WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

1. Which IS code deals in water requirments?

Ans. TheIndian Standard (IS) code that deals with water requirements for
various purposes is IS 1172:1993. This code provides guidelines and
standards for water requirements in different settings such as residential,
industrial, and commercial establishments.
2.What is the design period for a water supply system?
Ans. The design period for a water supply system typically refers to
the duration for which the system is planned, designed, and expected
to function effectively. It's usually a long-term consideration
accounting for future needs and infrastructure sustainability. Common
design periods for water supply systems can range from 20 to 50
years, depending on factors such as population growth, expected
demand, infrastructure investment, and maintenance considerations.
3. What are various sources of water intake?

Ans. There are several sources from which water intake can be obtained:

1. Surface Water Sources: These include rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and

ponds. They're generally abundant but might require treatment
due to potential contaminants.
2. Groundwater Sources: Wells and aquifers provide water stored
underground. Groundwater can be relatively clean but might
require pumping and treatment.
3. Rainwater Harvesting: Collection of rainwater from rooftops or
catchment areas. It's a sustainable source but might require
storage and filtration.
4. Desalination: Extracting freshwater from seawater or brackish
water. Desalination is effective but can be expensive and energy-
intensive.
5. Recycled or Reclaimed Water: Treated wastewater from
industries or sewage treatment plants. It's often reused for non-
potable purposes like irrigation or industrial processes after
treatment.
6. Spring Water: Naturally occurring sources where groundwater
reaches the surface. It's typically clean but might vary in availability.
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4.State the different methods of population forecast?

1. Ans. Trend Extrapolation: This method involves projecting future

population based on past trends. It might use linear or exponential
growth models, assuming that historical patterns will continue.
2. Component Method: This method breaks down population
change into its components—births, deaths, and migration.
Projections are made by estimating these components based on
various factors like fertility rates, mortality rates, and migration
patterns.
3. Demographic Transition Model: Based on historical shifts in birth
and death rates as societies develop, this model predicts future
population changes by considering a country's stage in the
demographic transition.
4. Econometric Models: These models incorporate economic factors
alongside demographic data to forecast population changes. They
consider factors like GDP, employment rates, and urbanization in
predicting population trends.
5. Stochastic Models: These models introduce randomness or
uncertainty into population forecasts, considering probabilities of
various scenarios based on different assumptions and factors.
6. Expert Opinion and Delphi Technique: Involving expert
judgment, this method gathers opinions from specialists in
demography or related fields to forecast future population
changes.

5.What are the various type sof water demand?

1. Ans. Domestic Water Demand: This refers to water used by

households for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes, and
other domestic activities.
2. Industrial Water Demand: Water used in industries for
manufacturing processes, cooling, cleaning, and other industrial
activities. This demand can vary significantly based on the industry
type.
3. Agricultural Water Demand: Water used for irrigation purposes
in agriculture, including crop cultivation, livestock watering, and
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farm-related activities. Agriculture typically accounts for the largest

share of water demand globally.
4. Commercial Water Demand: Water used in commercial
establishments such as offices, hotels, restaurants, and other
businesses for various purposes including sanitation, cooling, and
other operational needs.
5. Institutional Water Demand: Water used in institutions like
schools, hospitals, and government buildings for drinking,
sanitation, cleaning, and other purposes.
6. Recreational Water Demand: Water used for recreational
purposes such as swimming pools, parks, and other leisure
activities that require water.
6.How seasonal variation affect the water demand?
Ans. Seasonal variations significantly impact water demand due to changing
environmental and human factors:
1. Climate Changes: Weather patterns affect water demand. In hotter
seasons, there's increased need for water for drinking, irrigation, and
cooling purposes. Conversely, colder seasons might reduce outdoor
water use but increase indoor demand for heating and domestic
purposes.
2. Agricultural Demands: Farming activities heavily rely on water for
irrigation, and this demand fluctuates with crop cycles. During planting
and growing seasons, agricultural water demand increases substantially.
3. Tourism and Recreation: Areas with tourist attractions experience peaks
in water demand during holiday seasons when visitors flock to beaches,
resorts, and recreational facilities, leading to increased water use.
4. Outdoor Usage: Summer months often lead to higher water demand
due to outdoor activities like gardening, lawn watering, and car washing.
This demand decreases during colder seasons.
5. Industrial and Commercial Needs: Certain industries might have
fluctuating water requirements based on production schedules, with
some industries experiencing higher demand during specific seasons.
7.Define sustainable development and which sustainable development
goals deals with water?
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Ans. Sustainable development refers to meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It involves balancing economic growth, social progress, and
environmental protection to create a harmonious and sustainable future.
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a
framework for addressing global challenges, and several of these goals
specifically address water-related issues:
1. Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation: This goal aims to ensure availability
and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. It includes
targets to improve water quality, increase water-use efficiency, protect
water-related ecosystems, and provide access to safe and affordable
drinking water and sanitation for everyone.
2. Goal 14: Life Below Water: While not solely focused on freshwater, this
goal aims to conserve and sustainably use oceans, seas, and marine
resources. It includes targets related to reducing marine pollution,
protecting coastal and marine ecosystems, and managing fisheries
sustainably, indirectly impacting the quality and availability of water
resources.
8.Name and define the factors affecting the water demand?
Ans. There are several factors that can affect water demand:
1. Population Growth: As the population increases, so does the overall
water demand for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes.
2. Urbanization: Urban areas tend to have higher water demands due to
denser populations, increased industrialization, and higher standards of
living.
3. Economic Development: Growing economies often lead to increased
industrial and commercial activities, which in turn escalate water
demand for manufacturing processes and other economic activities.
4. Climate and Weather: Variations in climate affect water demand. Hotter
and drier climates typically result in higher water consumption for
irrigation, cooling, and domestic use.
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5. Agricultural Practices: Changes in farming techniques, crop patterns, and

irrigation methods impact water demand in agriculture, which is often
the largest consumer of water in many regions.
6. Technological Advances: Advancements in technology, such as water-
efficient appliances, industrial processes, and irrigation systems, can
influence water demand by either reducing or increasing consumption.
7. Behavioral and Cultural Factors: Consumer habits, lifestyle changes, and
cultural practices influence water demand. For instance, shifts towards
water-intensive activities like car washing or landscaping impact overall
consumption.
8. Policy and Regulations: Government policies, water pricing,
conservation incentives, and regulations regarding water use can
significantly influence demand patterns.
9.What is water self-purification? What are the factors which affect the self-
purification process in river?
Ans. Water self-purification is the natural process by which water bodies,
such as rivers, lakes, and streams, cleanse themselves of pollutants and
maintain a certain level of quality. This process involves various physical,
chemical, and biological mechanisms that work together to degrade, dilute,
or remove contaminants from the water.
Several factors affect the self-purification process in rivers:
1. Flow Rate: Faster-flowing rivers tend to have better self-purification
capabilities as the movement of water helps in diluting and dispersing
pollutants. Slower-flowing rivers might struggle to disperse and dilute
pollutants effectively.
2. Dissolved Oxygen: Adequate oxygen levels are crucial for the self-
purification process, as aerobic organisms (like bacteria) that break down
pollutants require oxygen. Low oxygen levels due to pollution or high
temperatures can hinder this process.
3. Temperature: Warmer temperatures can affect the self-purification
process. Higher temperatures can decrease the solubility of oxygen,
affecting aquatic life and the breakdown of pollutants by
microorganisms.
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4. Presence of Microorganisms: Bacteria, algae, and other microorganisms

play a vital role in breaking down organic matter and pollutants in water.
Factors that affect their population and activity, such as pH, temperature,
and nutrient levels, impact self-purification.
5. Nutrient Levels: Excessive nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus can
lead to eutrophication, fostering excessive algal growth. This, in turn, can
reduce dissolved oxygen levels and hinder the self-purification capacity
of the water.
6. Presence of Toxic Substances: Chemical pollutants, heavy metals, and
other toxic substances can inhibit the activity of microorganisms,
affecting their ability to break down pollutants.
7. Sedimentation and Filtration: Natural processes like sedimentation and
filtration help in removing suspended particles and some contaminants
from the water, contributing to self-purification.
8. Buffering Capacity: The ability of the water body to neutralize acidic or
basic substances affects its self-purification capabilities. Higher buffering
capacity can help maintain a stable pH, which is crucial for aquatic life.
10.Outline some common water supply treatment problems?
Ans. Certainly, here are some common water supply treatment problems:
1. Microbial Contamination: Bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms
can contaminate water, leading to health risks. Inadequate treatment or
contaminated water sources can cause waterborne diseases like cholera,
typhoid, and gastrointestinal illnesses.
2. Sediment and Turbidity: High sediment levels make water cloudy and
increase turbidity. This not only affects water clarity but also complicates
treatment processes, reducing the effectiveness of disinfection and
filtration.
3. Chemical Contaminants: Chemical pollutants like pesticides, heavy
metals, industrial chemicals, and pharmaceuticals can leach into water
sources. Treating these contaminants requires specialized processes and
technologies.
4. Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs): Chlorine and other disinfectants used in
water treatment can react with organic matter, forming disinfection
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byproducts. Some of these byproducts are harmful and require

additional treatment to mitigate health risks.
5. Algal Blooms and Toxins: Excessive nutrient levels in water can lead to
algal blooms. Some types of algae produce toxins that are harmful to
human health and aquatic life, necessitating advanced treatment
methods.
6. Hard Water and Mineral Content: High mineral content, especially
calcium and magnesium, can cause water hardness. This not only affects
the taste but also leads to scaling in pipes and appliances, reducing their
lifespan.
7. pH Imbalance: Water with extremely low or high pH levels can cause
corrosion in pipes and equipment. It can also affect the effectiveness of
disinfection processes.
8. Residual Contaminants: Ensuring that treated water doesn't contain
residual contaminants beyond safe limits is crucial. Continuous
monitoring and treatment adjustments are necessary to maintain water
quality standards.
11.Explain, how water demand and population growth are related?
Ans. Water demand and population growth are intricately linked. As the
population of an area increases, the demand for water typically rises due to
several reasons:
1. Increased Human Consumption: A larger population means more people
requiring water for drinking, cooking, bathing, and other daily needs.
This directly contributes to higher water demand.
2. Agricultural Needs: With population growth, there's often a need to
produce more food to sustain the increased number of individuals.
Agriculture, being one of the most water-intensive industries, requires
more water for irrigation purposes as the demand for food grows.
3. Industrial Expansion: Population growth often leads to increased
industrialization and economic development. Many industries require
water for manufacturing processes, cooling, and various other
operations, thus adding to the overall water demand.
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4. Urbanization: As cities expand to accommodate growing populations,

there's a surge in infrastructure development, which includes
construction, housing, and commercial buildings. This leads to higher
water usage for purposes like construction, landscaping, and maintaining
public spaces.
12.Compare the turbidity measurement using a turbidity rod and
nephelometric.
Ans. Turbidity is a measure of water clarity or cloudiness caused by
suspended particles. Two common methods for measuring turbidity are
using a turbidity rod and nephelometric methods:
1. Turbidity Rod:
 Principle: A turbidity rod is a simple device consisting of a clear
plastic or glass rod marked with a turbidity scale. It measures
turbidity based on the visual comparison of the clarity of the
water sample against the marks on the rod.
 Procedure: The rod is immersed vertically into the water sample
until it's no longer visible. The depth at which it disappears
indicates the turbidity level, as read from the marked scale on the
rod.
 Limitations: This method is subjective and relies on human
interpretation, which can introduce errors due to differences in
perception among observers. It's less precise compared to
instrumental methods like nephelometry.
2. Nephelometric Method:
 Principle: Nephelometry measures turbidity by analyzing the
scattering of light by suspended particles in the water. It uses a
nephelometer, which measures the amount of light scattered at a
90-degree angle as it passes through the sample.
 Procedure: A light beam is directed through the water sample, and
the nephelometer measures the intensity of scattered light. The
higher the turbidity (more suspended particles), the greater the
scattering of light, leading to a higher reading on the
nephelometer.
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 Advantages: Nephelometry is more accurate and objective

compared to visual methods like the turbidity rod. It provides
quantitative measurements and can detect lower levels of
turbidity that might not be visible to the naked eye.
 Limitations: It requires specialized equipment (nephelometer) and
trained personnel to operate. External factors like air bubbles,
color, and dissolved substances in the water might affect the
readings.
13.Why it is important to control water quality in nature and in community?
Ans. Controlling water quality, both in natural environments and
communities, is crucial for several reasons:
1. Human Health:
 Drinking Water Safety: In communities, ensuring the quality of drinking
water is vital for public health. Contaminated water can lead to
waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid, and gastrointestinal illnesses.
 Recreational Use: In natural environments, maintaining water quality in
rivers, lakes, and oceans is essential for activities like swimming, fishing,
and boating to prevent health risks to individuals.
2. Environmental Preservation:
 Ecosystem Health: Natural bodies of water support diverse ecosystems.
Contamination can harm aquatic life, disrupt food chains, and affect
biodiversity.
 Habitat Preservation: Water quality impacts the habitats of various
species. Pollution or poor water quality can degrade or destroy habitats,
leading to the decline or extinction of species.
3. Economic Impact:
 Agriculture: Controlling water quality is vital for irrigation purposes.
Poor-quality water can negatively impact crop growth and soil fertility,
affecting agricultural productivity.
 Tourism and Recreation: Clean water bodies attract tourism and
recreational activities. Contaminated or polluted water can deter
tourists, impacting local economies.
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4. Regulatory Compliance:
 Legal and Regulatory Requirements: Communities must adhere to water
quality standards and regulations set by local, national, and international
bodies. Failure to meet these standards can result in legal consequences
or sanctions.
5. Long-Term Sustainability:
 Resource Management: Ensuring clean water sources is essential for
long-term sustainability. It involves preserving water sources, preventing
depletion, and managing water resources effectively for future
generations.
6. Social and Equity Considerations:
 Public Access: Everyone deserves access to clean and safe water.
Controlling water quality is a matter of social justice and equity to ensure
all communities have access to safe drinking water.
 Community Well-being: Clean water promotes community well-being,
improving overall quality of life and reducing health disparities.
14.Draw the complete flow chart of a water supply system.
Ans.

Certainly, a water supply system involves various stages and components

to ensure the provision of clean and safe water to consumers. Here's a
generalized flow chart depicting the key steps and components in a
water supply system:

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Copy code
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Water Source │
│ (Surface Water or Ground │
│ Water) │
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└─────────────────────────────┘
│
▼
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Water Treatment │
│ (Purification Process) │
└─────────────────────────────┘
│
▼
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Treated Water Storage │
│ (Reservoirs/Tanks) │
└─────────────────────────────┘
│
▼
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Water Distribution │
│ (Pipes and Pumping │
│ Stations) │
└─────────────────────────────┘
│
▼
┌─────────────────────────────┐
│ Water Usage │
│ (Residential, Industrial, │
│ Commercial) │
 WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

└─────────────────────────────┘
Water Source: This can be surface water (rivers, lakes) or groundwater
from wells or springs.
Water Treatment: Processes like coagulation, filtration, disinfection
(chlorination, UV treatment) to remove impurities, pathogens, and
contaminants.
Treated Water Storage: Reservoirs or tanks where treated water is stored
before distribution to maintain a continuous supply.
Water Distribution: Pipes, valves, and pumping stations that transport
water from the treatment facility to various points of use.
Water Usage: Water supplied for residential, industrial, and commercial
purposes.
15.How does sedimentation contribute to water treatment problems?
Ans. Sedimentation is an integral part of water treatment, but it can lead to
several challenges if not managed effectively:
1. Incomplete Removal of Particles: Sedimentation aims to settle
suspended particles in water. However, fine particles or colloidal matter
might not settle effectively, leading to incomplete removal. This can
result in turbid or cloudy water, impacting the overall quality.
2. Sludge Build-Up: Sedimentation basins accumulate settled particles as
sludge at the bottom. Over time, this accumulation can reduce the
basin's efficiency, leading to reduced settling rates and increased
maintenance requirements.
3. Increased Treatment Time: Inefficient sedimentation can prolong the
treatment process. If particles aren't adequately settled, subsequent
treatment stages might take longer or require more resources to address
the remaining impurities.
4. Risk of Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs): Residual organic matter that
isn't properly settled can react with disinfectants (e.g., chlorine) used in
water treatment. These reactions may lead to the formation of DBPs,
some of which are harmful to health.
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5. Impact on Filtration: Inadequate sedimentation can overload filtration

systems. The presence of excess particles can clog filters faster, reducing
their effectiveness and requiring more frequent maintenance.
6. Quality of Treated Water: If sedimentation doesn’t effectively remove
contaminants, it affects the overall quality of treated water. This might
require additional treatment steps, increasing operational costs.
16.Explain the causes of the turbidity in water. How do you measure it?
Ans. Turbidity refers to the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by
suspended particles. These particles can include clay, silt, organic matter, algae,
microbes, or other debris. Several factors contribute to turbidity:
1. Erosion and Runoff: Rainfall, soil disturbance, construction activities, or
deforestation can lead to soil erosion. Sediments from these activities
wash into water bodies, increasing turbidity.
2. Urban Runoff and Pollution: Urban areas with impervious surfaces like
roads and pavements contribute to increased runoff, carrying pollutants,
debris, and sediments into water sources.
3. Algal Blooms: Excessive nutrients in water bodies, often due to
agricultural runoff or untreated sewage, can lead to algal blooms. When
algae grow excessively, they contribute to turbidity.
4. Natural Processes: Natural phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, or
volcanic eruptions can introduce sediments and debris into water bodies,
increasing turbidity.
Measuring turbidity is essential in assessing water quality. It's typically
quantified using a turbidimeter or nephelometer:
1. Turbidimeter: This device measures the amount of light scattered by
particles in water. A light source emits a beam through the water sample,
and a sensor measures the light that passes through the sample. The
more scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Results are often reported
in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
2. Nephelometer: It's a specific type of turbidimeter that measures
scattered light at a 90-degree angle from the incident light beam.
Nephelometric turbidity measurements are highly standardized and
widely used in water quality testing.
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17.Explain the process of Sedimentation.

Ans. Turbidity refers to the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by
suspended particles. These particles can include clay, silt, organic matter, algae,
microbes, or other debris. Several factors contribute to turbidity:
1. Erosion and Runoff: Rainfall, soil disturbance, construction activities, or
deforestation can lead to soil erosion. Sediments from these activities
wash into water bodies, increasing turbidity.
2. Urban Runoff and Pollution: Urban areas with impervious surfaces like
roads and pavements contribute to increased runoff, carrying pollutants,
debris, and sediments into water sources.
3. Algal Blooms: Excessive nutrients in water bodies, often due to
agricultural runoff or untreated sewage, can lead to algal blooms. When
algae grow excessively, they contribute to turbidity.
4. Natural Processes: Natural phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, or
volcanic eruptions can introduce sediments and debris into water bodies,
increasing turbidity.
Measuring turbidity is essential in assessing water quality. It's typically
quantified using a turbidimeter or nephelometer:
1. Turbidimeter: This device measures the amount of light scattered by
particles in water. A light source emits a beam through the water sample,
and a sensor measures the light that passes through the sample. The
more scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Results are often reported
in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
2. Nephelometer: It's a specific type of turbidimeter that measures
scattered light at a 90-degree angle from the incident light beam.
Nephelometric turbidity measurements are highly standardized and
widely used in water quality testing.
Both methods provide quantitative measurements of turbidity, enabling water
quality professionals to assess the clarity of water and identify potential
contamination or changes in water quality over time.

You
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17. Explain the process of Sedimentation.

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Sedimentation is a fundamental process in water treatment that involves the
removal of suspended particles and impurities from water. It's a physical water
treatment method that utilizes gravity to allow particles to settle out of the
water. The process typically involves several key steps:
1. Coagulation and Flocculation: Before sedimentation, chemicals known
as coagulants are often added to the water. Coagulants like aluminum
sulfate (alum) or ferric chloride cause small particles to clump together,
forming larger particles called flocs. This process is aided by mixing the
water to ensure thorough distribution of the coagulant.
2. Settling Basins or Clarifiers: The water flows into settling basins or
clarifiers, large tanks designed to slow down the flow of water and allow
gravity to facilitate the settling of suspended particles. As the water
remains still in these basins, the heavier flocs settle to the bottom due to
gravity.
3. Lamella Clarifiers (Optional): In some systems, lamella clarifiers are used
to enhance the sedimentation process. These are inclined plates within
the settling tank that increase the surface area for particles to settle,
speeding up the process.
4. Sludge Removal: Once the particles have settled at the bottom of the
basin, they form a layer of sludge, which is periodically removed through
mechanisms like sludge scrapers or pumps. This sludge contains the
collected impurities and is often sent for further treatment or disposal.
5. Overflow and Treated Water Collection: The clarified water, now with
reduced turbidity and suspended particles, is collected from the top of
the settling basin or clarifier. It undergoes further treatment steps like
filtration or disinfection before being distributed as clean water.
The effectiveness of sedimentation depends on factors like the size and density
of particles, detention time in the settling basin, and the efficiency of previous
treatment steps (coagulation and flocculation). Proper design, maintenance,
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and monitoring of sedimentation basins are crucial to ensure optimal removal

of suspended solids and impurities from water.
18.Explain the use of alum as coagulant in treating water.
Ans. Alum, chemically known as aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3), is a commonly
used coagulant in water treatment processes, particularly in the purification of
drinking water and wastewater treatment. Its use as a coagulant involves
several key steps and functions:
1. Coagulation: Alum is added to untreated water as a coagulant. When
dissolved in water, alum dissociates into aluminum and sulfate ions. The
aluminum ions hydrolyze in water to form aluminum hydroxide
precipitates.
2. Neutralization of Charge: In water, suspended particles and impurities
often carry negative charges, causing them to repel each other,
preventing aggregation and settling. Alum acts by neutralizing these
negative charges on the particles, allowing them to come closer together.
3. Formation of Flocs: The neutralized particles begin to attract each other
due to reduced repulsion, forming larger particles called flocs. These
flocs entrap impurities, such as suspended solids, organic matter, and
some pathogens, creating larger clumps that are easier to remove.
4. Settling: The formation of these larger flocs enhances the efficiency of
sedimentation. During sedimentation, the heavier flocs settle to the
bottom of the treatment tank, facilitating their removal from the treated
water.
5. Water Clarification: As the flocs settle, the water becomes clearer and
less turbid, indicating the removal of impurities.
19.Identify and explain the physical characteristics of water. Also name the
specific (At least 1) to measure them.
Ans. Water has several physical characteristics that define its properties:
1. Density: Water's density varies with temperature. At 4 degrees Celsius
(39.2 degrees Fahrenheit), water has its maximum density of 1 gram per
cubic centimeter (g/cm³). As temperature deviates from this point, its
density decreases. The specific gravity is a measure used to compare the
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density of water to the density of a reference substance (usually at 4

degrees Celsius).
Measurement: A hydrometer is a device used to measure the density or
specific gravity of liquids, including water.
2. Boiling Point and Freezing Point: Water's boiling point is 100 degrees
Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) at standard atmospheric pressure (1
atm). Its freezing point is 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit).
3. Viscosity: Water has relatively low viscosity, meaning it flows easily.
Viscosity refers to the resistance of a fluid to flow. It decreases with
increasing temperature.
4. Surface Tension: Water exhibits surface tension, which is the cohesive
force that allows water molecules at the surface to stick together. This
property allows certain insects, like water striders, to walk on water.
Surface tension is measured in units of force per unit length, like dynes
per centimeter (dyn/cm).
5. Refractive Index: Water has a refractive index of 1.333 at 20 degrees
Celsius, which measures how light bends as it passes through the water.
6. Heat Capacity: Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it can absorb
and retain a significant amount of heat without a drastic increase in
temperature. This property is crucial for moderating temperatures in
natural environments and living organisms.
Measurement: Instruments such as thermometers, refractometers,
viscometers, and tensiometers are used to measure these physical
characteristics of water, providing quantitative values that aid in scientific
analysis and various applications in industries ranging from environmental
science to engineering and medicine.
20.What quality parameters of water will you select and primarily focus on
before supplying water to the community?
Ans. Before supplying water to a community, several key quality parameters
should be focused on to ensure the water meets regulatory standards and is
safe for consumption. Some primary parameters include:
1. Microbiological Quality: Testing for coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli
(E. coli) is crucial to determine the presence of potentially harmful
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pathogens. These microorganisms indicate the potential presence of

fecal contamination and pose health risks if present in drinking water.
2. Chemical Composition: Monitoring chemical parameters such as pH,
dissolved oxygen, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), heavy metals
(like lead, arsenic, mercury), nitrates, pesticides, and industrial pollutants
is essential. Excessive levels of these chemicals can cause health issues
and indicate contamination.
3. Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs): Chlorination is a common method for
disinfecting water. Monitoring the levels of disinfection byproducts like
trihalomethanes (THMs) resulting from chlorine treatment is crucial.
Elevated levels of DBPs can have adverse health effects.
4. Physical Characteristics: Parameters like turbidity, color, odor, and taste
are important for consumer acceptance. Turbid or discolored water
might indicate sediment, organic matter, or other impurities that affect
water aesthetics.
5. Radiological Contaminants: Testing for radioactive elements like radon,
radium, and uranium is crucial, as elevated levels can pose serious health
risks.
6. Total Coliforms and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Monitoring total
coliforms provides a general indicator of water quality, while COD
measures the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic and
inorganic matter in water. Elevated COD levels indicate high organic
content.
7. Residual Chlorine: Ensuring an adequate residual chlorine level at the
point of distribution is important to maintain the water's disinfection
effectiveness and prevent microbial growth in the distribution system.
Regular and comprehensive testing for these parameters ensures
compliance with water quality standards and guidelines set by regulatory
authorities (e.g., EPA in the United States). It's essential to monitor these
parameters at various stages—from the source to the point of distribution—
to ensure the water supplied to the community is safe, clean, and meets
established quality standards for human consumption and usage.
21.Identify the effects of agricultural runoffs in a water body. Explain
Eutrophication and algal bloom.
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Ans. Agricultural runoff, which includes water carrying fertilizers, pesticides,

animal waste, and soil particles from farmlands, can have significant
detrimental effects on water bodies:
1. Nutrient Pollution: Fertilizers used in agriculture contain nutrients like
nitrogen and phosphorus. Runoff carries these nutrients into water
bodies, leading to nutrient enrichment. Elevated nutrient levels in water
can cause imbalances and pollution, leading to several consequences.
2. Eutrophication: This is a process where excessive nutrients, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus, cause an overgrowth of algae and aquatic
plants in water bodies. These nutrients act as fertilizers for the growth of
aquatic vegetation. As these plants die and decompose, oxygen is
consumed in the process, leading to decreased oxygen levels in the
water.
3. Algal Blooms: Algal blooms are rapid increases in the population of algae
in water bodies due to nutrient overload, particularly phosphorus and
nitrogen. Algae reproduce quickly, forming dense colonies on the water's
surface, turning it green or blue-green. Some algal species can produce
toxins harmful to aquatic life and humans.
Eutrophication Process:
1. Nutrient Input: Agricultural runoff introduces excess nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus) into water bodies, often from fertilizers and manure.
2. Algal Growth: These nutrients stimulate rapid growth of algae and
aquatic plants in the water, forming dense mats or blooms on the
surface.
3. Algae Die-Off: As algae and plants die, they sink to the bottom and
decompose. Bacteria involved in decomposition consume oxygen during
this process.
4. Oxygen Depletion: The high organic matter decomposition leads to
reduced oxygen levels in the water, creating hypoxic (low oxygen) or
anoxic (no oxygen) conditions. This can harm aquatic organisms, leading
to fish kills and disrupting the aquatic ecosystem.
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5. Water Quality Decline: Eutrophication results in deteriorated water

quality, loss of biodiversity, fish habitat destruction, and potential risks to
human health due to toxins produced by certain algae.
22.Identify various steps or methods involved in the purification of water.
Ans.
Certainly! Water purification involves several methods and steps to remove
contaminants and make water safe for consumption. Here are various
purification methods commonly used:
1. Screening: Water from the source often contains large debris and
particles. Screening involves passing water through screens or meshes to
remove larger objects like sticks, leaves, and debris.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation: Coagulation involves adding chemicals like
alum (aluminum sulfate) or ferric chloride to water. These chemicals
cause impurities to clump together into larger particles called flocs.
Flocculation gently stirs the water to help these flocs form and settle
more easily.
3. Sedimentation: After coagulation and flocculation, water is allowed to sit
in a tank. This process allows the heavier flocs to settle at the bottom,
leaving clearer water above.
4. Filtration: Water passes through various types of filters to remove
remaining suspended particles, flocs, and finer impurities. Common filter
media include sand, activated carbon, and membranes. Filtration can be
physical (straining out particles) or chemical (adsorption onto filter
media).
5. Disinfection: This step kills or inactivates harmful microorganisms like
bacteria, viruses, and parasites present in the water. Common
disinfection methods include chlorination, UV irradiation, ozonation, and
using chlorine dioxide.
6. Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO is a specialized filtration method that uses a
semi-permeable membrane to remove dissolved solids, ions, and
contaminants on a molecular level. It's particularly effective in
desalinating seawater.
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7. Distillation: Distillation involves boiling water to create steam, which is

then condensed back into liquid form. This process removes
contaminants that do not vaporize, leaving behind impurities.
8. Activated Carbon Adsorption: This method involves passing water
through activated carbon filters. The porous structure of activated
carbon traps impurities, odors, and certain chemicals.
9. Ion Exchange: Ion exchange involves replacing unwanted ions in water
with ions of similar charge from a resin or exchange medium. This
method is effective in removing minerals and metals like lead, mercury,
and calcium.
23.Derive the equation for arithmetic increase method for population for
casting?
Ans. write in copy
24.Identify and explain various losses from a reservoir.
Ans. Losses from a reservoir can occur due to various factors and processes.
These losses can be categorized into several types:
1. Evaporation Losses: Evaporation is a significant cause of water loss from
reservoirs, especially in warmer climates or during dry seasons. Water
exposed to the air evaporates, leading to a reduction in the reservoir's
water volume.
2. Seepage or Leakage Losses: Seepage occurs when water seeps through
the dam structure or the reservoir bed. This can happen due to the
porous nature of the soil, cracks in the dam, or inadequate construction.
Seepage losses contribute to a gradual reduction in the reservoir's water
level.
3. Spillage or Overflow Losses: During heavy rainfall or when the reservoir
reaches maximum capacity, excess water may spill over the dam, leading
to spillage losses. While necessary for safety reasons to prevent dam
failure, this excess water represents a loss from the reservoir.
4. Percolation Losses: Percolation refers to the movement of water
downward through the soil layers below the reservoir. Water can
percolate through porous soils or fractures in the bedrock beneath the
reservoir, leading to loss from the stored volume.
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5. Usage or Withdrawal Losses: Water withdrawn from the reservoir for

various purposes such as irrigation, municipal supply, or industrial use
represents another type of loss from the reservoir's stored volume.
Reducing these losses is crucial to maximize the efficiency of reservoirs and
ensure sustainable water management:
 Evaporation Control: Covering the reservoir's surface, using floating
covers, or planting vegetation around the reservoir can help reduce
evaporation losses.
 Seepage Control: Implementing proper engineering solutions such as
liners, grouting, or other sealing techniques can minimize seepage losses
from the reservoir structure.
 Optimizing Usage: Efficient water management practices and
technologies can minimize excessive withdrawals and wastage, thereby
reducing usage losses.
 Monitoring and Maintenance: Regular inspections, maintenance, and
repair of dam structures and infrastructure can help identify and mitigate
spillage, percolation, and leakage losses.
25.Examine the function of coarse and fine screen based on the size of the
screen and incoming particle size.
Ans. Coarse and fine screens are used in water treatment and wastewater
facilities to remove different sizes of particles and debris from incoming
water. The function of these screens depends on their size and the size of
the particles they are designed to capture:
1. Coarse Screens:
 Size: Coarse screens typically have larger openings or bar spacings,
usually ranging from several millimeters to a few centimeters.
 Function: They are designed to capture larger debris such as sticks,
leaves, paper, plastics, and larger objects that might be present in
the incoming water.
 Operation: As water flows through these screens, larger particles
are stopped by the screen bars or openings, preventing them from
entering further into the treatment process.
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 Use Case: Coarse screens are often placed at the initial stage of
the treatment process to protect downstream equipment like
pumps, fine screens, and other treatment units from damage
caused by larger debris.
2. Fine Screens:
 Size: Fine screens have smaller openings or mesh sizes, typically
ranging from several millimeters down to microns.
 Function: They capture smaller particles, suspended solids, and
finer debris that might pass through coarse screens.
 Operation: Fine screens use finer mesh or smaller openings to
trap smaller particles as water passes through. These screens can
remove finer materials like sand, smaller plastics, or organic
matter.
 Use Case: Fine screens are usually placed further along the
treatment process, following coarse screens or other primary
treatment steps, to ensure a higher level of filtration and removal
of smaller particles before water progresses to subsequent
treatment stages.
26.Distinguish between difference sources of water to meet water supply
demand.
Ans. Different sources of water are utilized to meet water supply demands,
each with its characteristics, availability, and treatment requirements:
1. Surface Water:
 Definition: Includes water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and
streams.
 Characteristics: Surface water is often readily available but can be
vulnerable to pollution from runoff, industrial discharge, and
natural contaminants. It requires treatment to meet drinking
water standards.
 Treatment: Treatment involves processes like screening,
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection, and sometimes
advanced methods like membrane filtration or UV treatment.
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 Usage: Commonly used for municipal water supplies, agriculture,

industries, and recreational purposes.
2. Groundwater:
 Definition: Water stored underground in aquifers or water-bearing
rock formations.
 Characteristics: Generally cleaner than surface water but can
contain natural contaminants like minerals (e.g., arsenic) and
might be susceptible to contamination from human activities like
improper waste disposal or agricultural practices.
 Treatment: Treatment involves processes like pumping, aeration,
filtration, and disinfection, depending on the quality of the
groundwater.
 Usage: Used for drinking water supplies, irrigation, industrial
processes, and as a backup during droughts or when surface water
is limited.
3. Rainwater Harvesting:
 Definition: Collecting rainwater from roofs or catchment areas
into storage tanks or cisterns.
 Characteristics: Rainwater is generally clean but can pick up
contaminants from roofs or surfaces. It's a decentralized and
sustainable source, especially in areas with limited access to other
water sources.
 Treatment: Requires basic filtration and disinfection methods to
ensure potability.
 Usage: Often used for non-potable purposes like irrigation,
landscaping, and toilet flushing, and with proper treatment, can
be used for drinking water in some regions.
4. Desalination (Seawater or Brackish Water):
 Definition: Process of removing salt and minerals from seawater
or brackish water to produce freshwater.
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 Characteristics: Abundant but involves high energy costs and

requires advanced treatment methods (like reverse osmosis or
distillation).
 Treatment: Involves advanced processes like reverse osmosis,
distillation, or electrodialysis to remove salts and minerals.
 Usage: Primarily used in coastal areas where freshwater resources
are limited.
27.Define hardness of water? Identify its types and the effect of hardness?
Ans. Hardness of water refers to the concentration of dissolved minerals,
primarily calcium and magnesium ions, present in the water. These minerals
can originate from natural sources like rocks and soil or from human
activities.
Types of Hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness: Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of
bicarbonate minerals of calcium and magnesium, primarily calcium
bicarbonate (��(���3)2Ca(HCO3)2) and magnesium bicarbonate
(��(���3)2Mg(HCO3)2). When water containing these
bicarbonates is heated, they decompose and form insoluble carbonates,
which can cause scale buildup. Boiling water can remove temporary
hardness as the carbonates precipitate out.
2. Permanent Hardness: Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of
sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, primarily
calcium sulfate (����4CaSO4) and magnesium chloride
(����2MgCl2). Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness
cannot be removed by boiling as it is caused by the presence of non-
carbonate minerals.
Effects of Hardness:
1. Scale Formation: Hard water can lead to scale buildup in pipes, water
heaters, and appliances when heated. This scale can reduce the
efficiency of heat transfer, increase energy consumption, and damage
equipment over time.
 WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

2. Soap Scum: Hard water reacts with soap to form insoluble compounds,
creating a scum or film on surfaces, reducing the effectiveness of soap
for cleaning and leaving spots on dishes and glassware.
3. Skin and Hair Issues: Some people may experience skin dryness and hair
dullness when bathing in hard water due to soap residue and mineral
deposits.
4. Reduced Lather: Hard water reduces the lathering of soaps and
detergents, requiring more product to achieve the desired cleaning
effect.
5. Laundry Problems: Hard water can make laundry less effective by
preventing detergents from working efficiently, resulting in dingy or stiff
clothes.
29.List the rejection limit of different parameters for drinking water.
Ans.
The acceptable limits or standards for various parameters in drinking water
are often set by regulatory bodies or organizations responsible for public
health. These limits ensure that water is safe for consumption and do not
pose significant health risks to individuals. Here are some common
parameters along with their recommended or regulated limits in drinking
water:
1. Microbiological Parameters:
 Total Coliforms: Absence in drinking water per 100 mL.
 Escherichia coli (E. coli): Absence in drinking water per 100 mL.
2. Physical Parameters:
 Turbidity: Typically less than 1 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units) in finished drinking water.
 Color: Generally no specific numerical limit, but excessive color
might indicate the presence of organic matter or contaminants.
3. Chemical Parameters:
 pH: Typically between 6.5 to 8.5 (may vary based on local
regulations).
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 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Varies by region but generally less

than 500 mg/L.
 Chloride: Often less than 250 mg/L.
 Sulfate: Often less than 250 mg/L.
 Nitrate: Usually less than 10 mg/L.
 Fluoride: Typically between 0.7 to 1.5 mg/L.
 Arsenic: Often less than 0.01 mg/L.
 Lead: Often less than 0.01 mg/L.
 Copper: Often less than 1.3 mg/L.
4. Radiological Parameters:
 Radon: Generally less than 300 pCi/L (picocuries per liter).
 Radium: Often less than 5 pCi/L.
 Uranium: Typically less than 30 µg/L.
30.Differentiate between carbonated hardness and non carbonated
hardness.
Ans. Carbonate hardness (also known as temporary hardness) and non-
carbonate hardness (also known as permanent hardness) are two types of
water hardness, primarily caused by different minerals and compounds
present in water.
Carbonate Hardness (Temporary Hardness):
1. Cause: Carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of bicarbonate
minerals of calcium and magnesium, primarily calcium bicarbonate
(��(���3)2Ca(HCO3)2) and magnesium bicarbonate
(��(���3)2Mg(HCO3)2).
2. Origin: Typically originates from dissolved limestone or chalk in aquifers
or natural deposits.
3. Effect of Heat: Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling water.
When heated, the bicarbonates decompose, releasing carbon dioxide
and forming insoluble carbonates, which precipitate out of solution,
leaving behind softer water.
 WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

4. Removal: Boiling or adding lime (calcium hydroxide) can precipitate out

the carbonates, reducing water hardness.
Non-Carbonate Hardness (Permanent Hardness):
1. Cause: Non-carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of sulfates,
chlorides, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, primarily calcium
sulfate (����4CaSO4) and magnesium chloride (����2MgCl2).
2. Origin: Often originates from minerals like gypsum, calcium sulfate, and
other mineral salts.
3. Effect of Heat: Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness cannot
be removed by boiling as it is caused by the presence of non-carbonate
minerals.
4. Removal: Chemical treatment or ion exchange processes are generally
used to remove non-carbonate hardness. Water softeners using ion
exchange resins are commonly employed to remove calcium and
magnesium ions, replacing them with sodium ions, thereby reducing
water hardness.
31.Compare the water demand and usage in an industry and in a domestic
setup.
Ans. Water demand and usage in industrial and domestic settings differ
significantly based on their purposes, processes, and scale of operations:
Industrial Water Demand and Usage:
1. High Volume Usage: Industries often require large volumes of water for
various processes such as manufacturing, cooling, cleaning, and as a raw
material in chemical production or food processing.
2. Process Water: Water in industries is often used as a solvent, coolant, or
as a part of chemical reactions. It might need treatment to meet specific
quality standards or purity levels.
3. Specialized Treatment: Industries might require specialized treatment
processes to ensure the water meets stringent quality standards and
remove specific contaminants or impurities relevant to their operations.
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4. Recycling and Reuse: Many industries implement water recycling and

reuse systems to minimize consumption and manage wastewater, often
employing treatment to make water suitable for reuse in their processes.
Domestic Water Demand and Usage:
1. Lower Volume, Varied Uses: Domestic water usage involves lower
volumes compared to industries. It's primarily for drinking, cooking,
bathing, sanitation, and landscaping.
2. Quality Requirements: While the quantity might be lower, households
also require water of a certain quality for drinking and personal hygiene.
Treatment is often focused on ensuring potability and removing
impurities harmful to health.
3. Wastewater Treatment: Domestic setups generate wastewater, which
requires treatment before release to the environment. Treatment aims
to remove contaminants and ensure environmental safety.
Comparison:
1. Volume: Industries typically have higher water demands due to larger-
scale operations compared to individual households.
2. Purpose: Industrial water usage is primarily for processes, cooling, and
manufacturing, while domestic usage is more varied, including drinking,
cooking, cleaning, and personal hygiene.
3. Quality Requirements: Both sectors require water treatment, but
industries often have more stringent quality requirements due to specific
process needs.
4. Focus on Recycling: Industries often prioritize water recycling due to
high usage, while in domestic settings, conservation efforts are more
focused on reducing usage.
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