Chapter 2

Introduction to AC
Circuit

1
 Contents
■ Sinusoidal Waveform and Phasor Method
■ R, L, C Components
■ RLC Circuits
■ Power

2
Single-Phase System

 Alternating signal is a signal that varies with respect to time.

 This voltage and current have positive and negative value.
 Alternating signal can be grouped into AC voltage and AC
current.
 AC Generator ( Power plants) generates AC waveform.
 There are many AC waveform such as
(i) Sinus waveform
(ii) cosines waveform
(iii) square waveform
(iv) triangular/ sawtooth waveform

3
■ Sinus and cosines waveform is an important because it is a
basic waveform for electric supply in transmission system.
■ Example of AC waveform is shown in figure below:
■ There are four
types of alternating
waveform:
– Symmetry
– Non Symmetry
– Periodic
– Non Periodic
■ Voltage and current value is
represented by vertical axis and
time represent by horizontal axis.
■ In the first half, current or voltage
will increase into maximum positive
value and come back to zero.
■ Then in second half, current or
voltage will increase into negative
maximum voltage and come back to
zero.
■ One complete waveform is called
one cycle.
There are several specification in sinusoidal
waveform:
1. period, T
2. frequency, f
3. instantaneous value, v(t)
4. peak value, Vm
5. peak to peak value, Vp-p
6. average value, VDC
7. effective value, Vrms

7
 Period
■ Period is defined as the amount of time taken to go
through one cycle.
■ Symbol: T
■ Unit: Time ( second)

8
 Frequency
■ Frequency is defined as
number of cycles in one
second.
■ Symbol: f Signal with lower frequency
■ Unit: Hertz ( Hz)
■ It can be derived as
 T

The red wave shown above is given by V = 5 cos (4πt). Draw the same signal,
but increase its frequency by a factor of
a) 2 ω =2pi.f=4pi. ; f=2 Hz
b) 5
c) 10 T= 0.5 s, f =2 Hz

10
 Instantaneous value
■ Instantaneous value is
magnitude value of
waveform at one specific
time.
■ Symbol for instantaneous
value of voltage is v(t) and
current is i(t).
■ Example of Instantaneous
value for voltage is shown:
 Peak Value
■ Peak value is a maximum
value measured from
reference axis of a
waveform.
■ For one complete cycle,
there are two peak value
that is positive peak value
and negative peak value.
■ Symbol:
 Peak to peak value
■ Peak to peak value is a
maximum amplitude
value of waveform that
is calculated from
negative peak value
into positive peak value
■ Symbol:
Vp− p

13
 Average value.
■ Average value for waveform is average value for all
instantaneous value in half or one complete waveform cycle.
■ It can be calculated in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:
Average value = area under the function in a period
period

2. Use integral method

1T
average _ value of voltage = ∫ v(t )dt
T0
14
 Effective value
■ The most common method of specifying the amount of sine
wave of voltage or current by relating it into DC voltage and
current that will produce the same heat effect. ( P= i2R)
■ It is called root means square value, rms
■ The formula of effective value for sine wave waveform is
proved to be : (P=Irms2 .R)
vm
Vrms = = 0.7071vm
2
im
I rms = = 0.7071im where Im & Vm are peak values
2

15
 Phase angle
■ Phase angle is a shifted angle waveform from the reference
origin.
■ Phase angle is represented by symbol θ or Φ
■ Units is degree ° or radian
■ Two waveforms are called in phase if both have a same phase
degree or different phase is zero
■ Two waveforms are called out of phase if both have a different
phase or different phase is not zero.

16
A more general expression for the sinusoid (as shown in the figure):
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + θ)

where θ is the phase angle.

18
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.
When comparing two sinusoids, it is recommended to
express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes.
We can transform a sinusoid from sine to cosine form or
vice versa using this relationship:
- sin ωt = sin (ωt ± 180o)
- cos ωt = cos (ωt ± 180o)
cos ωt = sin (ωt + 90o)
sin ωt = cos (ωt - 90o)

19
The sine and cosine may be useful in manipulation of
sinusoidal functions use some rules:

sin(α=
± β ) sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β ) =
cos α cos β  sin α sin β

20
 Phasor Diagram
■ Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors.
■ Phasor is a complex number that represent magnitude
and angle for a sine wave.
■ Phasor diagram is a vector line that represent
magnitude and phase angle of a sine wave.
■ The magnitude of the phasor is equal to rms value.

21
 Phasor Diagram
■ For example, if given a sine wave waveform

=v(t ) Vm sin(ωt + φ )V 0

■ It can be represent by a phasor diagram

V
 Vm  Vrms
=V  ∠φ 0

  2 
φo
Ref

22
 Phasor Diagram
I
The vector rotates
θo
anti-clockwise
V
φo

V1

From the phase diagram above, it can be concluded that:

i) I leading V for θ° degree or V lagging I for θ° degree
ii) V leading V1 for Φ° degree or V1 lagging V for Φ° degree
iii) I leading V1 for (Φ° + θ°) degree or V1 lagging I for (Φ° + θ°) degree
Note: if there is no phase different then we say V and I are in phase.

23
 Phasor Diagram
– Adding phasors is equivalent to adding the corresponding time
function for each phasor.
– One way is to dissolve the phasor to complex numbers and then
adding then up according to the real & imaginary values.

• Each phasor can be represented by a complex number. Break

each phasor into real and imaginary parts.
o V1 = V1cos(φ1) + jV1sin(φ1)
o V2 = V2cos(φ2) + jV2sin(φ2)

– Note: Use modern calculator to convert between polar

(phasor) and rectangular quantities

24
 Phasor Diagram
So, the sum of the two phasors can be computed by
adding the real and the imaginary parts separately,
giving:
V1 + V2 = V1cos(φ1) + V2 cos(φ2) + j[V1sin(φ1)+ V2 sin(φ2)]
= Vsum,real + jVsum,imaginary

25
 Example
Given
v1 = 60sin θ=v2 40sin(θ − 60 Ο
)
Find
v1 + v2 v1 − v2

Answer:

20 19 sin(θ − 23.4Ο )

20 7 sin(θ + 40.9Ο ) sol

26
 -100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
16

32

48

64

80

96
11
2
Example

12
8
14
4
16
0
17
6
19
2
20
8
22
4
24
0
25
6
27
2
28
8
30
4
32
0
33
6
35
2
V2
V1

V1-V2
V1+V2

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 Contents
■ Sinusoidal Waveform and Phasor Method
■ R, L, C Components
■ RLC Circuits
■ Power

28
Simple AC Circuit Analysis

Z Impedance
It is a ratio between voltage and current.
Z= V
I
Also known as complex resistance
I
Units – Ohm (Ω) Z

Impedance symbol

29
Impedance, Z have two component:
• Real component : Resistance, R
• Imaginary Component : Reactance, X

Z can be written as:

Z = R + jX (Ω)

30
■ Reactance can be inductance and capacitance
■ Z impedance in series can be calculated by

Z series = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3  Z n (Ω)

Z1 Z2

AC

Zn Z3

31
■ Z impedance in parallel can be calculated as
1
Z parallel = (Ω)
1 1 1 1
+ + 
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z n

AC Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn

32
Impedance for resistance, R

■ For purely resistance, impedance Z is represent by

ZR = R∠0° Ω = R Ω
■ Voltage is in phase with current
■ Phase angle is zero.

Ref

I VR

33
Impedance for inductor, L
■ For ZL :jXL Z L = jωL
= j 2πfL
■ Voltage leading current with 90°
■ Or current lags voltage by 90o
VL

Ref
I

34
Impedance for capacitor, C
■ ZC : - jXc

Z c = − j / ωC X C = 1 / ωC
= 1 / j ωC = 1 / 2πfC
■ Current leading Voltage with 90°
■ Voltage lags current by 90°
IC

Ref
VC

35
36
 Contents
■ Sinusoidal Waveform and Phasor Method
■ R, L, C Components
■ RLC Circuits
■ Power

37
RLC Circuits
■ In series RLC circuits, the current through each
component is constant.
– The voltage drop across each component is dependent upon its
resistance/reactance
– Can apply voltage divider technique to solve circuits

■ In parallel RLC circuits, the voltage across each

components is constant.
– The current through each component is dependent upon its
resistance/reactance
– Can apply currect divider technique to solve circuits.

38
Series RLC Circuits

■ Consider what happens when resistors, capacitors, and

inductors are combined in one circuit. If all three components
are present, the circuit is known as an RLC circuit (or LRC). If
only two components are present, it's either an RC circuit, an
RL circuit, or an LC circuit.

39
Series RLC Circuits

■ The overall resistance to the flow of current in an RLC circuit

is known as the impedance, symbolized by Z.
■ Z = combining the resistance, the capacitive reactance, and the
inductive reactance.
■ Unlike a simple series circuit with resistors, however, where
the resistances are directly added, in an RLC circuit the
resistance and reactance are added as vectors.

40
Series RLC Circuits

■ The resistance R is drawn along the +x-axis of an x-y

coordinate system.
■ The inductive reactance is at 90° to this, and is drawn along
the +y-axis.
■ The capacitive reactance is also at 90° to the resistance, and
is 180° different from the inductive reactance, so it's drawn
along the -y-axis.
■ The impedance, Z, is the sum of these vectors, and is given by:
• Next slide….

41
Series RLC Circuits

42
Series RLC Circuits

■ The current and voltage in an RLC circuit are related by

– V = IZ.
■ The phase relationship between the current and voltage can be
found from the vector diagram: its the angle between the
impedance, Z, and the resistance, R.
– The angle can be found from:

■ If the angle is positive, the voltage leads the current by that

angle. If the angle is negative, the voltage lags the currents.

43
Series RLC Circuits

■ The power dissipated in an RLC circuit is given by:

■ Note that all of this power is lost in the resistor; the capacitor
and inductor alternately store energy in electric and magnetic
fields and then give that energy back to the circuit.

44
Parallel RLC Circuits

VS
IR =
R
VS VS
=IC = IL
XC XL
IC
= IC − I L
I CL

= I R 2 + ( I CL )
2
IR IT
 I CL 
θ = tan  
−1

IL  IR 

45
Parallel RLC Circuits

1
G=
R
1 1
=BC = BL
XC XL
B=
T BC − BL
=
Y G 2 + BT 2
1 B 
=Z = θ tan -1  T 
Y G

46
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Find:
– Z
– θ

47
Parallel RLC Circuits

48
Parallel RLC Circuits ■ Find:
– IR
– IC
– IL
– IT
– Z
– θ
■ What happens to
IT, Z and θ if
frequency of VS ↑?

49
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Use formulas:
– IR=2.27A
– IC=1A
– IL=0.5A
– IT=2.33A
– Z=2.15Ω
– θ=12.41O
– As IC > IL, so I leads V
■ What happens to IT, Z and θ if frequency of VS ↑?
The values of XL and XC change with XL increases, XC decreases. IT,
Z and θ are then affected accordingly.

50
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Use phasor, V=5<0o:
– IR=2.27A<0o
– IC=1A <90o
– IL=0.5A <-90o
– IT=2.33A <12.41o
– Z=2.15Ω <-12.41o
– θ = 12.41O
– As IT = 2.33A<12.41o and V= 5<0o, so I leads V
■ What happens to IT, Z and θ if frequency of VS ↑?
The values of XL and XC change with XL increases, XC
decreases. IT, Z and θ are then affected accordingly.

51
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Find:
– IT
– θ
■ How does the
circuit appear to
the source?

Z1 = R = 1000 ohm
Z2 = jXL = j2.pi.f.L = j2x(3.14)x5000x(0.0470) = j1475.8 ohm
Z3= -jXc = -j/(2.pi.f.C)= -j/(2x3.14x5000x51x10-9)= - j624.45 ohm

1/ZT = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + 1/Z3 = ? , IT = V /ZT = 12 / ZT

52
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Some applications
RMS Current and Voltage Problem
Vrms = V0 / 1.414
= 34 / 1.414
I0 = V 0 / R P 0 = I0 V 0 = 24 V
= 34 / 8 = 144.5 W --------------------
= 4.25 A = peak power Irms = Io / 1.414
= peak current = 4.25 / 1.414
= 3A

PRMs = 24x3 = 72 W

53
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ Two Speakers in Parallel
1 / Rp = 1 / 4 + 1 / 12 Rp = 12 / 4 = 3 Ω
= 3 / 12 + 1 / 12 (Note: less than the least.)

P = V*V/R = 6*6/ 3 = 12 W

54
Parallel RLC Circuits
■ House Wiring is Parallel
Which connecting wire, A, B,
C,
D, or E, will be the first to
become
dangerously hot if too many
appliances are turned on?

How can overheating be

prevented, even if all the
appliances in the house are
turned on?

55
 Contents
■ Sinusoidal Waveform and Phasor Method
■ R, L, C Components
■ RLC Circuits
■ Power

56
 Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power is the power at any instant

of time.
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
where v(t) = Vm cos (ωt + θv)
i(t) = Im cos (ωt + θi)
Using the trigonometric identity, gives
cosθ 1 cos θ 2 = [cos(θ1 − θ 2 ) + cos(θ1 + θ 2 )]
1
2

57
 Instantaneous Power
Assume; θ1=ωt+ θv , θ2=ωt+ θi
1 1
p(t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v − ωt − θ i ) + Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v + ωt + θ i )
2 2

1 1
p (t ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θ i )
2 2

58
 Average Power

The average power is the average of the

instantaneous power over one period.
1
P= Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) where (θ v − θi ) is angle of circuit impedance
2

Purely resistive circuit :

1
P = Vm I m = V rms . I rms W
2

Purely reactive circuit :

1
P = Vm I m cos(90) 0
2

59
 Circuit with resistance and reactance:
1
=P Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
2
= Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θi )
Where Vm
Vrms =
2
Im
I rms =
2

60
 Complex Power
When dealing in complex/phasor notation,
V Vrms ∠θ v
=
=I I rms ∠θi
complex power (S), average/true/real/active power (P),
reactive power (Q) and apparent power (|S|) are given as:-
S= VI*= P + jQ where
=S Vrms I rms ∠θ v − θi
P Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θi )
=Q Vrms I rms sin(θ v − θi )
S= S= Vrms I rms
61
Reactive power is a measure of the energy exchange
between the source and the load reactive part.

Apparent power is the product of the rms values of

voltage and current.
S = Vrms I rms
Unit VA (Volt Ampere)
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current.
P
Power factor = = cos( θv − θi )
S
62
Power Factor Correction
■ Power factor
correction (PFC) is the
process of adjusting the
characteristics of
electric loads in order to
improve power factor so
that it is closer to unity
(1).

63
Power Factor Correction
■ Power factor correction may be applied either by
– an electrical power transmission utility to improve the
stability and efficiency of the transmission network; or,
– (e.g. VAR compensator, Synchronous Motor)
– correction may be installed by individual electrical
customers to reduce the costs charged to them by
their electricity supplier.
– ( e.g. capacitor banks, synchronous motor)

64
Power Factor Correction
■ A high power factor ( close to unity) is generally
desirable in a transmission system to

– reduce transmission losses and

– improve voltage regulation at the load.

65
Power Factor Correction
■ What are loads that brings PF down?
– Classic reactive loads, like transformers, lighting ballasts, fluorescent
lamp, welding equipment, and AC induction motors
– switching power supply in a Personal Computers
– phase controlled light dimmer, which uses a TRIAC or SCR to reduce
the RMS voltage to the load by turning on partway through the half cycle
– Other power electronics applications.

– The last two loads not only lowers the power factor, it also distorts the
sinusoidal waveform. Distortion in a.c. waveform causes notorious
transients and further complicate the stability of the system.

66
Setback of low power factor
■ As we know,
■ I = P / ( V.cos θ )
■ If cos θ low, then high current will flow to deliver same
power needed by the load.
■ Example load need 500W,
■ If cos θ = 0.9, I = 2.72 A
■ If cos θ = 0.4, I = 5.43 A.
■ It is clear the high current will create losses, as well as
the equipment need to be used with high rated one.

67
Power Factor Correction
■ As mentioned above, the inductive components, such as
ballasts, draw Reactive Power (VAR) from the mains. It
lags behind the Active Power (W) by 90o.

68
Power Factor Correction
■ A capacitor, if connected across the mains, will also
draw Reactive Power [VAR(c)], but it leads the Active
Power (W) by 90o.

69
Power Factor Correction
■ The direction of the capacitive Reactive Power [VAR(c)] is
opposite to the direction of the inductive Reactive Power
(VAR).
■ If a capacitor is connected in parallel with an inductive
load, it will draw capacitive Reactive Power [VAR(c)]

70
Power Factor Correction
■ The phase angle between the Active Power and the new
Apparent Power VA1 will also reduce from Ø to Ø1 Thus
the power factor will increase from cos Ø to cos Ø1.

New p.f. = cos Ø1 =

■ By selecting a capacitor of an appropriate value, the

power factor can be corrected to 1. However, in practice,
the power factor is improved to fall between 0.9 and
0.95.

71
72
73
74
Exercise:
■ A load has resistance of 10 ohm connected in series with
inductance of 0.03 H. This load is supplied by a source of
240VAC, 50Hz. Determine:
■ a. Circuit Impedance
■ b. Current in the impedance
■ c. Volt drop across resistor
■ d. Volt drop across inductor
■ e. Real power, Apparent power, reactive power
■ f. power factor
■ g. The value of added capacitor to set power factor to 0.9.

75