Solabo, Loraine Chantelle M.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
These are the rules that take place in energy transfer that take place in living organisms
It is the study of heat and temperature and how it is released as energy and transferred to another object
THE EXCHANGE OF ENERGY:
Open and Closed system
OPEN system:
The exchange of matter and energy within its surroundings (Example: Campfire)
CLOSED system:
Only energy is exchanged within its surroundings (Example: The Universe)

The important element to remember for the laws: HEAT

HEAT:
-Every unusable energy turns into heat
-Heat increases entropy (Example: Two objects with different temperature promotes a relatively organized system)
 The FIRST law of thermodynamics:
States that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. This said energy can and only change form or be transferred
to another object.

Example:
Light Bulb
Thermal and radiant energy in the light bulb comes from heat (kinetic energy). The kinetic energy comes from an
electrical socket (potential energy).
- When turned off, the thermal energy still dissipated around the light bulb
- Radiant energy is most likely turned into thermal energy
Billiard balls
When balls bump into each other, friction is made. It is then converted into heat (which comes from the kinetic
energy).
 The SECOND law of thermodynamics:
-Discusses the entropy in the universe that undergoes a constant increase over time. This increase reduces the
usable energy to do work.
-A lower to higher number of potential states is observed in entropy

Entropy:
-Randomness and disorder of a system (Open and closed system)
-The loss of energy that has the ability to do work

Example of entropy in a closed system:

Diffusion of molecules

ENTROPY IN THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM

The constant input of energy from the organisms increases the entropy of their surroundings
-Movements of an organism like humans release heat which then is transferred to the surroundings which increases
entropy.
-Even at rest, organisms also increase entropy
Example:
POWERING WALKING WITH METABOLIC FUELS:
You contract your muscles which release complex energy that turns into kinetic. Some fuel sources are turned into heat
-The said heat dissipates into the surroundings. Which then increases entropy.

METABOLISM
Pertains to the chemical reactions that occur in maintaining life in an organism
 CATABOLISM
The process of breaking down the substances for structure or the getting back of building blocks

 ANABOLISM
The process of rebuilding substances in order to turn them into something useful
The SUN is the primary source of energy. The energy that the sun releases then makes its way to Earth which is then
used by organisms to construct materials like food.
Example:
Photosynthesis in plants
The process of milk creation from cows
All involve the breaking down and building up of a type of molecules which are:
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS/ AMINO ACIDS
Found in food
They are consumed by us>>> They are metabolized by our body >>> Converted into energy
Molecular currency of these energies: ATP
-Adenosine Triphosphate
-Made up of three phosphate groups bonded together
-Provides energy to all sorts of life mechanisms
-Includes a CYCLE that turns it into ADP
ATP-ADP CYCLE
The process of converting ATP into ADP

ATP
- Adenosine Triphosphate
ADP
-Adenosine Diphosphate
-Consists of two bonded phosphate groups
ADP TO ATP:
-In order to convert ADP to ATP, an inorganic phosphate (Pi) is needed
ENDERGONIC PROCESS/ REACTION
-Energy should be inputted into this process which is then absorbed by the reaction
 DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS REACTION
-Water is released
Example: ADP+Pi+Energy=ATP+H2O

ATP TO ADP:
-Losing a phosphate group is needed
EXERGONIC PROCESS/ REACTION
-The energy is released in the process or released in a reaction
 HYDROLYSIS REACTION
-Water is needed in the process in order to break one of the phosphate bonds
Example: ATP+H2O=ADP+Pi+Energy
ATP HYDROLYSIS MECHANISM
- Starts with a nucleophilic attack of a water molecule on the ATP which forms a bond and releases energy.
-The reaction requires an enzyme called ATPase used for the activation of the energy barrier.
ATPase
-enzymes facilitate the reaction by creating a positive ion environment around ATP
-The phosphate group is then detached which forms ADP and releases energy
-Useful for work within the cell

REACTION COUPLING
It is where an energetically favorable reaction is directly linked with an energetically unfavorable reaction.
Two reactions = overall reaction
Helps in driving a system to be energetically favorable
SHARED INTERMEDIATE
-it is where one reaction is taken or “picked up” in order to be used as a reactant in the second reaction
REACTION COUPLING TO CREATE GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE
To take note:
-This process involves the taking of glucose molecules and phosphorylate them in order for them to leave the cell much
harder
-An endergonic process won’t happen spontaneously
-Has a positive delta-G
-ATP will be utilized (exergonic)
WHAT WILL HAPPEN:
ATP+H20=ADP+PO43-
Glucose+ PO43-=Glucose-6-Phosphate
ATP+Glucose=Glucose-6-phosphate+ADP with a Delta-G = 16.7 kj/mol
-turns into exergonic
ENZYME IS NEEDED
-It will help for the hydroxyl group to do a nucleophilic attack to the phosphorus
-It will lower the energy to actually start it
NUCLEOPHILIC ATTACK
-An enzyme needed is HEXOKINASE which keeps the electrons busy and help in the nucleophilic attack
-Wrapping the phosphorus with positive charge helps the attack
THIS LEADS TO GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE AND ADP (EXERGONIC)

PIGMENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Absorbs the light rays (visible region) of the electromagnetic spectrum
-Found in the Thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast
-Converts the energy coming from the sun into chemical energy
VISIBLE REGION:
Chlorophyll
Carotenoid
Xanthophylls
Phycoerythrin
Phycocyanin
Chlorophyll a
-Bacteriochlorophyll
ACCESSORY PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
Chlorophyll b, c, d
Carotenoids
-Carotene
-Xanthophyll
Phycobilin
-Phycoerythrin
-Phycocyanin

PRINCIPAL PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

CHLOROPHYLL A
-Pigment found in all plants
-C55H72N4Mg
-Has a Hydrophilic pyrole head and hydrophobic phytol tail
-has a porphyrin ring
-Absorbs red and blue and reflects green light (665 nm and 465 nm)
-Bluish-Green
-Side group at II ring 3-C is- CH3 methyl group
BACTERIOCHLOROPHYLL
-Absorbs >720nm in infrared region
-Primary pigment is green and purple sulfur
-C55H74O6N4Mg
-Reddish purple side group at the I ring 3-C is -CH3-CO-

ACCESSORY PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

CHLOROPHYLL B
-Found in all plants and green algae
-absorbs red and blue region and reflects green light
-olive-green

CAROTENOIDS
CAROTENE
-Found in all plants
-Example: Beta carotene
-Red or orange colored hydrocarbons
-Absorbs blue violet region
XANTHOPHYLLS
-Found in all plants
-Example: Lutein
-Brown or yellow-colored oxygenated hydrocarbons

PHYCOBILINS
PHYCOERYTHRIN
-Found in red algae and cyanobacteria
-water-soluble
- Red colored
-Absorbs dim and blue green light
PHYCOCYANIN
-Found in red algae and cyanobacteria -Blue colored
-water-soluble -Absorbs extra orange and red ligh