parameters are
selected for analysis from a set of parameters characterizing the technological cost of
coating, productivity and process reliability, on the basis of which the Criterion for the
economic efficiency of the deposition process is further formulated [10].
The given coating costs are (2.31):

when i – index of the variant;

Ki- the cost of the equipment that implements the technological process, tenge;
Еn- normative coefficient of return on capital investments;
Тn– standard payback period for capital investments, years;
Сі– cost of coating material, tg.
The unit cost of coating a part can be determined as (2.32):

where -variant index

Foi – nominal annual fund of equipment operation, h;
Тці - the duration of the technological cycle or the time of coating, h;
 oi =1−( 1 + 2) – a coefficient that takes into account the loss of the nominal
time fund for organizational reasons;
δ1 is the coefficient of time loss for inspections and repairs;
δ2 is the coefficient of downtime loss due to untimely supply
of materials and energy (found from statistical data or set);
 zi – coefficient of time loss due to underloading of equipment;

30
 The coefficient ηоі characterizes the reliability of the equipment and, ultimately,
the technological process, therefore it can be called the reliability coefficient.
Thus, we obtain the expression (2.33):

The first term (2.33) represents capital investments related to 1 hour of the actual
operation of the team fund, that is, specific capital investments. The second term is the
technological cost of 1 hour of operation of the equipment, that is, unit cost of
production per coating operation.
We will denote it by Coi.
Since the dependency (2.34) takes place:

Where wentis the total area of the sprayed surface, cm2;

tі – coating thickness, cm;
fоі - spraying performance, cm 3 / min, we get the expression (2.35):

which determines the unit costs to create a coating of the required thickness, or
the technological cost of the coating.
We get an expression forum generalized criterion for the economic efficiency of
spraying coatings, taking into account technological and operational indicators,
without taking into account the geometric characteristics of the coating (area fоі and
thickness tі) and normalizing the specific costs by the volume of the coating.
Substituting this relation into (2.35) gives (2.36):

Expression (2.36) is a multiparameter technoeconomic model that allows

estimating the cost of obtaining a unit volume of plasma coverage.
The minimum Sobi will indicate the high economic efficiency of the technological
process. However, the best cost option may not satisfy performance and/or reliability.
Therefore, in order to select the optimal technological process, complex criteria are
required, based on a technical and economic model and focused on reliability and
performance indicators. Such a criterion can be represented as (2.37):

31
 The mathematical description of the criterion (2.37) allows to determine and
analyze the main technical, economic indicators and the technological characteristics
of the technological process of applying coatings that provide Qmax.
In order to select a rational coating application method with an evaluation of its
performance, a software package has been developed (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 - Algorithm for choosing a rational coating method

The basis of the software package information environment are the following
databases:
– working conditions to choose the coating material depending on the
temperature, chemical activity of the working medium, useful life, mechanical loads,
etc.;
- coating methods depending on the purpose of the coating, the characteristics of
the coating material and the base of the part, the required thickness, porosity, roughness
of the coating, processing temperature conditions and technical and economic
indicators;
- typical technological processes, products, areas of application, materials,
purpose of coatings, methods and modes of their application;
– applied wear resistant coating materials depending on their quantitative (density,
melting point, adhesion strength, etc.), qualitative (heat resistance, erosion resistance,
wear resistance, etc.), mechanical, thermophysical properties and special, purpose, and
operating characteristics.
Stage 1. Comparison of the developed technological process with existing
technical solutions. After analyzing the characteristics of the part, a database (DB) of

32
existing technological processes (TP) is used, the possibility of using the developed TP
is evaluated, as well as data from similar developments.
If a suitable TP is found, the system provides data on a typical TP, including
material grade, coating method, and parameters achieved. In the absence of an adequate
technological process, the system proceeds to the synthesis of a new one.
Stage 2. Selection of materials ("VIBMAT" module). From a large number of
materials, the most optimal for a particular part is selected.
The materials selection program considers the possibility of operating the material
in four types of work environment (oxidizing, neutral, abrasive, corrosive) acting on
the coating material with different intensities. The program allows selecting a material
subject to the condition Tp ≤ 0.8 Tm, where Tp is the operating temperature of the
coating; Tmelt is the melting temperature of the coating material.
Stage 3. Choice of coating method ("VIBTECHNO" module). The coating
method is selected based on technological feasibility and the economic cost of
manufacturing the coated part.
Stage 4. Selection of spray modes (modules "OPTIM 1", "OPTIM 2",
RASHETA). To select the modes, the objective function Fv, T is used, which must
be minimal for the modes that provide the specified cloaking properties (2.38):

FV, T = F (T-TV, V-VV) (2.38)

Where TV, νset are, respectively, the temperature and the velocity of the particles
at which the required properties of the coatings are provided.
When searching for deposition modes of plasma coatings that satisfy condition
(2.38), the following constraints (2.39) are taken into account:

The restrictions in (2.39) on the technological parameters are taken into account
using the functions defined by the following expressions (2.40):

The minimization of the expression (2.38) taking into account (2.40) reduces to
finding the minimum of the function (2.41):

33
 Outside the permissible range of regime change, the functions (2.40) significantly
exceed the value of expression (2.38), therefore, the minimum of the objective function
(2.41) will be in the range of permissible values of current and flow rates. gas and dust.
In this case, to select the modes, the temperature of the particles is calculated, which
gives the specified properties of the coating, and then the current consumption of arc,
gas and dust are determined, in which the particles of the material are heated to the
specified temperature.
By looking for the values of arc current, gas and dust consumption, providing a
given set of temperatures of the pulverized particles, the possibility of realizing the
minimum temperatures Тmin and maximum Тmax is verified (Figure 2.5). If this is not
possible, modes for intermediate values of particle temperatures are selected; if not, it
is concluded that the specified conditions are not realizable.

Figure 2.5 - Algorithm for automated control of coating deposition modes

Optimization of the technological process can be carried out using other

requirements that will be rewritten using such functions as the minimum wear of the
plasma torch Fi, the use of the plasma torch at maximum efficiency Fe, the minimum
deposit distance Fminх, etc.
In this case, the general objective function can be represented as (2.42)

where λi, λe, λminх are equal to 0 if they are not used and 1 if they are used.
Stage 5. Coating tests are carried out to verify the correctness of the calculation
results and refine them to obtain their best characteristics.

34
 Step 6. Save data ("PRINT" module). The program saves information in the
database and prints flowcharts for selected or developed technological processes. In
this case, the calculation results can be presented in the form of specific numerical
values, the desired parameters or factors, as well as functional dependencies, tables,
graphs, diagrams, etc.

2.3 Development of a methodology for the calculation of the parameters of the

technological process of applying plasma coatings

The use of a computerized system of engineering calculations and information

support of a technologist for the development of technological processes for plasma
spraying can significantly reduce the development time of technological processes for
spraying parts with coatings, improve the quality of coating by reducing design errors
[10]. The "System" being developed is a software package that allows the technologist
to perform, based on the technical task of hardening and/or restoration of the part:
– choice of material and structure of the covering;
– selection of the optimal coating method;
– development of the technological process of hardening and/or restoration.
The basis of this "System" is connected in a single complex: a knowledge base, a
database, an analytical subsystem and a software module used by a technologist for the
calculations necessary to implement a specific technological process [11].
Knowledge base It is a systematized repository that combines all kinds of
information that the process engineer needs to make informed and rational decisions
during the development of the hardening and/or restoration process. The search for
relevant information in the knowledge base is optimized based on typical scenarios for
the work of a technologist [11].
Database includes all formalized data used by the process engineer and research
engineer in their work.
Analytical subsystem It is a set of bundled and database-integrated tools and
methods used to find relationships in large data sets.
The element of the software module, which represents the greatest scientific
complexity, is the block for calculating the technological modes of plasma spraying of
coatings. This block is based on a mathematical model of the plasma spray process.
The second responsible, complex and science-intensive task that must be solved
is the choice of a rational coating material. The coating material selection module,
using the database, allows heuristic analysis and selection of various most suitable
coating options [12].
For the design of specialized databases used in the development of the
technological process of coating by plasma spraying, it is necessary:
1. Define a list of tasks that should be solved with the help of a database and a
knowledge base.
2. Define a list of database and knowledge base user types.
3. Select a list of objects that should be stored in the database and
knowledge base.
35
 4. Determine the requirements for the structure and organization of the database
and knowledge base, based on the needs of users and their work scenarios.
Based on the current level of plasma spraying in Russia and in the world,
the following main tasks can be identified, for which it is necessary to use a
database and a knowledge base:
–selection and synthesis of equipment and technological means of implementing the
spraying process;
– identification and implementation of significant and scientifically new research
directions in the field of gas thermal spraying technology;
–analysis of experimental data in the field of gas thermal spraying with using modern
methods of intelligent information processing and automated search for analytical
dependencies.
From the point of view of solving the designated tasks, the following database and
knowledge base users can be distinguished: process engineer; research engineer; data
entry operator into the database; software calculation modules.
An enlarged list of types of objects, information about which should be stored in
the database and knowledge base to solve the tasks outlined above:
– properties of powder and raw materials;
– properties of previously created coatings and samples with a sprayed coating;
– parameters of technological processes by which were obtained coatings;
– description and results of research of various kinds and scientific orientation in the
form of publications;
– description of mathematical and physical models, algorithms, techniques;
– informal description of materials, powders, equipment, coatings, technological
methods and spraying processes;
– information about global manufacturing and research organizations, their capabilities
and results of work;
– parameters of the plasmatrons and plasma spraying unit;
–parameters characterizing the flow of physico-chemical processes during spraying
(properties of the plasma jet, properties of particles in the plasma jet, etc.)
– technological capabilities of various gas-thermal coating methods;
– tactical and technical characteristics of coated parts.
Thus, it is possible to determine the role and basic requirements for the knowledge
base and database, from the point of view of their application in the field of gas-
thermal, and, in particular, plasma spraying.
Development of a specialized knowledge base. Based on the analysis, it was
revealed that the knowledge base should consist of 5 clusters with the following
conditional names:
1. "Science and Technology".
2. "Community of thermal spraying".
3. "Technical and software".
4. "Application of coatings".
5. "Materials and coatings".
The Publications group is a structured repository
36
 of scientific articles, books, technical reports, conference materials, reports,
technical descriptions and other types of publications that form the modern
the volume of scientific, technical and technological knowledge in the field of
thermal spraying, published in any sources. The volume and structure
of the fields are selected based on typical scenarios of the work of a process
engineer and researcher and are rationalized according to the following key
performance indicators:
✓ ensuring finding the maximum number of relevant publications in the minimum
time;
providing a set of links with other parts of the knowledge base, necessary and
sufficient to create a rational overall structure of the knowledge base.
The Methods group contains all the information necessary for a process engineer
and researcher about currently known technological methods for obtaining gas-thermal
coatings and about existing mathematical methods for their modeling.
The Definitions group is a kind of specialized "encyclopedic dictionary" of an
engineer and researcher in the field of thermal spraying. In addition to defining and
unifying specialized terms, this group solves the following tasks:
✓ definition of the subject area of knowledge stored in the knowledge base by
creating a so-called keyword cloud, which, in fact, are definitions;
✓ ensuring interconnections and an effective search system in the knowledge base
using keywords;
✓ unification of both Russian-language and English-language terminology used
by process engineers and researchers in the field of thermal spraying.
The group "Organizations" includes information about research and production
organizations whose field of activity is related to the field of thermal spraying.
The Events group provides information about world scientific and industrial
conferences, exhibitions of interest to a process engineer and researcher in the field of
thermal spraying.
The People group includes information about technologists, researchers,
scientists, managers and other people working in the field of thermal spraying around
the world. The cluster consists of 5 groups of knowledge: "Alloys", "Powders",
"Coatings", "Wires" and "Materials" containing information about the relevant starting
substances and materials used to produce gas-thermal coatings. At the same time, the
basic information presented in the Materials and Coatings cluster is stored in a
specialized database described below. This cluster itself is an interface that displays
relevant information from the database for a process engineer or researcher working
with the knowledge base.
The "Software" group includes information about all specialized software that can
be used by a process engineer and researcher in the field of thermal spraying.
The "Equipment" group includes information about all known equipment and
technological equipment that can be used by a process engineer to implement the
developed technological process of gas thermal spraying.
Development of a specialized database. The databases used by the process
engineer in the design of gas-thermal coatings and the technology of their spraying are

37
currently, in fact, databases on materials for obtaining gas-thermal coatings. At the
same time, such databases reflect only the properties of the raw materials, which are
subjectively interpreted by the process engineer into the corresponding properties of
gas-thermal coatings [12].

38
CHAPTER 3 METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
PROPERTIES OF PLASMA COATINGS

3.1 Particle temperature measurement technique

The determination of coating properties is carried out in three main areas:

– Determination of the physical and mechanical properties of the coating material.
– Determination of the service properties of the coatings on the substrate material.
– Determination of the performance of the coating under conditions of thermal
cycling (thermal fatigue of the coatings) and the effect of the coating on the properties
of the substrate material - resistance and long-term resistance [13].
Within the framework of this work, methods were used to determine the following
characteristics, the most important for coatings used to harden and restore parts of road
construction equipment:
– adhesion strength of the coatings with the substrate material;
– porosity of the coating;
– coating microstructures;
– coating hardness;
– wear resistance of coatings.
For experimental confirmation of the mathematical model, it was also necessary
to determine experimentally:
– energy and thermal characteristics of the plasma torch, which is used to spray
coatings;
Measurement of the temperature of particles in a plasma is an important stage in
the development and experimental verification of the reliability of mathematical
models of a plasma jet and the behavior of particles in it. A comprehensive review of
modern methods for measuring particle temperature is presented in study [14].
It is possible to measure the temperature of the particles at a distance of less than
three centimeters from the outlet of the plasma torch nozzle if the sprayed particles are
separated from the plasma jet using a special device (Figure 3.1) [15].

Figure 3.1 - Diagram of the device to separate particles from the jet The
temperature of the particles is found from expression (3.1):
39
 Where 𝑇2h is the final temperature of the water in the calorimeter when particles
enter;
𝑀h is the mass of particles entering the calorimeter,
𝐶𝑝h is the specific heat of the particles,
𝐶𝑝k is the heat capacity of the calorimeter, which was previously determined
experimentally and calculated from expression (3.2):

Where 𝐶pore, 𝑀pore, 𝑇pore - heat capacity, mass and temperature of the
preheated powder;
𝑀cal, 𝑇start, 𝑇mouth – mass, initial temperature and calorimeter constant.

3.2 Method to study the strength of adhesion of coatings

One of the most important parameters characterizing the quality of coatings is the
strength of adhesion. Existing methods for the experimental determination of the
adhesion strength of coatings [16] can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative. In the studies carried out in the framework of this work, two of the previous
methods are used: adhesive and pin.
Adhesive method for determining adhesion strength is shown in Figure 3.2
[16].

Figure 3.2 - Schemes for testing the adhesive strength of the coating by the
adhesive method:
40
 1 - fastening pins; 2 - holder; 3 - glue; 4 - lining; 5 - sample
The calculation of the adhesion force is carried out according to the formula (3.3):

where P is the breaking force;

d is the diameter of the sample.
The thickness of the coating should be in the range from 0.2 to 0.4 mm (optimum
thickness is 0.3 mm). The greater the thickness, the adhesion force decreases. The
decrease in adhesion force is taken into account by the experimental coefficient
𝐾e in Table 1, taking the adhesive force to a thickness of 0.3 mm.
The gluing of the samples is carried out in accordance with the technical
documentation of the adhesive in table 2.
Table 1 - 𝐾e values for different coating thicknesses
𝐾e 0.88 1.00 1.21 1.41 1.60 1.75 1.96 2.22
𝛿, mm 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 1.00

The uneven distribution of stresses over the cross—sectional area of the coating -
base joint, the simultaneous action of tangential and normal stresses in the coating
makes it necessary to analyze the stress state that occurs in the coating when it is
detached from the base. At the same time, it is necessary to study not only the limiting
state, but also the entire process of stress development in the coating as the loading
force increases. The study of this issue is crucial for a reliable assessment of the acc.

Table 2 - Main characteristics of the adhesives

glue 𝜎sc Work Gluing mode
Glue type MPa temperature, temper Specific load during waiting time,
ºC ature, gluing, MPa h
°C
VK-9 Liquid 20–30 up to 120 60 0.02 1
12 0.02 24
VK- Film 35–45 350 250 0.2–0.3
26M 3
VK-36 50 150 180 0.1
VK-51 70 80 120

Pin method is shown in Figure 3.3 [17]. The condition for determining the
adhesion force can be written as inequality (3.4):

41
 Where 𝑑 - diameter of the pin,
𝑏 - coating thickness,
𝑡 is the shear stress in the lining,
𝐺 is the stress of adhesive force of the coating.
When performing the tests, the samples and accessories shown in Figure 3.3 are
used.

Figure 3.3 - Scheme for determining the adhesive strength of plasma coatings by the
pin method: 1 - rod made of base material; 2 - steel bushing; 3 – sprayed layer; 4 -
bushing; 5 - split washer; 6 - union nut; 7 and 8 - details of the test machine.

The advantages of the pin method include:

• the possibility of multiple use of devices;
• lack of preparatory operations;
• efficiency;
• the ability to determine the amount of adhesion of any coatings. However, the
pin method makes it possible to determine adhesion only with a coating thickness of
more than 0.3—0.5 mm and the adhesion strength of coatings of a smaller thickness
cannot be measured due to cohesive, not adhesive, destruction of the coating. In
addition, during the manufacture of samples, a gap is formed between the pin and the
clip from units to tens of micrometers; at the same time, a very small gap leads to the
appearance of significant Van der Waals forces or, accordingly, to welding of the pin
and the clip with sprayed particles, and in the case of a large gap, molten particles flow
into it, which fasten the pin and the clip, which distorts the value of the resulting
adhesion strength of the coating to the substrate.
When using the pin method, either transverse destruction of the coating along the
perimeter of the pin is observed, or at the same time adhesive destruction at the "coating
— pin" interface. This is due to the complex stress state during the test, when, in
addition to normal, shear and bending stresses occur. Therefore, the destruction of the
coating occurs at lower loads, which leads to an underestimation of the adhesive
strength values.
To identify the feasibility of using the method, it is necessary to analyze the
mechanism of destruction of the coating and determine the optimal size of the sample
to obtain the most accurate value of the adhesive strength of the coating.

42
3.3 Coating Hardness Test Method

Hardness is the ability of a material to resist the introduction of an indenter solid

into its surface. A hardened ball or a diamond tip in the form of a cone or pyramid is
used as an indenter. In practice, four types of hardness measurement are used.
Hardness is used to assess the quality of thermal coatings, since it is in fact an
indirect assessment of the density of the coating material. The more pores there are in
the coating layer, the deeper the indenter will penetrate. To assess the hardness of the
fine multiphase structure of thermal gas linings, the Brinell method (Figure 3.4, a)
should be used (for relatively soft materials, for example, sealing linings). For hard and
dense coatings (for example, self-fluxing cast with a carbide phase), it is preferable to
use the Vickers method (Figure 3.4, b). To determine the hardness of ceramic coatings,
the Rockwell method is used, since ceramics do not retain the indenter mark [18].

Figure 3.4 - Scheme for determining hardness according to Brinell (a) and
Vickers (b)

Brinell hardness determined according to GOST 9012-59. The Brinell HB

hardness number is determined by dividing the load 𝑃 by the surface area of the
spherical indentation (3.5):

43
 where D is the diameter of the pressed ball, mm.
Vickers hardness determined according to GOST 2999-75. The hardness number
is calculated by formula (3.6)

where 𝑃 is in N and 𝑑 is in mm [19].

Rockwell hardness determined according to GOST 9013-59. The hardness
number is read from the device on the appropriate scale:
- scale A (diamond cone, load 600N) is used for extra hard materials, thin sheet
materials, thin layers (0.5–1.0 mm). Measurement limits HRA 70–85;
– scale B (steel ball, load 1000 N) is used for relatively soft materials (<400 HB).
Measurement limits HRB 25–100;
- scale C (diamond cone, load 1500 N) is used for hard materials (> 450 HB), eg
hardened self-fluxing gas thermal linings, hardened steels. Measurement limits HRC
20–67 [20].
Microhardness determined according to GOST 9450–76. The hardness number
is determined by the same formula as the calculation of the Vickers hardness number
(3.6). The hardness of individual grains and structural components of the section is
determined by metallographic analysis, thin layers or thin parts [20].

3.4 Method for measuring the porosity of coatings

Currently, there are several methods to determine the porosity of gas-thermal

coatings [13], of which the most optimal is the metallographic method, which provides
a precision in the determination of porosity comparable to the hydrostatic weighing
method, being much more accurate. simple and fast. method.
The metallographic method to determine porosity is based on identifying pores on
the surface of an unetched section and determining their characteristics by measuring
geometric dimensions.
The place of cutting and selection of thin sheets is chosen in the central part of the
sample based on the results of a visual inspection of the surface. The cut is made so
that the plane of the section is perpendicular to the surface under study.
The degree of porosity of the surface layer is determined by observing the surface
of an etched section under a microscope. The determination of the proportion of pores
in the surface layer and their sizes is carried out using the linear method of Rosival.

44
3.5 Method for testing surface layers for abrasive wear

Chemical methods for determining the porosity of the coating are based on the
fact that solutions of a certain composition, penetrating through the pores of the coating
to the base metal of the part, react with it and form brightly colored reaction products.
Currently, there are many methods to determine the wear resistance of the surface
layers of parts [21].
Within the framework of this work, a technique is used that determines the
comparative resistance of coatings to abrasive wear during friction against non-rigidly
fixed abrasive particles according to GOST 23.208-79 [22].
The layout of the test setup is shown in Figure 3.5. A rubber-coated steel wheel is
rotated at 200 rpm and pressed against the sample with a force of 150 N, while loose
abrasive is fed between the wheel and the sample.

Figure 3.5 - Scheme of the test facility (GOST 23.208-79)

Weight loss is recorded after 2,000- and 6,000-wheel revolutions. The weight loss
obtained by this method is typically an order of magnitude greater than that of the
grinding wheel test and is suitable for abrasive wear testing of super wear resistant
coatings. Less wear resistant coatings can also be evaluated by the same method if the
load and number of revolutions are reduced.

45
 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND THEIR
ANALYSIS

4.1 Study of the energetic and thermal characteristics of the plasma torch

In the framework of this work, a PUN-1M plasma torch is used for plasma
spraying. Air was chosen as the plasma gas. This plasma torch allows for the spraying
of plasma, using air as the forming gas and plasma carrier. The range of nominal modes
of operation of the plasma torch:
✓ air consumption, 𝐺: from 2.13 to 2.50 l/s;
✓ plasma gas pressure, 𝑃: from 160 to 440 kPa;
✓ arc current, 𝐼: from 120 to 250 A.
The tasks of the ongoing experimental study of the energy characteristics of the
plasma torch:
1. Determination of the current-voltage characteristic, in order to harmonize the ranges
of technological parameters of the plasma torch with the technical characteristics of
the power supply.
2. Determination of rational ranges, from the point of view of work efficiency
(efficiency), of the mode of operation of the plasma torch.
The experiments were carried out with fixed flow rates of cooling water at the
cathode and anode of the plasma torch, equal to 0.159 l/s and 0.093 l/s, respectively.
The specific heat capacity of water used in the calculations is 4200 J/kg∙K
. During the investigation, a total of 32 experiments were carried out. The plasma
torch operating parameters were measured at 8 values of arc current 𝐼 (120, 150, 170,
190, 200, 220, 240, and 250 A) for the following four pairs of supply parameters
(pressure 𝑃 and consumption 𝑄) of the plasma-forming gas (air):
1. 𝑃 = 1.6 kg/cm2 and 𝑄 = 2.13 l/s.
2. 𝑃 = 2.4 kg/cm2 and 𝑄 = 2.31 l/s.
3. 𝑃 = 3.4 kg/cm2 and 𝑄 = 2.37 l/s.
4. 𝑃 = 4.4 kg/cm2 and 𝑄 = 2.50 l/s.
During the experiments, the following indicators were measured:
– arc voltage 𝑈, V;
– tank water temperature 𝑇b, °C;
is the temperature of the water at the exit of the cathode 𝑇k, °C;
is the temperature of the water in the anode drain 𝑇a, °C;
Based on the experimental data obtained, the following indicators were
calculated:
– difference ∆𝑇k = 𝑇k − 𝑇b, °C;
– difference ∆𝑇а = 𝑇а − 𝑇b, °C;
– arc power 𝑃, kW;
– cathodic losses ∆𝑄k, kW;
– anode losses ∆𝑄а, kW;
– total losses ∆𝑄Σ, kW;
is the useful power of the jet 𝑃p, kW;

46
 – Efficiency of the plasma torch 𝜂, %;
is the specific enthalpy of the plasma jet 𝐻sp, kJ/l.

4.2 Investigation of the influence of plasma spray modes on the properties of

coatings

The purpose of the research was to obtain a mathematical model to optimize the
controlled parameters of the technological process using the methods of planning
experiments. The task of selecting controlled parameters is to determine the significant
factors that determine the course of a certain technological process in order to then
control the properties of the resulting coatings [23].
The following have the greatest dependence on the average temperature of the
mass of the pulverized particles:
– porosity (P) – Figure 4.1;
- material utilization factor (KIM) - Figure 4.2;
- adhesion force of the coating with the base (𝜎sts) - Figure 4.3;
The adhesion strength of the coating also depends significantly on the diameter of
the powder piece and the spray distance (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.1 – Dependence of the porosity values on the temperature of the particles

47
 Figure 4.2 – Dependence of CMM values on particle temperature values

Figure 4.3 - Dependence of adhesive force values on particle temperature values

As the value of 𝑇 increases, there is a smooth change in porosity, adhesion force,

and material utilization factor (Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3), which can be described by a
parabolic dependence of the shape (4.1) for porosity, (4.2) for the adhesion force and
(4.3) for the material utilization factor:

48
 Figure 4.4 - Dependencies of adhesion force values on spray distance with a
particle diameter of 40, 60 and 90 microns (curves 1-3, respectively)

П = 𝑏3𝑇2 + 𝑏2𝑇 + 𝑏1, (4.1)

𝜎bp = 𝑏′ 𝑇2 + 𝑏′ 𝑇 + 𝑏′, (4.2)
KIM = 𝑏''𝑇2 + 𝑏''𝑇 + 𝑏'', (4.3)

Where 𝑇 – temperature of the particle 𝑇 = 𝑇⁄2000;

𝑏1, 𝑏2, 𝑏3, 𝑏′, 𝑏′, 𝑏′ are constants depending on the material sprayed.
The constants in (4.1) and (4.2) were obtained by approximating the experimental
data using the method of least squares. The values of the approximation coefficients
are given in Table 3.

Table 3 - Approximation coefficients

Coefficients
Material limits of change 𝑇, K Porosity and KIM
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
Al2O3 1630-2300 P 69.0 -87.0 33.3
Kim -4.8 1.0 19.6
NiCr 1300-1900 P 22.6 0.0 -11.3
Kim 35.1 -4.0 35.8
ZrO2 1700–2000 P 16.8 0.0 -5.9
Kim -37.8 0.0 58.8

It has been established that the dependencies (4.1) and (4.2) within the
measurement error (15%) agree satisfactorily with the experimental data, and their
application for a given porosity allows to determine the required value of h. The
temperature of the particles, the porosity of the coating and the material utilization

49
factor are also used as input parameters in the modeling and search for optimal coating
modes [24].
In industry, in addition to powder plasma torches, plasma torches operating on
wire consumable material are also used. They create conditions for better heating and
a more uniform flow rate of sprayed particles, which leads to more dense and
homogeneous coatings. At the same time, powder plasma torches create opportunities
for a deeper variation in the composition and properties of the coatings obtained.
The flow rates of particles of sprayed materials observed in plasma torches usually
reach values of 40-250 m/s and create a pressure of about 50-100 MPa on the substrate
surface. The short time of active contact of particles with the substrate (10 5-10~7 s)
creates a temperature gradient along the coating thickness of 104 degrees/ mm.
This type of cooling contributes to a change in the properties of the sprayed
material, in particular, an increase in its hardness, and also causes an intense release of
gases that were dissolved in the molten particles and did not have time to stand out
during their rapid crystallization and transition to a solid state. Therefore, the residual
porosity of plasma-sprayed coatings reaches 5-15%. Sequentially, randomly
overlapping each other, the particles form a scaly layered coating with a strongly
pronounced anisotropy of properties (i.e., the difference in properties in different
directions).
The conditions of plastic deformation and thermal activation of the substrate
surface determine the amount of adhesion strength of the coating to the substrate.
In order to increase the adhesion strength, the surface of the part is subjected to
abrasive, mechanical or chemical treatment before coating. The adhesion strength of
plasma metal coatings with a metal substrate reaches 60 MPa, and sometimes 80 MPa.
The use of special sublayers of metals or ceramics (for example, molybdenum,
chromium oxide, etc.) with a thickness of about 10 microns contributes to increasing
the adhesion strength of the coating.
The adhesion strength can also be increased by adjusting the power of the plasma
torch and the spraying distance. Nevertheless, the adhesion strength of the plasma-
sprayed coating to the substrate is small and can be disrupted by internal residual
stresses in the coating material, which reach 7-15 MPa. For this reason, a layer of more
than 50-200 microns is usually not sprayed per pass. The total thickness of the coating
should not exceed its critical value (usually 1-5 mm).
The temperature of the substrate can be changed according to a certain law in
order to ensure a decrease in the temperature gradient over the thickness of the coating
(by heating to 373-673 K before and cooling during the spraying process).
Varying the technological parameters allows you to change the properties of
coatings in the right direction. There are other ways to improve the properties of
plasma-sprayed coatings, for example, vacuum annealing, surface melting, reduction
of bulk porosity by impregnation with various substances, etc.
To study the effect of spray modes on the properties of coatings, experimental
studies were carried out to determine their adhesion strength.
The adhesion strength of coatings to the base can be represented as a certain
function of controlled factors (4.4):

50
  сц = f (Rz, n, I, g1, g2, C, L, D). (4.4)

A differentiated analysis of the relationship between each factor and the numerous
properties of the coatings is extremely complex. In this regard, the main groups of
factors that determine the complex of parameters and properties were formed.
Each group of factors reflects the phenomena that occur in the plasma spray
process:
- the first group of factors (energy) characterizes the state of the plasma jet - the
arc current I and the composition of the plasma gas C (in this case, air)
- the second group - the flow rate of the plasma gas g1 and the flow rate of the
pulverized material g2;
– the third group is the plasma jet spray cone, which depends on the design of the
plasma torch and the spray distance L;
- the fourth group - factors that determine the interaction of the sprayed particles
with the treated surface (particle size D) and the degree of surface readiness for
spraying, characterized by the value of Rzn [25].
When processing the results of experimental studies, the form of their presentation
is of no small importance. To predict the direction of the gradient, a power law
dependence is chosen, which has simplicity and the possibility of varying the values
of the coefficients and indicators for individual intervals. In the chosen form of power,
not only individual quantities are entered, but also incomplete similarity criteria
obtained from the analysis of the dimensions of the controlled factors of the process.
Several incomplete similarity criteria can be represented as dimensionless
relations (4.5):

Despite the fact that factors whose influence on the plasma deposition process is
insignificant are excluded from consideration, and not all criteria have a dimensionless
form, the validity of the obtained similarity is not denied.
Then, the adhesion force function of the coating to the base can be represented as
a power dependence (4.6):

where ao is a constant value reflecting the influence of unaccounted for factors in

the deposit process;
1…5 – experimentally determined coefficients.
After the transformations, expression (4.6) can be reduced to an equation that
matches the linear part of the regression equation when factor planning methods are
used.
The logarithmic form of such an equation takes the following form (4.7):

51
 After introducing the notation y = ln σsc; xi = lnPi; Ao = ln ao, equation (4.7)
takes the form (4.8):

Expression (4.8) is a regression equation, whose peculiarity is that we are not

dealing with individual factors, but generalized ones. Consequently, the use of
traditional experimental-statistical methods based on the results of observations does
not present difficulties, since instead of recording individual factors, the values of the
similarity criterion are recorded.
We will look for the response function for the adhesion force in the form of a
second order polynomial (4.9):

Then the response function for the adhesion force will take the following form
(4.10):

In accordance with this plan, when studying the dependence of the adhesion force
on the modes of plasma coating, the conditions for conducting experiments were
selected (Table 4), which were implemented in a random (arbitrary) order.
To reduce the number of experiments, the method of mathematical planning of
the experiment was used. Preliminary experiments proved the inadequacy of linear
models. Therefore, to build a regression model linking the adhesion strength with
technological parameters (factors), a Box-Benken plan of the type of incomplete factor
experiment 3n was used, which allows to obtain a mathematical model and provide an
objective choice of controlled parameters of the technological process.
The purpose of selecting the controlled parameters is to reduce them to a
minimum while ensuring the high quality of the coatings obtained. This is achieved by
determining the coefficients of influence of the factors of the technological process
under study.

52
Table 4 - Areas of technological and energy change
Factors of the coating plasma projection process

Surface roughness
Spray distance L,

Average sprayed
Composition of
gasoline g1, g/s

consumption g2, g/s

particle size D, µm
plasma flow rate
Arc current I, A
Complex Components

Spray material

plasma gas C

Rz, µm
mm
The range of plasma spray 400– 0.9– 0.20- 70-140 30-85 19–51
parameters when determining σ 500 2.0 0.30 air

Table 5 - Factor levels and variation intervals

Process factors in units of measure
Consumption

Average sprayed particle

Plasma gas composition

Surface roughness, µm
Spray distance, mm
plasma former gas, g/s
Arc current, A

pulverized material

size, µm
(powder), g/s

Factor levels

I gr1 g2 C L D Rz
Upper level 500 2.0 0.30 140 85 51
Air

Main level 450 1.45 0.25 105 57.5 35

Lower level 400 0.9 0.20 70 30 19
Range of variation Δ 50 0.55 0.05 35 22.5 16
Хi
Factor codes X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

Since the results of the tests to determine the value of σsc are characterized by a large
dispersion, a series of measurements was carried out in each experiment. This allowed
estimating the dispersion of the reproducibility of the results of the experimental
studies.

4.3 Investigations of the adhesion strength of coatings

The following types of coatings were chosen as the coatings studied in the
framework of this work:

53
✓ Ni-based wear-resistant metal powder coatings of the type PG-SR4 with a dispersion
of (40–50) ∙10-6 m.
✓ Metal-fluoroplastic antifriction coatings with the following compositions: 60–70%
fluoroplastic + 30–40% bronze; 45–55% PTFE + 45–55% bronze; 25–30% PTFE +
70–75% bronze.
All coatings were applied by plasma spray.
The chemical composition of the PG-SR4 powder coating sprayed with air and
argon plasma is presented in Table 6.

Table 6 - Chemical composition of PG-SR4 powder coating sprayed with air and
argon plasma
Powder particle size, Chemical composition
microns Material processing method of the material, %
C B, Si Fe Cr
less than 50 original 0.85 2.84 1.61 15.35
less than 50 In an air-plasma environment 0.80 2.61 1.42 14.60
less than 50 In an argon-plasma environment 0.89 2.84 1.36 14.70

The coating was applied by plasma spray. The properties of the resulting coatings
are presented in table 7.

Table 7 - Properties of metallic coatings

Coating material Melting point, °C Bond strength, MPa HRC hardness

PG-SR4 990 62–67 58–62

Grades:
- plasma-forming gas - air;
- substrate - St. 45.

The deposition of metal-fluoroplastic coatings on the pieces was carried out in the
following ways:
➢ current - 110 A;
➢ air consumption - 2.2 m3 / h at a pressure of 2.2 atm.;
➢ dust consumption - 0.5 g / s;
➢ spray distance - 200 mm;
➢ movement speed of the plasma torch – 40 cm/min;
➢ speed of rotation of the part - 250 rpm.
The results of the adhesion strength tests of the metal-fluoroplastic coatings are
shown in Table 8.

54
 Table 8 - Results of adhesion strength tests of metal-fluoroplastic coatings
Sample 𝑃, n Note
number
1 77 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material
2 <77 It was not possible to determine the exact force of
destruction.
3 <10 It was not possible to determine the exact force of
destruction.
4 103 Destruction without hole formation
5 57 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material
6 100 Destruction without hole formation
7 162 Destruction without hole formation
8 54 Destruction without hole formation
9 139 Destruction without hole formation
10 108 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material
11 112 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material
12 211 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material
13 144 Formation of a hole in the layer of sprayed material

Indicators of adhesion strength of metal-fluoroplastic coatings, compiled on the

basis of test results, are given in Table 8.
Currently, much attention is paid to testing the adhesion strength of coatings
during shear. However, the analysis of the literature data shows the lack of a unified
approach to the selection of sample sizes. In addition, the wide range of recommended
sample sizes does not allow comparing the results of shear coating tests.
A feature of shear testing is the uneven loading of the sample when a load is
applied, since the coating material in contact with the end surface of the stamp
experiences maximum loads, and the coating material from the free end is weakly
loaded. At the same time, a large concentration of stresses during testing does not allow
obtaining the true value of the shear strength.
Sample #3 with a maximum fluoroplast content of 60-70% and a coating thickness
of 1.3 mm showed the lowest adhesion strength due to the friability of the structure.
For this reason, it was not possible to obtain samples with such a content of fluoroplast
for metallographic tests.
For samples No. 6, 7, 8 and 10, the destruction occurred along the base material,
indicating a high cohesive strength that exceeds the adhesion strength of the coating to
the base. However, the value of the actual adhesion force must be judged by samples
No. 11, 12, and 13 [26].

55
 Table 9 - Properties of metal-fluoroplastic coatings
Sample Voltage, Compound покр, mm Notes
number MPa
1 1.10  60–70% PTFE + 0.2 Destruction by covering
30–40% bronze material.
2  1.10  60–70% PTFE + 0.2 The exact breaking force
30–40% bronze could not be determined.
3  0.14  60–70% PTFE + 1.3 The exact breaking force
30–40% bronze could not be determined.
4 1.47  45-55% PTFE + 0.35 Destruction by covering
45-50% bronze material.
5 0.80  45-55% PTFE + 0.2 Destruction by covering
45-50% bronze material.
6 1.43  45-55% PTFE + 0.8 Destruction by base
45-50% bronze material
7 2.31  25-30% PTFE + 0.5 Destruction by base
70-75% bronze material
8 0.77  25-30% PTFE + 0.8 Destruction by base
70-75% bronze material
9 1.98  25-30% PTFE + 1.2 Destruction by base
70-75% bronze material
10 1.54 Bronze 0.35 Destruction by covering
material.
11 1.60 Bronze 0.2 Destruction by covering
material.
12 3.01 Bronze 0.3 Destruction by covering
material.
13 2.06 Bronze 0.25 Destruction by covering
material.

4.4 Microstructure Investigation

The structure of the resulting PG-SR4 coating is shown in Figure 4.5. The
microstructure of the coating can be characterized as a classic example of a deposited
coating consisting of layer-by-layer particles of the coating material with clear
interparticle and interparticle-layer boundaries in the intervals between melt zones.
The coating contains large free graphite inclusions in a dense nickel matrix
containing CrC, BC and SiC phases with a hardness of 192–213 MPa. The diffuse
transition area from the coating to the base was (2-3) * 10-5 m, and the hardness of the
transition zone was 131-152 MPa.

56
a) microstructure at 75x magnification

a) microstructure at 100x magnification

57
 c) microstructure at 150x magnification
Figure 4.5 - Micrographs of the PG-SR4 wear resistant coating

To study the metal-fluoroplastic coatings, several thin sections of coatings of each

composition were made to determine the stability of the coating properties.
Micrographs of sections of metal-fluoroplastic coatings are shown in Figures 4.6, 4.7
and 4.8. The gold phase is bronze, the black and gray phases are fluoroplast.
No delamination of the base coatings was observed in all the samples under study.
Defects in the sprayed layer in the form of cracks, local delamination’s of the base,
large pores were not found in the samples. The microsection is characterized by high
density, uniformity of structure, absence of cracks and good adhesion to the substrate.

Figure 4.6 - Micrographs of thin sections of the coating 25–30% fluoroplast +

70–75% bronze

58
Figure 4.7 - Micrographs of thin sections of the coating 45–55% fluoroplast +
45–50% bronze

59
 Figure 4.8 - Micrographs of thin sections of coatings 60...70% fluoroplast +
30...40% bronze

4.5 Study of the hardness of coatings and porosity of the superficial layers

Within the framework of this work, 4 batches of sprayed samples of wear resistant
coatings based on PG-SR4 were tested by the method
Rockwell with a load of 150 kg for 4 s. Three samples were tested in each batch.
When studying the hardness of sample materials, the following equipment was used:
➢ device model TK-14-250;
➢ indenter - diamond cone (form tolerance 120o ± 30o). The test results showed that
the average hardness number is 65.3 HRC.
The studies were performed on 54 samples with a size of at least 10.0x10.0 mm
with a layer thickness of at least 0.5 mm. The number of thin sections for studies of
one type of surface layer was at least 3 pieces.
Samples of three types of plasma coatings were used for analysis: PG-SR4 + 15%
Al2O3, PG-SR4 + 20% Al2O3 and PG-SR4. The results showed the porosity of the
three coatings in the range of 12-21% - table 10.

Table 10 - Properties of the coatings obtained by plasma projection

Coating parameters
Porosity, % Adhesion, MPa Degree of oxidation,
%
12–21 30–50 1–2

The mechanical properties of these coatings were investigated separately and are
shown in Table 11.
An analysis of the mechanical properties shows that the low adhesion strength of
the coating, which is approximately 5 times less than the tensile strength of the coating

60
material, is mainly associated with the porosity of the underlayer adjacent to the
substrate.

Table 11 - Mechanical properties of plasma coatings

Spray equipment Mechanical properties of the coating material.
Flexural Tensile strength, Shear Modulus of
strength, kgf/mm2 resistance, elasticity, 10-
2
kgf/mm2 kgf/mm2 kgf/mm2
PG-SR4 + 15% 28 12.5 fifteen 5
Al2O3
PG-SR4 + 20% 25.5 12.0 14 4.7
Al2O3
PG-SR4 25 10.2 - 2.2

Powders with fractions of 63 µm and 60–160 µm, P and S according to TU IES

374-83, were used for coating deposition. The porosity of thick powder coatings
decreases from 20% (1 pass) to 14.5% (3 passes) as the layer builds up, with a coating
layer thickness of 0.08 to 0.12 mm in 1 pass.
Coating roughness (Ra) growing up to 5 layers ranges from 6.0 µm to 11.8 µm
for fine powder coatings and 10.7 to 15.5 for coarse powder coatings.
Coating continuity was achieved in three passes, while porosity and roughness
stabilized. This contributed to a 1.5-2-fold increase in adhesive-cohesive strength.
The main phase of the composite coating is a refractory NiAl intermetallic
compound containing oxide particles by bulk, mainly Al2O3, with an average size of
0.2 to 0.5 µm. The oxides play the role of a reinforcing phase.

4.6 Surface layer tests for abrasive wear

After the tests, it is necessary to conduct a metallographic study of samples or

parts to assess what changes have taken place in the structure of the steel during the
tests. The study of the condition of the surface of the rollers showed that after serial
nitro cementation, large areas of a white non-etching zone appeared on the friction
surface, formed as a result of strong heating of the surface. These zones are very fragile
and destruction occurs along them.
The study was carried out in the volume of 54 cylindrical samples with a diameter
of 10 mm and a height of 20 mm with a coating deposited on the final surface.
Samples of PG-SR4 with additions of Al2O3 were tested for wear resistance in
accordance with GOST 23.208-79 [27]. Due to the fact that GOST 23.208-79 applies
only to materials with a microhardness of not more than 1400 HV0.2, the load was
increased to 150 H, and the wheel speed to 200 rpm.
For each coating option, 3 replicate tests were carried out. As a result of the wear
resistance tests, the results presented in tables 12 and 13 were obtained.

61
 Table 12 - Test results of plasma coatings for wear resistance
Coating Microhardness Liner wear after Liner wear after Note
(±50HV0.2) 2000 revolutions, 6000 revolutions,
x10-2 x10-2
(mm3/Nm) (mm3/Nm)
PG-SR +15%Al2O3
#1 1850…1910 0.03 0.12 The cover is
#2 1350…1430 0.04 0.15 dense
#3 1880…1910 0.02 0.12
PG-SR +20%Al2O3
#1 1950…2030 0.03 0.10 The cover is
#2 1990…2020 0.03 0.10 dense.
#3 2010…2050 0.02 0.09
PG-SR +30%Al2O3
#1 1650…1720 0.02 0.14 Higher porosity
#2 1890…1930 0.03 0.12
#3 1740…1770 0.02 0.14

The use of Al2O3 additives makes it possible to reduce residual stresses in

coatings that lead to destruction when using mixtures of standard powders. The
obtained results can be explained by the fact that insufficient penetration of the particles
forming the coating leads to embrittlement and an increase in porosity. This reduces
the microhardness of the coating and its wear resistance [28].
On the contrary, an increase in the mass fraction of PG-CP in the composition of
the coating led to an increase in wear resistance. This is due to the fact that PG-CP
particles have high kinetic energy, which turns into thermal energy when the particle
collides with the surface, which ensures the formation of a denser coating, due to an
increase in the adhesion forces of the coating particles to each other.

62
 Table 13 - Test results of plasma coatings for wear resistance

Coating Sample Test time, s Sample weight Example of Relative wear

material weight after evidence weight loss, resistance
before test, g
g

93.44 92.81 0,63

Steel 45 92.61 480 91.93 0.68 1
90.01 89.35 0.66

176.60 176.17 0,43

PG-SR4 176.18 480 175.73 0,45 2.76
178.24 177.80 0,44

PG- 165.72
SR4+20% 168.07 165.34 0,38
Al2O3 173.50 480 167.71 0,36 3.89
173.10 0,40

PG-SR4
+15%Al2 94,011 93,531 0,48
O3 94.61 480 94.11 0,50 3.25
95.72 95.25 0,47

As a result of experimental studies of wear-resistant coatings, rational powder

compositions based on solid chromium-nickel alloys with the addition of aluminum
oxide (PG-CP4 +20% Al2O3) were obtained. Comparative laboratory tests have shown
that the wear resistance of the sprayed layers is 3.5–3.9 times higher compared to
hardened steel St. 45. At the same time, the addition of 20% by weight of aluminum
powder to the initial hard alloys contributes to increased wear resistance.

63
CHAPTER 5 PRACTICAL APPLICATION AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
OF RESEARCH RESULTS

5.1 Methodology for choosing the method, material and deposition modes of
multifunctional coatings

During the development of the technological process for coating deposition,

currently, the following extended stages can be distinguished, through which the
technologist passes before creating a technological process ready for production
(Figure 5.1):

Figure 5.1 - Development stages of the spraying process.

At the same time, stages 3, 4, 5 and 6 are the most difficult from a scientific and
technical point of view.

5.2 Evaluation of the economic efficiency of the technological process of

restoration and tempering of pieces by plasma coating

Cut =Judgment mat. +judgment, etc. (5.1)

64
 WhereCutting - the cost of 1 cm3 of lining, tenge. /cm3;
Judgment mat. – cost of materials spent on 1 cm3 of coating, tenge. /cm3;
trial, etc. - cost of expenses for other technological expenses to apply 1 cm3 of
coating, tenge. /cm3. Denoting by q the cost of one gram of consumable material (tg.
/g), taking into account losses in terms of the material utilization factor, we write the
specific cost of the coating in the form (5.2):

where γ is the specific gravity of the material, g/cm3;

PΣ is the total porosity of the applied material;
η is the material utilization factor. Then the cost of material costs (Cmat, tg.)
When applying a coating with a mass of P, g, can be written as:

The specific time required to apply a unit volume of coating can be determined
from expression (5.4):

Св - the cost of restoring the camshaft using plasma coating of powder materials,
Sv = 19,200 tenge/piece;
The economic effect of the introduction into production of new technological
processes for hardening and restoring the camshaft of the injection pump is calculated
according to the following dependencies (5.5):

(5.5)

Where Eg – annual economic effect, tg.;

En- normative coefficient of efficiency of capital investments, taken equal to En
= 0.85;
Ku.z- cost accounting coefficient for the delivery of new parts to the enterprise,
taken equal to Ku.z = 1.1;
Tsn– average price of a piece, tg. /Piece. Tsn = 7,450,000 tenge/piece;
T1 and Т2 – reciprocal values to the useful life of new and remanufactured parts,
Т1 = 0.00050 h-1, Т2 = 0.00018 h-1;
TO- specific capital costs, K = 2,700,000 tenge. /PERSONAL COMPUTER.;

65
CONCLUSION

The expansion of the latest foreign technologies and equipment in the domestic
market is forcing equipment manufacturers and service consumers to radically
reconsider their positions on the quality of their products. One of the most important
areas for solving these problems is the formation of multifunctional coatings on the
surfaces of machine parts that protect the metal from corrosion and wear and make it
possible to maintain the performance of products for a long time. Therefore, progress
in this area is impossible without the development of effective technical and
technological developments that increase its reliability.
With a significant shortage of spare parts and their high cost, the development of
promising technologies for the restoration and hardening of defective parts is an
important task. At the same time, the convenience of repair in terms of material
consumption is due to the possibility of reusing most of the parts, both tight and
extremely worn. This allows you to carry out technological processes for the restoration
of parts in less time with the least expense of effort and money.
The achievement of the objective of the study is ensured by solving a set of
problems of a scientific and applied nature, which allowed the implementation and
obtaining of the following scientific results:
1. The mathematical model developed to calculate the technological modes of
plasma spraying of materials is based on modeling the heat and power characteristics
of the plasma torch, the dynamic parameters of the plasma jet and the thermodynamic
properties of plasma gases. The combined use of heating models for particles with high
and low thermal conductivity makes it possible to determine deposition modes for
almost all existing materials. When calculating the temperature of the particles, the
method of finite increments was used, which allowed to determine the temperature
distribution along the radius of the particles and to calculate the heating of the coated
particles.
2. The mathematical model proposed to optimize the technological processes of
restoring parts allows specifying the range of factors that most influence the
optimization criteria. It includes: methods for generating initial data, choosing an
optimization criterion using controlled factors that affect the costs of the restoration
process; a comprehensive evaluation of the method of application of plasma coatings
according to the criteria of minimum unit costs.
3. As a result of experimental studies, rational parameters of plasma spray modes
with powdery hard alloys in various protective gaseous media (argon, air) are
substantiated and determined. The established rational parameters of the modes of
plasma deposition of multifunctional coatings make it possible to design a specific
technological process for the restoration of worn parts.
4. On the basis of the conducted studies, new compositions of metal-polymer
coatings made of bronze in combination with fluoroplast (25-30% fluoroplast + 70-
75% bronze) and composite materials based on hard chrome-alloys Nickel (PG-CP4 +
20% Al2O3), which provides high wear resistance and increases the resource of
process equipment refurbished parts by 2.2-2.8 times compared to uncoated parts. The
optimal content of aluminum powder 20% Al2O3, added to hard powder alloys, which
66
allows to apply high-quality coatings without pores or cracks, was determined
experimentally. With a decrease in the aluminum content to 15%, pores appear, and
with an increase to 30%, the formation of coatings sharply deteriorates.

67
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