Exercises Lecture Seven: DISCRETE-TIME SIG-

NALS
Exercise 8-1
The signal x(t) = 4 + 8 cos(8πt) is sampled with 16 Hz. Let us first draw the spectrum of x(t), i.e.:

X(f ) = 4δ(0) + 4δ(f + 4) + 4δ(f − 4)

X(f )

4 4 4

f
−40 −10 −4 4 10 40
0

A real and even signal has a real and even spectrum.

We see that the highest frequency in the signal (fh ) is 4 Hz, so the Nyquist rate equals 2 · 4 = 8 Hz.1

The sampling frequency of the sampling process (fs ) is 16 Hz, so the Nyquist frequency equals 16/2 = 8 Hz.2

The Sampling Theorem (slide 15 of lecture 7) states that in order to reconstruct the signal from its samples, the
sampling frequency of the process should be equal or higher than the Nyquist rate of the signal. Here the Nyquist
rate of the signal is 8Hz, the sampling frequency of the process is 16Hz, hence we are doing a good job! The
signal x(t) is completely specified by its samples and can be reconstructed.

When the signal x(t) has been sampled, we can look at the spectrum of the sampled signal xs (t). We know from
theory that the spectrum Xs (f ) equals a scaled version of the original spectrum X(f ), with copies of the original
spectrum occuring at the integer multiples of the sampling frequency fs . The scaling factor equals fs . Hence, the
spectrum Xs (f ) looks as follows:

Xs (f )

64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64

f
−40 −30 −20 −10 −4 4 10 20 30 40
0
−32 −16 16 32

The original signal x(t) can be reconstructed from the sampled signal xs (t) through an ideal reconstruction filter
H(f ):

1 Recall that the Nyquist rate (which equals 2fh ) is a characteristic of the signal to be sampled.
2 Recall that the Nyquist frequency (which equals fs /2, it s also known as the ‘folding frequency) is a characteristic of the sampling process.

1
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 2

 1
: |f | < 0.5fs
H ideal (f ) = fs (8-23)
0 : |f | > 0.5fs
Which looks as follows in the frequency domain (see also Ziemer Figure 8-8).

1
|H ideal (f )| = 16 (shown not to scale)
Xs (f )
H ideal (f )

64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64

f
−40 −30 −20 −10 −4 4 10 20 30 40
0
−32 −16 16 32

− f2s fs
2

The result is the original spectrum: Xr (f ) = H ideal (f )Xs (f ) = X(f ), see below.

Xr (f ) = X(f )

4 4 4

f
−40 −10 −4 4 10 40
0

Exercise 8-2
The same signal x(t) as in Exercise 8-1 is now sampled with 6 Hz, which is below the Nyquist rate. Clearly then,
we are in trouble, as now aliasing effects will occur!

The spectrum of the original signal x(t), i.e., X(f ) looks exactly the same as in the first sketch above.

X(f )

4 4 4

f
−16 −4 4 16
0

The spectrum of the sampled signal xs (t), Xs (f ), is constructed in the same way as above. That is, we get the
original spectrum X(f ) and copies (its ‘aliases’) of this spectrum centered around integer multiples of the sam-
pling frequency fs , all scaled with fs .

In the following sketch, we used color codings to better show how the spectrum Xs (f ) is build-up from the copies.
The original spectrum is drawn in green, the first two aliases (the copies at ±fs = ±6 Hz) in blue, the second
two aliases (the copies at ±2fs = ±12 Hz) in purple, and the third two aliases (the copies at ±3fs = ±18 Hz) in
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 3

yellow.3

Xs (f )

24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24

f
−16 −4 4 16
0
−18 −12 −6 6 12 18

Clearly, no filter exists (even no ideal low-pass filter) that can reconstruct the original signal from the sampled
signal. Aliasing occurs, and the spectra of the original signal and those of its aliases overlap. The energy coming
from the aliases can not be distinguished from the energy of the original signal. We are in a hopeless position, with
our backs against the wall!

Xs (f )
H ideal (f )
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24

f
−16 −4 4 16
0
−18 −12 −6 6 12 18

The ideal reconstruction filter above will lead to a signal that has a frequency of 2 Hz!

Xr (f )

4 4 4

f
−16 −4 4 16
0

Let’s try to increase the bandwidth of the ideal reconstruction filter to get to higher frequencies:

Xs (f )
H ideal (f )
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24

f
−16 −4 4 16
0
−18 −12 −6 6 12 18

This does capture the higher frequencies, but it still includes the energy from the aliases.
3 Remember that, although we only draw a couple of aliases in these plots, the spectrum of the sampled signal has ∞ aliases, for positive

and negative frequencies.

AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 4

Xr (f )

4 4 4 4 4

f
−16 −4 4 16
0

The result will be a signal that has energy at 0 and 4 Hz, but also at 2 Hz, i.e., we would get:

xreconstructed (t) = 4 + 8 cos(4πt) + 8 cos(8πt).

There is no way we can get rid of the energy of the aliases from this sampled signal...

Only a higher sampling frequency, like in Exercise 8-1, can help us here.

Exercise 8-3
The signal x(t) = 3 + 4 cos(10πt) + 5 cos(14πt) + 2 cos(20πt) is sampled with 30 Hz. Let us first draw the
spectrum of x(t), i.e.:

X(f ) = 3δ(0) + 2δ(f + 5) + 2δ(f − 5) + 2.5δ(f + 7) + 2.5δ(f − 7) + δ(f + 10) + δ(f − 10)

X(f )
3
2.5 2.5

2
1 1

−10 10 f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−7 −5 5 7

Clearly, the highest frequency in this signal equals 10 Hz, so the Nyquist rate is 20 Hz. Sampling this frequency
with a frequency higher than 20 Hz will mean that we have no aliasing effects.

The sampling frequency here is 30 Hz, so we get the following spectrum (drawing the spectrum for |f | < 100 Hz,
and again showing the first aliases pair in blue, the second pair in purple and the third in yellow).

Xs (f )
90
75
60

30

−10 10
f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−90 −60 −30 30 60 90

The signal can be reconstructed from its samples by using an ideal reconstruction filter H ideal (f ) as stated above
in Exercise 8-1.
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 5

Xs (f )
H ideal (f )
90
75
60

30

−10 10
f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−90 −60 −30 30 60 90

The reconstructed signal will be exactly the same as the original signal x(t).

Exercise 8-4
We see in Figure P8-4 that the maximum frequency of the signal x(t) is 20 Hz, so its Nyquist rate is 2 · 20 = 40
Hz. Sampling with a sampling rate of 40 Hz or higher yields a sampled signal that can later be used to reconstruct
the original signal. Sampling with a rate lower than 40 Hz leads to aliasing, and then the original signal can not be
reconstructed any more from its samples.

We first plot the spectrum of the sampled signal xs (t) for a sampling frequency of 60 Hz, see the sketch below4 :

Xs (f )

600 600

f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80

−60 60

Clearly, we are safe, and the original signal can be reconstructed using an ideal low-pass filter H ideal (f ) with
bandwidth fs /2 = 30 Hz, as illustrated in the next figure (gain in the plot is not to scale):

Xs (f )

H ideal (f )

600 600

f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80

−60 60

Then, for a sampling frequency of 40 Hz, see the next sketch.

4 Note the scaling with fs , and the occurence of aliases at integer multiples of the sampling frequency fs .
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 6

Xs (f )

400 400

f
−60 −20 20 60
0
−80 −40 − f2s fs
2
40 80

Here, we are just safe, the original signal can still be reconstructed, but only with an ideal low-pass filter with
bandwidth fs /2 = 20 Hz. Note that any other low-pass filter (like first or second order RC filter) cannot be used
without losing some of the information in x(t) (i.e., filtering stuff away in the range |f | < 20 Hz), or copying part
of the first alias energy and use that to reconstruct the signal. Therefore, it is never recommended to sample at the
Nyquist rate.

Xs (f )

H ideal (f )
400 400

f
−60 −20 20 60
0
−80 −40 − f2s fs
2
40 80

Obviously, for a sampling frequency of 30 Hz, we are in trouble, as here the aliases bring power into each other
frequency ranges:

Xs (f )

300 300

f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−60 −30 − f2s fs
2
30 60

The energy adds together and results in a spectrum that is illustrated using the thick black line below:

Xs (f )

total

300 300

f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−60 −30 − f2s fs
2
30 60

When reconstructed using an ideal reconstruction filter:

AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Seven (V1.0, Oct. 2012) 7

Xs (f )

H ideal (f ) total

300 300

f
−80 −40 −20 20 40 80
0
−60 −30 − f2s fs
2
30 60

the spectrum of the reconstructed signal does not look like the original spectrum at all.

Xreconstructed (f )

10 10

f
−80 −60 −40 −20 20 40 60 80
0
fs
− f2s 2

No filter exists that can reconstruct the original signal from its samples. There will always be energy from the alias
in the spectrum which we cannot distinguish from the original signal’s energy!