SEMINAR REPORT

ON
JOINING OF CFRTP AND ALLUMINIUM ALLOY
THIN PLATES USING ULTRASONIC
VIBRATION

BY
AMAL K S
Reg.No:20023180

Guided By

ELDOSE MATHEW

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

KALAMASSERY, ERANAKULAM – 683104

2022-2023

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Department of mechanical Engineering GPTC Kalamassery

 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “JOINING OF CFRTP AND ALUMINIUM
ALLOY THIN PLATES USING ULTRASONIC VIBRATION” is a bondage record of
seminar done by Mr. AMAL K S, register no: 20023180, fifth semester diploma in
mechanical engineering during the academic year 2020-2023 at Government polytechnic
college Kalamassery in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING under the Technical Education, Government of Kerala. To
the best of my knowledge and belief this work has not been submitted elsewhere for the
award of any other degree.

Mr. ELDOSE MATHEW Mr. CHINDHU V G

Lecturer Head of section
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to God almighty whose
blessings and grace always been there with us for the successful completion of my seminar
with great enthusiasm and pleasure that I am bringing out this seminar. First and foremost, I
thank God almighty for all his blessings he showered on me. I express my sincere thanks to
Principal Smt.GEETHA DEVI R, Govt. Polytechnic College, Kalamassery.I would like to
express our sincere thanks to our Head of the Department Mr. CHINDHU V G, Department
of Mechanical Engineering for the successful completion of this seminar. I express my
sincere gratitude to
Seminar Co-Ordinator Mr.ELDOSE MATHEW Lecturer Department of Mechanical
Engineering for his cooperation and guidance for preparing & presenting this seminar. Last
but not the least thankful to all members of our department for providing their valuable
support in this seminar. I also expressing our thanks to my parents and all friends who give
me extreme support for completion of this seminar.

AMAL K S
20023180

Department of mechanical Engineering GPTC Kalamassery

 ABSTRACT
In order to realize light weight structure with multi-materials, this research applied ultrasonic
joining method for dissimilar joining. As the joining members, aluminum alloy and CFRTP,
CFRP using thermoplastic as base resin are selected because of their specific strength. By
using ultrasonic joining system which generates maximum stress amplitude on joining plane,
this stress fluctuation by ultrasonic application promote plastic flow in aluminum alloy. As a
result, the plastic flow at interface remove resin of the CFRTP matrix, and the exposed
carbon fibers are embedded in the Al alloy. Those mechanical interlocking at the interface
enabled this dissimilar joining. Focusing on those effects caused by ultrasonic, we examined
conditions that show high joining strength. By preparing specimens under various
conditions, discuss relationship between joining conditions and joining strength by a series of
cross tensile strength test. Moreover, the series of experiments with changing ultrasonic
application time revealed that this joining method has the most suitable processing time, 0.8
s, and excess processing decrease its joining strength. Finally mechanism of this joining
method has been discussed with the results of joining interface observation. And it was
confirmed that carbon fibers embedded into Al alloy by plastic deformation form mechanical
interlocking between carbon fiber and Al alloy.
Keywords : Ultrasonic vibrations, Joining, Plastic deformation, CFRTP, Aluminum alloy,
Multilateralization.

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 CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO:

1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 HISTORY OF CFRTP COMPOSITE 2
3 CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES 3
4 APPLICATIONS 4
5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 8
6 JOINING APPARATUS 9
7 CONSIDERATION ABOUT EFFECT OF ULTRASONIC 11 CONDITION
ON JOINING PROCESS AND STRENGTH

8 INVESTIGATION OF EFFECT OF PROCESSING TIME 13

9 JOINING INTERFACE OBSERVATIO AND DISCUSSION 14 ON
JOINING MECHANISM

10 CONCLUSION 17
11 REFERENCES 18

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO: TITLE PAGE

6.1 SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF EQUIPMENT AND 9
VIBRATION SYSTEMS INCLUDED IN IT

6.2 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION FOR METAL-METAL 10

ULTRASONIC JOINING PROCESS USING THIS
APPARATUS
6.3 JOINING MEMBERS 11
6.4 CFRTP-AL JOINT 11
7.1 ULTRASONIC FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE AT 12
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER FOR EACH CONDITION

8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF JOINING POSITION 13

8.2 COMPARISON OF CROSS TENSILE STRENGTH WISING 13
TIME

9.1 DETAILS OF SPECIMEN FOR OBSERVATION 15

9.2 SEM OBSERVATION RESULTS OF SPECIMEN B, MOST 16
DECREASED CT STRENGTH JOINT

9.3 SEM OBSERVATION RESULTS OF SPECIMEN A, 16

MAXIMUM CT STRENGTH JOINT
9.4 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATIONS OF MECHANICS AND 16
PHENOMENON IN PROPOSED CFRTP AND AL ALLOY
ULTRASONIC JOINING

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
As new materials with high specific strength such as aluminum alloy and CFRP are used
practically, structures need to be designed with using the right material for right place . In
order to realize this trend of multi materialization, it is necessary to prepare suitable joining
methods for using various material combinations. For that purpose, development of dissimilar
material joining is currently underway .We chose Al alloy and CFRTP as joining members.
CFRTP, CFRP using a thermoplastic resin as a base matrix, attracts attention as a new
lightweight material due to its high processability compared with conventional CFRP. On the
other hand, it is known to have low adhesive property. Furthermore, mechanical joining
methods involving mechanical processing such as drilling, cause degradations, fiber breakage
and delamination . One of joining methods between dissimilar metals is the ultrasonic joining
method. This is a solid-phase metallurgical joining method using plastic deformation assisted
by ultrasonic vibrations, and this method can join in a short time and keep joining tool life
longer. In liquid metallurgical processes, IMC generation is a large problem which leads
degradation of joining strength. However, same as other solid-phase joining this ultrasonic
joining is also able to reduce IMC generation relatively. In this research, this ultrasonic
joining method is applied to CFRTP/Al alloy joining. As new materials with high specific
strength such as aluminum alloy and CFRP are used practically, structures need to be
designed with using the right material for right place . In order to realize this trend of multi
materialization, it is necessary to prepare suitable joining methods for using various material
combinations. For that purpose, development of dissimilar material joining is currently
underway.We chose Al alloy and CFRTP as joining members. CFRTP, CFRP using a
thermoplastic resin as a base matrix, attracts attention as a new lightweight material due to its
high processability compared with conventional CFRP. On the other hand, it is known to
have low adhesive property. Furthermore, mechanical joining methods involving mechanical
processing such as drilling, cause degradations, fiber breakage and delamination . One of
joining methods between dissimilar metals is the ultrasonic joining method. This is a solid-
phase metallurgical joining method using plastic deformation assisted by ultrasonic vibrations
, and this method can join in a short time and keep joining tool life longer. In liquid
metallurgical processes, IMC generation is a large problem which leads degradation of
joining strength. However, same as other solid-phase joining this ultrasonic joining is also
able to reduce IMC generation relatively . In this research, this ultrasonic joining method is
applied to CFRTP/Al alloy joining.

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 CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF CFRTP COMPOSITE
Bakelite was the first fibre-reinforced plastic. Dr. Baekeland first produced a soluble
phenolformaldehyde shellac called "Novolak", then turned to developing a binder for
asbestos which, at that time was moulded with rubber. By controlling the pressure and
temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, in 1905, he produce the first synthetic
plastic Bakelite. The development of fibre-reinforced plastic for commercial use was being
extensively researched in the 1930s.a suitable resin for combining the "fiberglass" with a
plastic to produce a composite material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. With the
combination of fiberglass and resin, the air content of the material was replaced by plastic.
This reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first
time the composite showed great strength and behaves as structural and building materials.
Carbon fibre production began in the late 1950s and was used in British industry begins in the
early 1960s. Aramid fibers were being produced around this time also, and are appearing first
under the trade name Nomex by du Pont. Today, each of these fibers is used widely in
industry for any applications that require plastics with specific strength or elastic qualities.
Now, these three fibers continue to be the important categories of fibre used in FRPs.

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 CHAPTER 3 CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

• Carbon fibre is very rarely used alone like other textile fibres because of its brittleness.

• It is reinforced with other material like plastic to manufacture various composites.

• The composites containing carbon fibres have become an important construction material
due to their weight, rigidity. high tensile strength and modulus

• These versatile properties of carbon fiber have made its composites suitable for a particular
end use.
• The application of these composites ranges from a tiny traverse guide of winding machine
to the body of space vehicle.

3.1 PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES

• 25% Reduction in weight.

• Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than Steel & I aluminium.
• Composites enjoy reduced maintenance cost.

• Improved torsion stiffness and impact properties.

• Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission.

• Lower embedded energy.

• Highly chemically resistant.

• Iow specific gravity.

• High specific tensile strength.

• High specific elastic modulus.

• Electrical conductivity.

• Heat resistance.

• Iow thermal expansion coefficient.

• Chemical stability. .Self-lubrication property

• High heat conductivity.

CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS 4.1 IN AUTOMOBILES

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Advanced carbon fiber-reinforced plastics and thermoplastic composites are one of the
fastestgrowing high-tech cutting-edge technologies in the field of international composite
materials in recent years. Both domestic and foreign scientific research departments and
material companies have invested heavily in human resources to compete in research,
development, and application. A high-performance, green and new material.
Selection of raw materials such as carbon fiber (CF), thermoplastic resin bases (plastics) and
additives, types, proportions, processing methods, content, and the number and manner of
carbon fiber (monofilament and woven) laminates for multicomponent, multiphase , multi-
scale macroscopic and (sub-)microscopic composite forming processes (physical and
chemical processes) produce CFRTP new materials with complex structures and properties,
and can intelligentize composite structure and pre-determined properties according to product
requirements. Automated, high-efficiency design and precision manufacturing enable carbon
fiber composite materials to achieve different physical, chemical, mechanical and special
functions, resulting in a wide range of design freedom, dimensional stability, and low
warpage for a variety of CFRTP composite products. , Anti-fatigue, anti-aging, creep
resistance and other significant advantages. CFRTP can partially replace expensive
engineering plastics and CFRP material products, and can also partially replace lightweight
metal materials (such as aluminum-magnesium alloys).
CFRTP has the following features: low density (1.10-1.60g/cm3), high strength, good
impact toughness, good fatigue resistance, recyclable use, fast processing, and low
manufacturing cost.
There are three main types:
(1) Short cut carbon fiber (SCF) reinforced CFRTP;
(2) Long carbon fiber (LCF) reinforced CFRTP;
(3) Continuous carbon fiber (CCF) reinforced CFRTP, including unidirectional carbon fiber
reinforced thermoplastics Prepreg with CFRTP, carbon fiber multi-phase, multi-angle
braided (cloth) reinforced CFRTP. Various types of CFRTP have different mechanical
mechanical properties and functional characteristics, and have been developed and
applied to various forms of products and products in various fields and industries.
Advanced carbon fiber composite materials (including CFRP and CFRTP) bring outstanding
advantages to the automotive and parts manufacturing industry and can be expressed in:
(1) Lightweight: The most direct impact of vehicle weight reduction is the improvement of
energy saving, acceleration, and braking performance. The vehicle weight is reduced by 10%,
fuel consumption is reduced by 6 to 8%, emissions are reduced by 5 to 6%, acceleration at 0-
100km/h is increased by 8 to 10%, and braking distance is shortened by 2 to 7m.
(2) Safety: The weight reduction of the vehicle body can make the center of gravity of the
vehicle move down, improve the steering stability of the vehicle, and the operation of the
vehicle will be more secure and stable, with excellent energy absorption rate, and the
collision energy absorption capability is steel six. To seven times, three to four times
aluminum, which further guarantees the safety of the car.
(3) Comfort: With a higher vibration damping, the light alloy requires 9 seconds to stop the
vibration and 2 seconds to stop. The contribution to the improvement of the NVH (noise,

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vibration and noise roughness) of the vehicle is also very large. Greatly
enhance the comfort of the car.
(4) Reliability: With higher fatigue strength, the fatigue strength of steel and aluminum is 30-
50% of the tensile strength, up to 70-80%, and the fatigue reliability of the material is
greatly improved.
(5) Boost the body development level: Designability is stronger than metal, so it is easier to
develop “platform, modularization, and integration” of body development. Hybrid Body
Structures of Bodywork and Metal Platforms For traditional automotive body structures,
it is possible to greatly reduce the number of parts, reduce tooling investment, and shorten
the development cycle. Especially for new energy auto companies, the body can not only
save investment in stamping, welding production lines, molds and fixtures, reduce the
ratio of fixed assets to assets, optimize the asset allocation structure of enterprises, but
also have more influence in market promotion. Looking at the application of Mercedes-
Benz, BMW, Audi and other highend automotive companies in the product line, it can be
expected that the application of new CFRTP materials in automobiles will certainly
become the future direction of development.

4.2 IN SPORTS
CFRP is now widely used in sports equipment such as in squash, tennis, and badminton
racquets, sport kite spars, high-quality arrow shafts, hockey sticks, fishing rods, surfboards,
high end swim fins, and rowing shells. Amputee athletes such as Jonnie Peacock use carbon
fiber blades for running. It is used as a shank plate in some basketball sneakers to keep the
foot stable, usually running the length of the shoe just above the sole and left exposed in
some areas, usually in the arch.Controversially, in 2006, cricket bats with a thin carbon-fiber
layer on the back were introduced and used in competitive matches by high-profile players
including Ricky Ponting and Michael Hussey. The carbon fiber was claimed to merely
increase the durability of the bats, but it was banned from all first-class matches by the ICC in
2007.
A CFRP bicycle frame weighs less than one of steel, aluminum, or titanium having the same
strength. The type and orientation of the carbon-fiber weave can be designed to maximize
stiffness in required directions. Frames can be tuned to address different riding styles: sprint
events require stiffer frames while endurance events may require more flexible frames for
rider comfort over longer periods.[28] The variety of shapes it can be built into has further
increased stiffness and also allowed aerodynamic tube sections. CFRP forks including
suspension fork crowns and steerers, handlebars, seatposts, and crank arms are becoming
more common on medium as well as higher-priced bicycles. CFRP rims remain expensive
but their stability compared to aluminium reduces the need to re-true a wheel and the reduced
mass reduces the moment of inertia of the wheel. CFRP spokes are rare and most carbon
wheelsets retain traditional stainless steel spokes.

CFRP also appears increasingly in other components such as derailleur parts, brake and
shifter levers and bodies, cassette sprocket carriers, suspension linkages, disc brake rotors,
pedals, shoe soles, and saddle rails. Although strong and light, impact, over-torquing, or
improper installation of CFRP components has resulted in cracking and failures, which may
be difficult or impossible to repair.

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4.3 CARBON-FIBRE MICROELECTRODES
Carbon fibers are used for fabrication of carbon-fiber microelectrodes. In this application
typically a single carbon fiber with diameter of 5–7 μm is sealed in a glass capillary. At the
tip the capillary is either sealed with epoxy and polished to make carbon-fiber disk
microelectrode or the fiber is cut to a length of 75–150 μm to make carbon-fiber cylinder
electrode. Carbon-fiber microelectrodes are used either in amperometry or fast-scan cyclic
voltammetry for detection of biochemical signaling.
4.4 CIVIL ENGINEERING
CFRP has become a notable material in structural engineering applications. Studied in an
academic context as to its potential benefits in construction, it has also proved itself cost-
effective in a number of field applications strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron,
and timber structures. Its use in industry can be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing
structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or pre-stressing) material instead of steel from the
outset of a project. Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in
civil engineering, and applications include increasing the load capacity of old structures (such
as bridges) that were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing
today, seismic retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many
instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed the cost of
strengthening using CFRP.
Applied to reinforced concrete structures for flexure, CFRP typically has a large impact on
strength (doubling or more the strength of the section is not uncommon), but only a moderate
increase in stiffness (perhaps a 10% increase). This is because the material used in this
application is typically very strong (e.g., 3 GPa ultimate tensile strength, more than 10 times
mild steel) but not particularly stiff (150 to 250 GPa, a little less than steel, is typical). As a
consequence, only small cross-sectional areas of the material are used. Small areas of very
high strength but moderate stiffness material will significantly increase strength, but not
stiffness.
CFRP can also be applied to enhance shear strength of reinforced concrete by wrapping
fabrics or fibers around the section to be strengthened Wrapping around sections (such as
bridge or building columns) can also enhance the ductility of the section, greatly increasing
the resistance to collapse under earthquake loading. Such 'seismic retrofit' is the major
application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more economic than alternative
methods. If a column is circular (or nearly so) an increase in axial capacity is also achieved
by wrapping. In this application, the confinement of the CFRP wrap enhances the
compressive strength of the concrete. However, although large increases are achieved in the
ultimate collapse load, the concrete will crack at only slightly enhanced load, meaning that
this application is only occasionally used. Specialist ultra-high modulus CFRP (with tensile
modulus of 420 GPa or more) is one of the few practical methods of strengthening cast-iron
beams. In typical use, it is bonded to the tensile flange of the section, both increasing the
stiffness of the section and lowering the neutral axis, thus greatly reducing the maximum
tensile stress in the cast iron.
In the United States, pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) account for a vast majority
of water transmission mains. Due to their large diameters, failures of PCCP are usually

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catastrophic and affect large populations. Approximately 19,000 miles (31,000 km) of PCCP
have been installed between 1940 and 2006. Corrosion in the form of hydrogen embrittlement
has been blamed for the gradual deterioration of the pre-stressing wires in many PCCP lines.
Over the past decade, CFRPs have been used to internally line PCCP, resulting in a fully
structural strengthening system. Inside a PCCP line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that
controls the level of strain experienced by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The composite
liner enables the steel cylinder to perform within its elastic range, to ensure the pipeline's
long-term performance is maintained. CFRP liner designs are based on strain compatibility
between the liner and host pipe.

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 CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 ADVANTAGES

• It has greatest compressive 1 strength of all reinforcing material.

• Low coefficient of thermal 1 expansion.

• Its density is much lower than that of steel.

• Exhibit properties better than any I other metal.

.Iong Service Life.

• Insensitive to temperature changes.

• Tailorable mechanical properties

• Corrosion Resistance.

• Fatigue Resistance.

• Weight Reduction (approx.20% to | 50%).

5.2 DISADVANTAGES

• The main disadvantage of carbon fiber is its cost.

• This fiber will cause some form of cancer of the lungs.

• Non visible impat damage.

• Repairs are more different than those to metal structure.

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 CHAPTER 6 JOINING APPARATUS
Fig. 1 shows the schematic drawing of the joining apparatus. A die and a stripper fix joining
members. And a punch apply ultrasonic vibrations with static load. The tip diameter of this
tool is 3.0 mm. In this equipment, static loads are applied to make base materials closely and
to decrease the propagation of ultrasonic vibrations. Although higher load obtain better
contact, it would increase joining member’s deformation and degrade strength of base
materials. Also, this apparatus includes a vibration system that are designed to generate the
node of vibration and the maximum stress amplitude on the joining interface. Ultrasonic
vibrations are generated by an ultrasonic transducer attached to the upper end of the vibration
system, and applied to the joining members with the resonance of this vibration system. At
this time, the frequency of ultrasonic vibrations is controlled to maximize its amplitude
automatically within a set range of 1.4 kHz or it is kept at a given value. Following the
change of frequency and amplitude, input energy also varies throughout the joining process.
Then statuses of ultrasonic vibration are output as analog signals and recorded with history of
press load. In case of metal-metal joining by this equipment, the maximum stress amplitude
causes stirring due to plastic flow at the interface between base metal plates and forms the
metallurgical bonds. Fig. 2 shows the schematic image of the metalmetal joining
mechanisms of this method. Initially, oxide layers existing on the surface of the base metals
prevent formation of metallurgical bonds between base metals. They are destroyed by stress
and displacement amplitude due to application of ultrasonic vibrations, and it is dispersed
into the base materials. At the same time, the interface is stirred and deforms with plastic
flow. As this deformation progresses, newly formed surfaces appear and recrystallization
leads generation of new crystal grain boundaries. As a result, metallurgical bonds are formed.
In this study, apply this joining method for dissimilar materials between CFRTP and Al alloy.
The joining members and those details are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1. Plain fabric carbon
fiber sheets are used in CFRTP. Specimens are made by laying over those members cross,
and joining at the center spot (see Fig.4).

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 Fig 1 Schematic drawing of equipment and vibration systems included in it

Fig 2 Schematic illustration for metal-metal ultrasonic joining process using this apparatus

Fig 3 Joining members Fig 4 CFRTP-AI joint

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 CHAPTER 7 Consideration about effect of ultrasonic condition on
joining process and strength
As important parameters for ultrasonic joining, there are frequency and amplitude of
ultrasonic vibrations and the static load. The resonance frequency and ultrasonic amplitude of
this joining change according static load. In order to discover the joining conditions that
enables to apply the maximum stress amplitude stably, verify the state of ultrasonic vibrations
and the joining strength with changing the frequency and the load. Fig. 5 shows applied
ultrasonic vibrations history, and Table 2 shows the cross tensile strength of each joint. Both
frequency and amplitude are measured at ultrasonic transducer, and the values of amplitude
are relative ones for maximum output amplitude, 1.4 μm. Ultrasonic vibrations were applied
for 2.5 s and two samples were prepared for every condition, and two results under same
conditions are identified in solid and broken line. In Fig. 5(a), frequency controlled in the
range of 24.8 to 26.2 kHz under static loads of 5, 7.5, and 10 kN. In the joining process,
frequency changes to maximize amplitude and input power also change following transitions
of frequency and amplitude. Stable resonance can be obtained near 24.8 kHz under all static
load conditions. It has been shown that higher load applying leads larger amplitude
propagation in the comparison of same frequency. Fig. 5(b), similarly, ultrasonic vibrations
were applied in the range of 25.8 to 27.2 kHz, for each static loads of 5, 7.5, and 10 kN.
Although case of (a) had similar frequencies under all conditions, in this range the final
frequencies were separated into two values, 26.5 and 27.2 kHz. However, the cases with 26.5
kHz, since the value of the amplitude is 0, resonance is not maintained and it shows failure of
resonance. Three cases of 27.2 kHz that could maintain resonance were on the high load side,
7.5 and 10 kN, indicating that ultrasonic transmission to be stabilized by high static load. On
the other hand, resonance is maintained even at the one case of 7.5 kN, and the other one are
not maintained. That suggest the existence of factor influencing the vibration system in
addition to the static load. Joining strength was evaluated by cross tensile strength with the
joints made in this verification. Those strengths were taken as the maximum value of the load
measured up to destruction. The results are shown in Table 2. No joining was formed in any
cases which ultrasonic vibrations were applied with 5 kN. For each joints of both frequency
range, those strengths with 7.5 kN were higher than one’s of 10 kN. This result suggest that
application of higher load does not always reinforce the joint, and it would lead a large
deformation of base materials and a decrease in strength. In addition, the joining at higher
frequency range, 25.8 to 27.2 kHz showed higher strength when compared with the same
static loading joint in another range. This difference of strength is caused by difference of
applied amplitude. So those results show that value of the static load need to be given not to
degrade base materials, and frequency should be given to make amplitude larger to make
joint stronger.

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 Fig. 5 Ultrasonic frequency and amplitude at ultrasonic transducer for each condition

Among the results obtained in the previous section, non-negligible differences in the applied
amplitude and joining strength were found, even static load and frequency range were the same.
Although some effects of ultrasonic conditions on CFRTP/Al joining were suggested, they should be
regarded as just tendencies. Therefore, in this joining method, it suggests existence of another factor
influencing the ultrasonic vibration system. There is one factor that have not considered, that is the
geometrical difference attributed to the texture of carbon fiber fabric in the CFRTP plate. CFRTP used
in this study is made of a plain-woven carbon fiber fabric sheet and PMMA, base resin. And Fig. 6
shows a shape of its fabric. The warp and weft are composed of a bundle of carbon fibers, and its
width is about 3 mm. Since this width is close to the diameter of the circle shape joining area (3.0
mm), there is a difference in the density of the carbon fibers included joining area, depending on the
position of the weave at the joining surface. As a result, and it is considered that the vibration system
becomes slightly different, and the resonance frequency and the propagated amplitude also change
due to the joining position. In order to take this influence of this joining position into account,
classification was carried out after joining, according to the position of the joining surface on the
weave. Fig. 6(b) to (e) shows the classification of each joining positions, they are “Corner”, “Edge”
and “Face”. This classification is based on the bundle of carbon fibers in joining area. The case that
two bundles of both warp and weft are joining area is “Corner”, and that one bundle of both warp and
weft are in the area is “Face”. And the case two bundles of either warp or weft and one bundle of the
other are in the area is “Edge”.

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 CHAPTER 8
INVESTIGATION OF EFFECT OF PROCESSING TIME
To investigate about the progress of joining process against ultrasonic application time, a
series of experiments are performed with changing the processing time of the ultrasonic
joining and cross tensile strength measured for every joint. All of those joints were made
under 7.5 kN of static load and at “Corner” of carbon fiber fabric. And joining position is set
at the “Corner” position. Fig. 7 is a plot of the vibration time and joining strength (CTS). Fig.
7 (a) shows the results of all the specimens, and (b) shows the results until 3.0 s with enlarged
view. The change in strength due to the processing time can be divided into three stages. Up
to 0.8 s, the first stage, improvement in strength can be confirmed as ultrasonic vibration
continues. Thereafter, it reaches the second stage until 2.0 s, and the strength gradually
decreases. Eventually, after 5 s, the change of strength stopped, and strength stay in 20 to 40
N. It corresponds to the third stage

Fig 6 Classification of joining position

Fig 7 Comparison of cross tensile strength with processing time

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 CHAPTER 9
JOINING INTERFACE OBSERVATION AND DISCUSSION ON
JOINING MECHANISM

In order to verify the joining mechanism by comparing the interface state of joints at each
ultrasonic application time, joining interfaces were observed. Details of the specimen used for
observation are shown in Fig. 8. Strengths and processing time of observed joints were shown
in Fig. 8 (a). Observations were held about specimen A and B, the one that strength was
maximized and the most decreased one. This comparison enable us to verify the progress of
joining due to the continuation of ultrasonic vibrations and the decrease in strength.
Observations were carried out with secondary electron images and reflected electron images
of Al alloy fracture surfaces (see Fig. 8 (b) and (c)) and its cross section. Reinforcement,
resin embedding, cutting, mechanical polishing and ion milling are applied to Al plate to
prepare a specimen shown in Fig. 8 (d) for cross-sectional observation. Observation results of
Specimen A are shown in Fig. 9. (a), (b) and (c) show the fracture surface. The fact that Al
alloy was exposed in almost all fractured surfaces indicates that fracture mainly occur at the
CFRTP/Al alloy interface. A black fragment, a part of CFRTP remains on the Al alloy
surface, and some of carbon fibers are exposed from base resin in enlarged view, Fig. 9 (b).
Marks like carbon fiber pressed onto Al alloy surface were observed in Fig. 9 (b), (c). The
length of those marks, a few hundred μm, suggests that carbon fibers had contacts with Al
alloy over a long area. Fig. 9 (d) and (e) show the cross sectional image of joining area.
Upper side of this observation area filled with embedding resin and distinction between this
resin and CFRTP base resin could not confirmed. A cross section of the radius from the
center to the end of the joined portion, Fig. 9 (d), indicate that this fracture mainly occurs at
the CFRTP/Al alloy interface. And in the enlarged view Fig. 9 (e), marks of carbon fiber
could be confirmed under the remaining CFRTP, like observed in the Al fracture surface in
Fig. 9 (b), (c). This result suggests that some carbon fibers embedded into Al alloy once, and
formed mechanical interlocking between carbon fibers and Al alloy. And it would be a main
bond of this joining method. Observation results of Specimen B are shown in Fig. 10 (a), the
wide area observation confirmed more CFRTP fragments remaining on the Al alloy surface
than specimen A. As shown in the enlarged view Fig. 10 (b), it was also confirmed that some
carbon fibers were broken away from base resin and remained on Al alloy surface. On the
other hand, observed carbon fibers were shorter than A, and it suggests that the carbon fibers
were destroyed by excess application of ultrasonic vibration. In addition, not only carbon
fiber but also base resin were degraded in this case. As can be seen in the image of Fig. 10 (b)
and (c), the base resin remaining on the surface of B shows crushed structure compared with
theirs in specimen A, uniform and smooth case. From these results, it is clear that excess
application of ultrasonic vibrations for a long time degrades both base resin and carbon fiber
of CFRTP. This phenomenon is a cause of strength lowering that is once increased by the
continuation of the ultrasonic application from a certain time. Also from the cross sectional
observation in Fig. 10 (d), it shows that the joint breakage occurs mainly inside the CFRTP,
and deterioration of CFRTP greatly affects the decrease in joint strength. From the enlarged
view, Fig. 10 (e), it is indicated that the carbon fibers are broken and that their directions are
changed from the original fiber orientation. Those broken carbon fibers were moved by

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deformation of surrounding base resin. It suggests that ultrasonic vibration assisted plastic
flow not only in Al alloy, also in base resin with the effect of temperature elevation. In this
image, CFRTP base resin could be made distinction from embedding resin because of stirring
with carbon fiber. And it is observed in Fig. 10 (e) that some carbon fibers are embedded into
Al alloy. Then it shows that this joining was formed by mechanical interlocking of carbon
fiber. It was also observed that the shorten carbon fiber stuck into Al alloy. This result shows
that the carbon fiber pushed into Al alloy by static load and ultrasonic vibrations as the
driving force. And there are difference of orientation with specimen A. Orientation of B
became random from A and it considered to be occurred following vertical deformation of
joining members. But on this paper, we discussed about only cross tensile strength, vertical
loading. Then we considered that difference of longitudinal carbon fibers have no influence
on cross tensile strength. From these results, the mechanism of this joining method is
summarized in Fig. 11. The initial state before joining is shown in Fig. 11 (a). Primary, static
load assists close contact between joining members, and following application of ultrasonic
vibrations, deformation of the joining member’s interface with plastic flow (Allamech, 2005)
(Bai, Yang, 2016)(Bakavos, Prangnell, 2010) (Mizushima, et al., 2011) and elimination of
oxide layer on the Al surface occurs. As the deformation of the base material progresses,
parts of carbon fibers in CFRTP contact and be embedded into the Al alloy with plastic
deformation of Al alloy (see Fig. 11 (b)). As a result, a mechanical bond between the CFRTP
and the Al alloy is formed mediated by carbon fibers. Furthermore, if the application of
ultrasonic vibration is continued, destruction of the carbon fibers and deterioration of the base
resin occur in Fig. 11 (c), which causes deterioration of bonding and strength. This is the
main bonding mechanism between CFRTP and Al alloy using ultrasonic vibrations.

Fig 8 Details of specimen for observation

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 Fig. 9 SEM observation results of specimen A, maximum CT strength joint

Fig 10 SEM observation results of specimen B, most decreased CT strength joint

Fig. 11 Schematic illustrations of mechanics and

phenomenon in proposed CFRTP and Al alloy
ultrasonic joining

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 CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION

By applying the ultrasonic vibration and its maximum stress amplitude to the interface of
joining members, CFRTP Al thin plate joining succeed. Static load and ultrasonic frequency
are set as joining conditions, the static load has an optimum value to suppress the deformation
of base materials and assist transmitting the ultrasonic vibration. And higher ultrasonic
amplitude brought by high frequency leads strength improvement. In addition, it was
confirmed that the joining strength varies depending on the duration of ultrasonic application,
and the optimum processing time maximizing the strength was clarified. On the other hand, it
was confirmed that the strength was decreased by excessive ultrasonic vibrations. Al alloy’s
fracture surface and cross sectional observation results revealed that excess ultrasonic
application breaks carbon fiber and degrades base resin, and this phenomena causes strength
decreasing. Joining mechanisms also verified with this observation. Some carbon fibers were
observed to be embedded into Al alloy like it mediates Al alloy and base resin. Then this
joining can be described as mechanical interlocking between carbon fiber and Al alloy. From
these results, it is summarized that this joining phenomenon proceeds as follows: at the
beginning, joining is advanced on the joining member’s interface by application of ultrasonic
vibrations, and accordingly joining strength gradually improves. After the interface bonding
is completely formed, breakage of the bonding occurs due to excess application of ultrasonic
vibrations and decreases the joining strength. The decreased strength rises again after 2.0 s,
and it shows the same value after 5.0 s. It is considered that in this range, vertical deformation
of base materials proceeds and its side face contacts. Then bonding formed on side interface,
and strength rises again. After this, more proceeding of vertical deformation breaks side
interface bonding until 5 s. Finally, this joining become similar to the mechanical clinch by
deformation of the base materials, and the joining state of interface no longer changes.

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 CHAPTER 11 REFERENCES
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• Allameh S.M., et al., Microstructural Characterization of Ultrasonically Welded
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pp.6574
• André N.M., et al., Friction spot joining of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 and carbon-
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• Areans J.M., et al., Considerations for the industrial application of structural adhesive
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• Bai Y., Yang M., The influence of superimposed ultrasonic vibration on surface
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• Wikipidea
• Advance publication by j-stage

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