Marine Ecology

OCG 113

Topic 1
lecture 1
Date: 31.08.23

By
Faisal Sobhan
Lecturer
Dept. of Oceanography, SUST
Ocean
 Ocean
One of the Earth’s five distinct, large areas of
salt water, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and
Arctic Oceans. The word can also mean the
entire network of water that covers almost
three-quarters of our planet. It comes from
the Greek Okeanos, a river believed to circle
the globe.
Sea
 Sea
Seas are smaller than oceans and are
usually located where the land and ocean
meet. Typically, seas are partially enclosed
by land. Seas are found on the margins of
the ocean and are partially enclosed by
land.
Bay
 Bay
Well-marked indentation in the coastline,
whose penetration is in such proportion to
the width of its mouth as to contain land-
locked waters and constitute more than a
mere curvature of the coast.
Gulf
 Gulf
A gulf is a large inlet from the ocean into the
landmass, typically with a narrower opening
than a bay. A gulf is a deep inlet of the sea,
almost surrounded by land, with a narrow
mouth.
 Ocean Sea Bay Gulf
Large water body
Smaller than
Ocean
Saltwater
Saltwater,
No landlock
Brackish water Wider mouth Narrow mouth
5 Major oceans
landlocked
Deeper than
About 50 seas
3700m
 Topic 1
lecture 2
Date: 03.09.2023
 Marine Ecology
The study of the relationships
between living organisms,
Related to Ocean including humans, and
their physical environment
 Marine Ecology
The scientific study of marine life habitats, populations, and
interactions among organisms and the surrounding
environment, including their abiotic and biotic factors.

Biotic factors: Living things or the materials that directly or indirectly affect an organism in its
environment
Abiotic factor: Non-living physical and chemical factors that affect the ability of organisms to
survive and reproduce
 Water
Salinity
Temperature
Density
Pressure
Abiotic Factors Stratification
Light

Atmospheric motion

Currents
Tides
 97 % of the water on earth is salt water in the ocean

1% is usable by organisms as liquid water or water

vapor found in lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, in the
Water groundwater, and as vapor in the atmosphere

3% fresh
water

2% is frozen in ice caps

Water cycle
 6 major processes in the water cycle

1. Precipitation – Water from the clouds fall to earth as rain, snow, hail or sleet
2. Surface Runoff – Water on the surface of the land that flows downhill into bodies of
water such as streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes
3. Infiltration – Rainwater soaks into the ground through soil and rock layers under
the soil with some remaining underground as groundwater
4. Evaporation – Liquid water changes to a gaseous state as water vapor
5. Transpiration – Water that has been absorbed by plants will evaporate through
the leaves as water vapor
6. Condensation – Water vapor is changed into a liquid. Water vapors join dust
particles to form clouds
 Pure water from rain, snow, ice
melt

Seawater

Dissolved solids due to chemical

weathering of rocks on land &
hydrothermal vents
Physical and chemical properties of pure water
• Water is 775 times as dense as air at 0℃
• Exists in liquid form at normal atmospheric temperature
and pressure
• Water only substance on earth to occur naturally in
three forms – liquid, solid and gas
• Density – maximum density is at 4℃ not at freeing point
of 0 o C and expands as it freezes so ice floats
• The boiling point of water is 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
• The H20 molecule is polar and hydrogen bonding is
present
• Water molecules are attracted to other water molecules
termed cohesion
• Cohesion of water molecules at the surface of a body of
water (surface tension) is very high
• Adhesion- Water is attracted to other types of
molecules termed adhesion
• Water is an excellent solvent for ions and polar
molecules
• Capillary action due to the stickiness (cohesion) of
water molecules allows water to go up a small tube
 Topic 1
lecture 3
Date: 07.09.2023
 • Sodium chloride accounts for 85% of all solids dissolved
Sea water • Major constituents of seawater
• 96.5% water
• 3.0 % sodium and chlorine ions
• 0.5 % other salts as ions of magnesium, calcium,
potassium, sulfate, bicarbonate, bromide, boric acid,
strontium

• Ocean waters with higher salinities and cooler temperatures have the greatest
densities.
• Dense water masses “sink” toward the ocean floor, while less dense Ocean water
masses “float” at or near the ocean’s surface. Which makes a favourable environment
for deep-sea organisms.
• Temperatures below 0°C are possible because seawater freezes at lower
temperatures than pure water (-2°C).
• The two important gases dissolved in seawater are oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Oxygen solubility is affected by temperature – the lower the temperature, the greater
the solubility.
• Carbon dioxide reacts chemically in the water to form carbonic acid, dissociating into
hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
• The carbon dioxide-carbonic acid-bicarbonate system functions as a buffer to keep
the 𝑃𝐻 of seawater in a narrow range (~8.1)
Salinity
• The total dissolved solid in seawater
• Salinity tolerance is also important in
limiting the distribution.
• Vertical salinity gradient creates Halocline
• Salinity fluctuates most in coastal waters
due to shifts in river flow.
• Mobile Organisms can migrate offshore if
they cannot tolerate a certain salinity.
• Attached organisms must cope with the
changes or die. Clams, oysters, and
barnacles manage to survive by closing
their shells.

Average salinity of ocean water is 35‰

Temperature
• The distribution of species closely follows
the shape of isotherms
• Temperature gradient creates Thermocline
• It controls the rates of chemical reactions
and metabolic rates, growth rates, feeding
rates, etc.
• Temperature tolerance varies tremendously
among marine organisms.
• Young stages are generally less tolerant of
large temperature changes.
• Temperature may indirectly affect a species
due to a direct effect on its predator.

The average temperature of the sea surface is about 20°

C (68° F), but it ranges from more than 30° C (86° F) in
warm tropical regions to less than 0°C at high latitudes.
Density
• Variations in the ocean's density, or the ratio
of mass to volume, are a function of salinity
and temperature.
• Oceanic waters with higher salinities are
denser than those with lower salinities.
(Example: a liter of water with a salinity of 36‰
weighs more than a liter of water with a
salinity of 32‰)
• Waters with cooler temperatures have higher
densities than those with warmer
temperatures.
• Ocean waters with higher salinities and
cooler temperatures have the greatest
densities.
• Dense water masses “sink” toward the ocean
floor, while less dense Ocean water masses
“float” at or near the ocean’s surface.
• The density is controlled more by
temperature than salinity
• Density gradient creates Pycnocline The average density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/𝑚3
Hydrostatic Pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure
caused by the height of water
• It is a function of the density of water and
the total height of the water column
• Pressure generally increases at a rate of
1 bar per 10 m of water
• Hydrostatic Pressure is enormous in the
deep sea, yet animals have adapted to
live here
• Animals do not contain gases
• Mesopelagic fish have gas-filled swim
bladders to help maintain neutral
buoyancy, so they are unable to move
rapidly between depths because the
change in pressure could cause bladder
explode
 Stratification

Stratification
Stratification is a term used to describe when two distinct layers
occupy the vertical water column in the sea: the near-surface one is
less dense than the near-bed one
 Assignment 1

❖ Water cycle
❖ Write an assignment on the 3 clines we studied today
❖ Write the differences between them
 Topic 1
lecture 4
Date: 10.09.2023
 Light

• Life depends directly or indirectly on energy

from sunlight. In the ocean, marine plants
and protists (eukaryotic, single-celled
organisms) use green chlorophyll and a few
accessory pigments to capture the visible
light from the sun.
• A large fraction of that sunlight is reflected
from the sea surface back to the atmosphere
• The remaining light enters the water and is
absorbed by water molecules. Approximately
65% of the visible light in water is absorbed
within 1 meter of the sea surface.
• This energy is converted into heat and
elevates the surface water temperature.
Light absorption in the open ocean
 Light

• The red and yellow light (longer wavelengths,

λ) are absorbed by water more readily than
the green and blue light (shorter wavelength
λ). This is called the selective absorption of
wavelengths. It accounts for the blue colour
of the open ocean.
• In very clear water, not even 1% of the light
that enters the ocean penetrates to a depth
of 100 meters.
• Water in the nearshore zone is generally
turbid due to a high concentration of
suspended solids. In this zone, light cannot
penetrate deeper than 20 meters.
• The reflection by suspended particles causes
Light absorption in the open ocean a shift from blue to green and yellow
wavelengths.
 Horizontal movement (wind):
Air movement parallel to the surface

Atmospheric motion
Vertical movement:
Sinking and rising masses of air
perpendicular to the surface and usually
100-1000 times slower than horizontal
movement
 What is Wind ?
• Wind is the movement of air mass relative to the Earth’s surface
• As with all moving things, it is caused by a force acting on it
• Human skin can sense wind when an uncountable number of molecules
collide with us as they flow along in the air and sense the pressure
changes in the airflow
 Horizontal movement

Main forces
Five forces influence the speed or direction of horizontal winds.
1. Pressure gradient force
2. Coriolis force
3. Centrifugal force
4. Centripetal Force
5. Turbulent drag
1. Pressure Gradient Force
• A pressure gradient (PG) is a change in pressure over a distance
• Isobars are lines joining points that have the same air pressure
• Air moves from high to low-pressure location
• Larger the pressure gradient, the faster the wind speed
• The size or the strength of the pressure gradient determines the size or strength of the force that results
from the wind

The pressure gradient force (PGF) is a force from high

to low pressure over a distance.

(-)ve sign in the equation

is because the PGF acts
from high to low pressure.
The Coriolis Effect
2. Coriolis Force (CF)
• Occurs due to the rotation of the Earth.
• The Coriolis force is a deflecting force. It acts only on objects already in motion
• It cannot create wind, but it can change the wind direction by deflecting it

• It deflects large-scale motions like winds and currents to the

right (counterclockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere and the
left (clockwise) in the Southern Hemisphere.

Coriolis force:
m= mass of the object in kg,
u = speed of the object in m s-1
Φ = latitude in degrees, and
Ω= angular rotation rate is found from the rotation
rate of Earth
Earth turns 2π𝑐 over 24 hrs.
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 2π𝒄
so Ω = = 𝟐𝟒×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 7.27×𝟏𝟎−𝟓 radians–1
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
• What will be the Coriolis force at the equator? 0
• What will be the Coriolis force at the poles? 1
3. Centrifugal Force
• The centrifugal force is an apparent
force that includes the effects of inertia
for winds moving along a curved path
• The directionality of the centrifugal force
points outward from the center of the
curve
• The centrifugal force is the opposite of
the centripetal force
• Inertia is the physical tendency to remain
unchanged. Therefore, inertia causes an
air parcel to move along a straight line
• Turning the air parcel along a curved
path requires a centripetal force that
pulls inward to the center of rotation. As
a result, a net imbalance of other forces
occurs
4. Centripetal Force
• It applies when the isobaric pattern is
markedly curved
• When air is following a curved path, a
force is acting centripetally, pulling the
air inwards 𝑎𝑐 = Centripetal acceleration
• The balance with these three forces r = Distance
(pressure gradient force, Coriolis force T= Period
and centripetal force) is known as the m = mass
v = Velocity
gradient wind

Low pressure centre High pressure centre

Gradient winds

Low pressure centre

Gradient winds

High pressure centre

5. Turbulent Drag
• Turbulent drag occurs when Earth’s surface or objects on it cause resistance to airflow and reduce the
wind speed
• Any object on Earth’s surface can cause drag, such as grass, trees, and buildings, which block and
decelerate wind
• The bottom layer of the troposphere around 0.3 to 3 km thick is called the atmospheric boundary layer
(ABL). Turbulence in the ABL mixes the extremely slow movement of air near the surface with the faster
air movement in the ABL and slows the wind speed in the entire ABL.
Frictional Force
• In the lower parts of the atmosphere, the frictional drag exerted by the ground on
the airflow, acts as a force pulling against the direction of flow.
• Friction lessens the wind speed, so weakens the Coriolis force, and the pressure
gradient force asserts its greater strength and causes the air to flow more toward the
low-pressure area
Geostrophic wind
It is a type of wind that emerges out of the balancing of PGF, CF, FF

PGF L
1005 mb

FF Ideal direction of Wind

1008 mb

1010 mb CF

H
Geostrophic wind

PGF L
1005 mb
Real Wind
FF
1008 mb

1010 mb CF

H
Geostrophic wind
High troposphere
PGF L
1005 mb
Real Wind
FF
1008 mb Geostrophic Wind

1010 mb CF

H
 Topic 1
lecture 5
Date: 11.09.2023
 1.Polar easterlies

2. Westerlies

5 wind zones 3. Horse latitudes

4. Trade winds

5. Doldrums
1. Polar Easterlies
• Polar easterlies are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow around the high-pressure areas of the polar
highs at the North and South Poles
• Cold air subsides at the poles creating high-pressure zones, forcing an equatorward outflow of air; that
outflow is then deflected westward by the Coriolis effect
• The polar easterlies are often weak and irregular
• This particular belt of wind begins at approximately 60 degrees north and south latitude and reaches the
poles.
2. Westerlies
• Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west at mid-latitudes
• They are fed by polar easterlies and winds from the high-pressure horse latitudes, which sandwich them on either side
• Westerlies are strongest in the winter, when pressure over the pole is low, and weakest in summer, when the polar
high creates stronger polar easterlies.
• The strongest westerlies blow through the “Roaring Forties” (a wind zone between 40° and 50° latitude in the Southern
Hemisphere)
• Westerlies have an enormous impact on ocean currents, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. Driven by westerlies,
the powerful Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) rushes around the continent (from west to east) at about 4 kilometres
per hour (2.5 miles per hour). In fact, another name for the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the West Wind Drift.
• The ACC is the largest ocean current in the world. It is responsible for transporting enormous volumes of cold, nutrient-
rich water to the ocean, creating healthy marine ecosystems and food webs.
 3. Horse Latitudes
• The horse latitudes are a narrow zone of warm, dry climates between westerlies and the trade winds
• Horse latitudes are about 30° and 35° north and south. Many deserts, from the rainless Atacama of
South America to the arid Kalahari of Africa, are part of the horse latitudes
• The prevailing winds at the horse latitudes vary but are usually light. Even strong winds are often short
in duration.

Westerlies

Trade winds
 4. Trade Winds
• Powerful prevailing winds that blow from the east across
the tropics. These winds blow in 5°-30° latitude in the
northern and southern hemispheres.
• Trade winds are generally very predictable
• Ships relied on trade winds to establish quick,
reliable routes across the vast Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
• Trade winds that form over land (continental trade winds) are
warmer and drier than those that form over the ocean
(maritime trade winds)
• Most tropical storms, including hurricanes, cyclones,
and typhoons, develop as trade winds
• Strong trade winds are associated with a lack of precipitation,
while weak trade winds carry rainfall far inland. The most
famous rain pattern in the world, the Southeast
Asian monsoon, is a seasonal, moisture-laden trade wind
• Trade winds can carry particles of dust and sand for
thousands of kilometres (Particles from Saharan sand
and dust storms can blow across islands in the Caribbean Sea
and the U.S. state of Florida, more than 5,000 miles away)
 North-East Trade Winds

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
 5. Doldrums
• The place where the trade winds of the two hemispheres meet is called the intertropical convergence zone
(ITCZ). The area around the ITCZ is called the doldrums
• Prevailing winds in the doldrums are very weak, and the weather is unusually calm
• The ITCZ straddles the Equator
• Although monsoons impact tropical as well as equatorial regions, the wind itself is created as the ITCZ moves
slightly away from the Equator each season
• This change in the doldrums disturbs the usual air pressure, creating the moisture-laden Southeast
Asian monsoon

Doldrums
 Classification of Ocean currents

1. Surface Currents
Horizontal Currents
2. Deep-water Currents

1. Upwelling
Types of Ocean Currents Vertical Currents
2. Downwelling

1. Warm currents
Based on temperature
2. Cold currents
1. Surface Currents
Horizontal Currents
• They are currents that occur on the top layer of the ocean and
are primarily driven by wind
• The top layer pushes on the layer below & again, the Coriolis
Effect comes into play
• The second layer moves slightly to the right and slower and is
repeated down the water column
• Ekman spiral- lower waters move progressively at greater angles
from the wind
• Effect of wind decreases with depth – below 100 m, no wind is
felt
• These currents affect the water in the upper 300m of the ocean
(8-10% of ocean water)
• Produces Ekman transport- the upper part of the water column
moves perpendicular to the wind
• The direction of the Ekman spiral is right in the N. Hemisphere A gyre is any large system of circulating
and left in the S. Hemisphere ocean surface currents, particularly those
• Trade winds move toward the equator & the equatorial current involved with large wind movements.
move parallel Gyres are caused by the Coriolis effect,
• Currents combine into huge Gyres planetary vorticity, and horizontal and
vertical friction.
2. Deep-water Currents
• Also known as thermohaline
circulation
• Deep-water currents occur deep
inside the ocean (90-92% of ocean
water)
• The wind does not influence them
• They arise as a result of variations in
the density of the ocean water and
are controlled by the temperature
and salt content of the water
1. Upwelling
Vertical Currents
• Upwelling currents are currents that move from deep in the ocean heading toward the surface
• They are responsible for bringing organic matter from below the ocean toward its surface
Example: They sweep nutrients upward, helping some marine lives.
• It can be seen when there are tremors or earthquakes on the surface below the ocean and the waves are
pushed upwards
• In Antarctica, upwelling currents pump nitrogen and phosphates up from the deep sea to blooms of algae and
other plants. The plankton can then be eaten by crustaceans called krill, which in turn are eaten by penguins,
seabirds, seals, and the baleen whales, the largest animals on earth
2. Downwelling
• These are currents that move material from the surface of the ocean toward its floor.
• Surface water can be forced downwards by the pressure of the water when currents converge, or wind drives
the ocean against a coastline
• It is important as the dissolved oxygen in the sediments and water below would quickly be used up by the
decay of organic matter.
• Additionally, anaerobic bacteria would take control of decomposition, contributing to a build-up of hydrogen
sulfide and only a handful of benthic animals would survive such toxic conditions.
 Topic 1
lecture 6
Date: 17.09.2023
 Based on Temperature
1. Warm Current
• Those currents that flow from the Equator towards the poles are warmer than the surrounding water and
so they are called warm currents
• Air at the equator is hotter than air further north or south because the Earth's equator is warmed by the Sun's
most direct rays.
• As cooler air rushes into take its place, the hotter air rises to the equator, causing winds to blow and pushing
the water into waves and currents.
• The Brazilian current and the Kuroshio Current are two examples of warm currents.
2. Cold Current
• The ocean currents that flow from the polar areas toward the Equator are cooler compared to the
surrounding water, so they are called cold currents.
• They absorb the heat that they receive in the tropics, cooling the air above them.
• The creation of coastal deserts is aided by cold ocean currents. A layer of fog forms as air blows toward the
beach and is cooled by contact with cold water.
• This dense fog is drifting onto land. Despite the high humidity, the atmospheric shifts that ordinarily induce
rainfall are absent.
• The Canary Current in the North Atlantic, the California Current in the North Pacific, and the Benguela
Current in the South Atlantic are all examples of cold ocean currents.
Warm C.

Cold C.
 Topic 1
lecture 7
Date: 20.09.2023
 Tides

Bay of Fundy, Canada: The world's largest tidal range of 16.3 meters (53.5 feet)
Tide
The alternate rising and falling of the surface of the ocean and of water
bodies (such as gulfs and bays) connected with the ocean usually
occurs twice a day and is the result of different gravitational forces
exerted at different parts of the earth by the moon and sun.

384,400 km
148.27 million km
Low tide or ebb tide: High tide or flood tide:
The change from high to low tide is The change from low to high tide is
called ebb tide known as the flood tide

Photography by Michael Marten

Characters of Tides
• Long-period waves that move through
the ocean
• Combined effects of
the gravitational forces exerted by
the moon and the sun and
the rotation of the earth
• Tides originate in the ocean and
progress toward the coastlines, where
they appear as the regular rise and fall
of the sea surface
 2. TYPES OF TIDES

1. Diurnal Tides
2. Semi-Diurnal Tides
Tides based on the frequency
3. Mixed
4. Meteorological Tide
1. Spring Tides
Tides Based on the Position of the Earth,
Sun, and the Moon 2. Neap Tides
Diurnal Tides
 1. Diurnal Tides

• One high tide and one low tide each day

• Period: 24 hours and 50 minutes
• Occur in locations when the moon is the furthest from the equator
Example: Gulf of Mexico
Semi-Diurnal Tides
 2. Semi-Diurnal Tides
• Two nearly equal high tides and two low tides each day
• Period: 12 hours and 25 minutes
• When the moon is directly over the equator
• Water rises to the same level in each high tide and falls to the same
level in each low tide
Example: The Indian Ocean, Eastern African coast, Bay of Bengal
3. Mixed tides
 3. Mixed tides
• Can be diurnal or semi diurnal
• Water does not rise to the same level in each high tide and falls to
the same level in each low tide
• When the moon is extremely far north or extremely far south of the
equator
Example: The southeastern coast of Brazil and in Tierra del Fuego
Tides Based on the Position of Earth, Sun, and
the Moon

1.Spring Tide
2.Neap Tide
1. SPRING TIDE
• Occurs twice a month: during the full
moon and the new moon
• The sun and the moon align with the
earth
• Highest gravitational pull on the sea
 2. NEAP TIDE
• When the sun and the moons are at
right angles to each other
• least gravitational pull
• The neap tide occurs 7 days after the
spring tide.
Biotic Factors
To understand
Biotic factors,
we must know
• Biosphere
• Biome
• Habitat
• Community
• Population
Biosphere
• The biosphere comprises the
parts of Earth where life
exists—all ecosystems
• The biosphere extends from the
deepest root systems of trees to
the dark environments of ocean
trenches, rain forests, high
mountaintops, and transition
zones where ocean and
terrestrial ecosystems meet
A biome is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has
formed in response to the physical environment in which it is found, and the
shared regional climate.
Marine biomes include
the oceans, coral reefs,
and estuaries. The
oceans are the largest of
all ecosystems.
Habitat
• The natural
environment where
an organism lives
• Has distinct
characteristics that
help determine which
organisms live there
and which do not
Population:
A group of
individuals of the
same species that
live together
 Herbivores
Producers
Major Biotic Consumers Carnivores
factors
Decomposers
Omnivores
 Producers: The Basis of Life
Includes bacteria, phytoplankton, and algae

• They use abiotic factors, like sunlight, water and soil to create their own food
by photosynthesis
• After creating simple sugars through this process, plants often find
themselves eaten by another designation of biotic factors: consumers,
particularly omnivores and herbivores
• Form the lowest trophic level, the base of the aquatic food web
• Primary producers synthesize their own energy without needing to eat
• Many photosynthesize, using the sun’s energy to build carbohydrates
• Some primary producers can create energy without sunlight using
chemosynthesis to metabolize chemicals released from hydrothermal vents,
methane seeps, and other geological features
Herbivores: Peaceful Consumers
• Eat producers, having evolved to eat
and digest plant and algae
• They graze and play an important part
in keeping producer numbers in check
i.e., fish in coral reef ecosystems
consume macroalgae, species that, if
left unchecked, can outcompete and
kill off coral species
Herbivorous Reptiles: Chelonia mydas
(Green Sea Turtles)
Herbivorous fish: Catla catla (Catla fish)
Herbivorous Marine Mammals:
Trichechus inunguis (Manatees/ Sea cow)
Carnivores:
Limiting
Herbivore
Populations
They have a set of
scissor-like
carnassial teeth,
specifically the
upper last premolar
and the lower first
molar on both sides
of the jaw
Omnivores: Opportunistic Eaters
Eats both animals and plants

Example:
• Horseshoe crabs
(Carcinoscorpius
rotundicauda)
• Lobster (Panulirus
polyphagus)
• Olive ridley (Lepidochelys
olivacea)
Decomposers: Breaking Things Down
• Breaking down waste from living creatures and their
bodies when they die
• The main decomposer organisms in marine ecosystems
are bacteria
• Other important decomposers are marine worms,
Echinoderms, Crustaceans

Micro Decomposers

Marine Worms
Crustaceans Echinoderms