Acta Parasitologica

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11686-023-00742-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Pisonia alba Leaf Extracts in Managing

Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus Populations via Larvicidal,
Pupicidal and Ovicidal Actions
Jelin Vilvest1 · M. C. John Milton1 · Alex Yagoo1

Received: 2 May 2023 / Accepted: 30 October 2023

© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences 2023

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Pisonia alba Span commonly known as lettuce tree
or bird catcher tree leaf extracts in controlling Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes, which transmit sev-
eral severe illnesses, such as dengue, Zika, chikungunya, yellow fever, West Nile virus, lymphatic filariasis and Japanese
encephalitis.
Methods Sequential extraction of P. alba leaves was done using n-hexane, chloroform, and methanol. The larvicidal, pupi-
cidal, and ovicidal activities of the extracts were evaluated against both mosquito species using standard bioassays. The
concentrations of the extracts required to kill 50% of the mosquito larvae, pupae, and ova ­(LC50) were determined.
Results The results showed that the methanol extract of P. alba had significant potential in killing the larvae, pupae, and
ova of both mosquito species, with ­LC50 values of 65.0 and 54.5 ppm for larvicidal activity, 73.7 and 69.7 ppm for pupicidal
activity, and 78.4 and 80.0 ppm for ovicidal activity against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively. The n-hexane
extract demonstrated moderate larvicidal activity, while the n-hexane and chloroform extracts lacked ovicidal activity.
Conclusion The methanol extract from Pisonia alba could be a natural and eco-friendly alternative for controlling mosquito
populations responsible for transmitting vector-borne diseases. Further research is warranted to determine their practical
applications in controlling mosquito populations in the field.

Keywords Pisonia alba leaves · Aedes aegypti · Culex quinquefasciatus · Extracts

Abbreviations Introduction
Ae.aegypti  Aedes aegypti
Cx. quinquefasciatus Culex quinquefasciatus Mosquitoes are considered one of the most significant groups
P. alba  Pisonia alba of arthropods due to their ability to cause epidemics or pan-
ANOVA Analysis of variance demics in growing human and animal populations [1]. They
LC Lethal concentration are known vectors of various diseases such as dengue fever,
LL Lower limit malaria, filariasis, chikungunya, yellow fever, and encephalitis,
UL Upper limit including West Nile Fever, which have significant impacts on
PPM Parts per million economic loss, morbidity, and mortality [2, 3]. They pose a
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide significant public health challenge globally, leading to over
one million deaths annually, according to the World Health
Organization. Malaria, a mosquito-borne disease, caused an
estimated 241 million cases and 627,000 deaths worldwide in
2020. Dengue fever, another mosquito-borne disease, resulted
in approximately 49 million cases and 10,000 deaths in the
* Jelin Vilvest same year. Additionally, the Centers for Disease Control and
jelin@loyolacollege.edu Prevention (CDC) states that West Nile virus can cause symp-
1 toms such as fever in about 1 in 5 people infected, with about
Research Department of Advanced Zoology
and Biotechnology, Loyola College (Autonomous), 1 in 150 people developing severe illness such as encephalitis
Chennai 600034, India

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

or meningitis [4–7]. These statistics highlight the significant
burden of mosquito-borne diseases on global health.
Mosquito control programs face challenges such as out-
breaks of novel arboviruses, development of resistance in
mosquito species, and rapid spread of invasive mosquitoes
worldwide [8]. An effective vector control strategy is needed
to reduce the spread and outbreaks of these diseases in tropi-
cal and subtropical countries. Larviciding, which involves
targeting mosquito larvae in their breeding sites before they
emerge as adults, is a successful method to reduce mosquito
populations. Larvicides primarily affect the midgut epithelium,
gastric caeca, and malpighian tubules in mosquito larvae [9].
However, larviciding heavily relies on the use of conventional
synthetic insecticides, which have been effective but have also
disrupted natural biological control systems and led to wide-
spread development of mosquito resistance, resulting in the
reintroduction of vector-borne diseases in many parts of the
world [10].
Researchers are now focusing on the development of bio-
degradable phytopesticides as an alternative to conventional
synthetic insecticides [11]. Botanicals, derived from plants,
may offer an effective and eco-friendly approach to controlling
vector-borne diseases. Plants can serve as a source of agents
for eco-sustainable control of mosquitoes at the larval stages,
as they are less likely to develop resistance against pests, have
moderate long-term environmental effects, are safer for non-
target organisms, and are rich in bioactive compounds that
are biodegradable [12, 13]. This approach offers a promising
alternative for mosquito control, addressing the challenges of
resistance development and environmental impacts associated
with conventional larvicides.
P. alba, also known as “catch bird tree,” is a medicinal plant
belonging to the family Nyctaginaceae and native to Asia and
the Pacific [14]. It is used in traditional medicine to treat fever,
inflammation, coughs, dysentery, constipation, wounds and
more [15]. It contains flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids, tannins,
saponins, and alkaloids [16]. It has beneficial compounds like
kaempferol and quercetin and β-sitosterol, which have been
associated with various pharmacological activities, such as
antifungal, antioxidant, anticancer, and antidiabetic activities
[17, 18]. Recent studies have revealed its insecticidal properties
against pests like Plutella xylostella, Hypothenemus hampei,
and Ae. aegypti [19, 20]. In this communication, we studied
the sequential extracts of n-hexane, chloroform, and methanol
of the leaves of P. alba against the larvicidal, pupicidal, and
ovicidal activities of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus.
13
Acta Parasitologica
Materials and Methods
Collection of Plant Material
In January 2023, leaves of P. alba were collected from Loy-
ola College campus in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. The
plant material was authenticated by Dr. K. N. Sunilkumar, a
Research Officer from the Department of Pharmacognosy at
the same institute. A voucher specimen with an authentica-
tion code (No: P24012306A) was deposited in the institute's
herbarium for reference Fig. 1.
Extraction of the Plant Material
The plant material, which comprised of 1 kg of dried leaves,
was first ground into a coarse powder. Subsequently, the
Soxhlet apparatus was utilized to sequentially extract the
powder with n-hexane, chloroform, and methanol. The
resulting extracts underwent filtration and concentration
using a vacuum rotary evaporator. The dried extracts were
then stored in airtight containers at a temperature of 4º C
until further use. The yield of extracted material from n-hex-
ane, chloroform, and methanol were 29.32 g, 17.51 g, and
70.57 g, respectively.
Insect Rearing
The collection of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus were
carried out from the Animal Husbandry unit of the Depart-
ment of Advanced Zoology and Biotechnology at Loyola
College, Chennai. They were reared in tap water under
controlled conditions of a temperature of 27.4 °C, relative
humidity (RH) of 75–85%, and a photoperiod cycle of 13 h
of light and 11 h of darkness (L/D). The larvae were fed a
Fig. 1  Pisonia alba plant
Acta Parasitologica

diet composed of dog biscuits and Brewer's yeast in a ratio
of 3:2 [21].
Larvicidal and Pupicidal Assays
In order to assess the larvicidal and pupicidal activities of
the extracts, the experiment followed the guidelines set
forth by the World Health Organization [22]. Concentra-
tions of 500 ppm, 250 ppm, 125 ppm, and 62.5 ppm were
tested, each with five replicates. An emulsion in 1.0% aque-
ous DMSO was prepared for all three activities. The tests
were performed in 150 ml plastic containers, with each con-
tainer containing 20 larvae or pupae exposed to 100 ml of
the extract solution. A negative control was implemented
using a 1% aqueous DMSO solution, while Temephos was
utilized as the positive control. Mortality was determined by
observing the absence of movement in dead larvae or pupae
when touched with a glass rod. The percentage mortality
and corrected percentage mortality were calculated using
the standard formulas [23].
Percentage mortality: No. of larvae or pupae exposed × 100
No. of dead larvae or pupae
Corrected percentage mortality:
[ ]
1 − nT∕nC × 100
of the extracts in five replicates. The same concentrations
that were used for the larvicidal and pupicidal activities were
employed. After a period of 120 h post-treatment, the hatch-
ability of the eggs was observed using a compound micro-
scope. The percentage of ovicidal activity was calculated
using the following formula:
Percentage of Ovicidal activity:
No. of unhatched eggs
× 100
Total number of eggs exposed
The results were compared with those of the standard
control, Temephos.
Statistical Analysis
Probit analysis software (version 1.5) from the US EPA was
employed to conduct statistical analysis to determine the
concentration of larvicidal, pupicidal, and ovicidal agents
required to result in a certain percentage of mortality. This
analysis involved estimating the ­LC50 and ­LC90 values for
each concentration. A p-value of ≤ 0.05 was considered
significant, indicating that the observed differences were
unlikely to have occurred by chance [25].

The formula for calculating the corrected percentage

mortality involves two variables, namely nT and nC. nT
represents the number of larvae or pupae that are still alive
after treatment, while nC represents the number of larvae
or pupae that are alive in the control group. The corrected
percentage mortality formula should be used when the per-
centage mortality in the control group is less than 5%.
Ovicidal Activity
The ovicidal activity of the extracts was evaluated using a
modified version of the method described by Yagoo [24].
The experiment involved exposing freshly laid eggs of Ae.
aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus to various concentrations
Results
The effectiveness of crude plant extracts is frequently asso-
ciated with the intricate blend of active compounds pre-
sent. In our initial screening process to assess the poten-
tial larvicidal, pupicidal and ovicidal activities of P. alba,
we observed distinct outcomes when utilizing successive
extracts from this plant.
The results of these tests are summarized in Table 1 (for
larvicidal) and Table 2 (for pupicidal).
LC50-lethal concentration that kills 50% of the exposed
larvae; ­LC90-lethal concentration that kills 90% of the
exposed larvae; LL-lower limit (95% confidence limit);

Table 1  Lethal concentration (ppm) of crude extracts of leaves of P. alba against the larvae of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus
Species Extract LC50 (ppm) 95% confi- LC90 (ppm) 95% confidence Slope ± SE Intercept ± SE χ2
dence limit limit
LL UL LL UL

Ae. aegypti larvae n-Hexane 148.3 54.7 325.1 368.6 208.2 14,602.9 3.2 ± 0.4 – 2.0 ± 1.3 10.0*
Chloroform 292.6 253.3 346.8 1051.6 783.3 1612.3 2.3 ± 0.2 – 0.6 ± 0.5 5.5*
Methanol 65.0 55.0 73.6 143.8 125.4 174.6 3.7 ± 0.4 – 1.7 ± 0.9 3.3*
Cx.quinquefasciatus larvae n-Hexane 125.5 112.7 139.0 291.4 252.4 351.0 3.5 ± 0.2 – 2.3 ± 0.6 5.8*
Chloroform 286.4 169.8 807.9 853.2 434.6 2910.3 2.7 ± 0.4 – 1.6 ± 1.0 6.2*
Methanol 54.5 43.7 63.0 117.6 102.9 143.4 3.8 ± 0.5 – 1.6 ± 1.0 0.9*

13
 Acta Parasitologica

Table 2  Lethal concentration (ppm) of crude extracts of leaves of P. alba against the pupae of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus
Species Extract LC50 (ppm) 95% confi- LC90 (ppm) 95% confidence Slope ± SE Intercept ± SE χ2
dence limit limit
LL UL LL UL

Ae. aegypti pupae n– Hexane 1194.6 774.8 2859.7 6034.5 2604.8 35,635.2 1.8 ± 0.3 – 0.6 ± 0.8 0.1*
Chloroform 928.6 662.8 1718.9 3943.2 2024.6 14,348.2 2.0 ± 0.3 – 1.0 ± 0.8 0.2*
Methanol 73.7 65.1 81.6 147.2 129.7 175.9 4.2 ± 0.4 – 2.9 ± 0.9 2.3*
Cx.quinquefasciatus pupae n– Hexane 344.5 295.5 417.0 1239.7 900.0 1992.6 2.3 ± 0.2 – 0.8 ± 0.5 5.4*
Chloroform 540.8 438.7 734.8 2074.7 1336.0 4248.0 2.1 ± 0.2 – 0.9 ± 0.6 1.8*
Methanol 69.7 60.4 77.9 146.9 128.7 177.0 3.9 ± 0.4 – 2.2 ± 0.9 3.0*

UL-upper limit (95% confidence limit). *p ≤ 0.05, level of
significance of chi-square values.
LC50-lethal concentration that kills 50% of the exposed
larvae; ­LC90-lethal concentration that kills 90% of the
exposed larvae; LL-lower limit (95% confidence limit);
UL-upper limit (95% confidence limit). *p ≤ 0.05, level of
significance of chi-square values.
The results showed that the methanol extract exhibited
the highest activity against both mosquito species for all
three activities tested. For larvicidal activity, the methanol
extract had L­ C50 values of 65.0 ppm for Ae. aegypti and
54.5 ppm for Cx. quinquefasciatus. The n-hexane extract
had moderate activity, with ­LC50 values of 148.3 ppm for Ae.
aegypti and 125.5 ppm for Cx. quinquefasciatus. The chlo-
roform extract had lower activity compared to the methanol
and n-hexane extracts. For pupicidal activity, the methanol
extract also showed the highest activity, with ­LC50 values
of 73.7 ppm for Ae. aegypti and 69.7 ppm for Cx. quinque-
fasciatus. However, the n-hexane and chloroform extracts
showed low activity for both mosquito species. Regarding
ovicidal activity, the methanol extract exhibited the highest
activity, with 78.4% and 80.0% inhibition of egg hatch for
Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively. However,
the n-hexane and chloroform extracts showed insignificant
activity even at the highest concentration tested (500 ppm).
The results of the study suggest that the methanol extract of
the plant has the highest larvicidal, pupicidal, and ovicidal
activity against the two mosquito species tested Fig. 2. The
n-hexane extract had moderate activity for larvicidal and
pupicidal activity, but showed low activity for ovicidal activ-
ity. The chloroform extract had lower activity compared to
the methanol and n-hexane extracts for all three activities
tested Fig. 3.
Discussion
The genus Pisonia encompasses various plant species, and
among them, P. alba, commonly known as white Pisonia,
has gained significance in the realm of insecticidal studies.
Its prominence is attributed to the rich chemical compo-
sition, including flavonoids and terpenoids, recognized for
their insecticidal properties [26]. These compounds have
shown promise in preliminary investigations, revealing both
repellent and toxic effects on a spectrum of insects [27, 28].
Notably, salicin, catechins, and quercetin within this plant
have been linked to these insecticidal attributes, present-
ing the potential for the development of environmentally

Fig. 2  Ovicidal activity of crude

extracts from P. alba on Ae.
Aegypti eggs

13
Acta Parasitologica
Fig. 3  Ovicidal activity of crude
extracts from P. alba on Cx.
quinquefasciatus eggs
friendly pest control methods in agriculture and public
health. Impressively, its extracts have exhibited robust insec-
ticidal activity against a range of significant agricultural
pests, including the coffee berry borer and fall armyworm,
which afflict coffee and maize crops, respectively [29, 30].
Additionally, the toxicity of its leaf extract to the cowpea
weevil, notorious for damaging stored legumes, suggests its
potential as a natural insecticide for a variety of insect pests
[31]. These combined findings underscore the promise of P.
alba extracts as effective tools for pest control across diverse
agricultural settings.
A study explored the effectiveness of P. alba as a nat-
ural insecticide against mosquitos. In the study, the ­LC50
values for larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti were
4.54 ppm (24 h), 3.70 ppm (48 h), and 2.76 ppm (72 h).
For Cx. quinquefasciatus, the ­LC50 values were 5.69 ppm
(24 h), 4.32 ppm (48 h), and 3.19 ppm (72 h). Similarly, the
­LC50 values for adulticidal activity against Ae. aegypti were
11.20 ppm (24 h), 8.95 ppm (48 h), and 6.58 ppm (72 h).
For Cx. quinquefasciatus, the L ­ C50 values were 16.98 ppm
(24 h), 12.83 ppm (48 h), and 9.58 ppm (72 h). These results
indicate that the essential oil of P. alba has significant lar-
vicidal and adulticidal activity against both mosquito spe-
­ C50 values indicating greater potency [32].
cies, with lower L
P. alba leaf extracts were found to possess mosquitocidal
activity against An. stephensi, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and Ae.
aegypti. The petroleum ether extract of P. alba exhibited the
highest larvicidal and ovicidal activity, with ­LC50 and ­LC90
values for An. stephensi at 100.62 and 117.80 × 106 ppm, for
Cx. quinquefasciatus at 98.52 and 112.75 × 106 ppm, and
for Ae. aegypti at 111.29 and 141.16 × 106 ppm. The ovi-
cidal activity of P. alba extract was tested against the three
mosquito species at various concentrations ranging from 1.0
to 4.0 mg/cm2 ppm. The extract achieved 100% mortality
at 240, 300, and 360 × 106 against Cx. quinquefasciatus.
It also displayed the highest repellent activity, providing
100% protection for up to 120–200 min at concentrations of
1.0–4.0 × 10–2 kg.m–2 [33]. This study suggests that P. alba
may be a promising natural alternative for controlling Cx.
quinquefasciatus mosquitoes.
The present study shows similarities as well as some
differences in comparison to the previous reports [32, 33].
However, it differs from the previous reports in terms of the
extraction method and the potency of the extracts. The previ-
ous studies used essential oils and petroleum ether extracts,
respectively, to evaluate the mosquitocidal activity of P.
alba. In contrast, the present study used methanol, n-hexane,
and chloroform extracts for the same purpose. This differ-
ence in the extraction method might have contributed to the
variation in the potency of the extracts and the observed
activity. Regarding the potency of the extracts, the present
study shows that the methanol extract exhibited the highest
activity against both mosquito species for all three activities
tested. This might be due to the difference in the extraction
method, solvent used, and the source of the plant material
collected and used in the study.
Furthermore, the present study shows that the n-hexane
and chloroform extracts had lower activity compared to
the methanol extract, which is different from the previous
reports where petroleum ether extracts showed higher activ-
ity [33]. This difference might be due to the fact that petro-
leum ether and n-hexane have different polarities, which can
affect the solubility of the active compounds and, hence,
their potency. In conclusion, the present study provides
further evidence of the mosquitocidal activity of P. alba
extracts against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus mos-
quitoes. While the study shows some differences in potency
compared to the previous reports, the results are still prom-
ising and suggest that P. alba could be a natural source for
the development of new mosquito control agents. Further
13

studies are needed to identify the active compounds respon-
sible for the observed activity and to determine their safety
and effectiveness in practical settings.
Conclusion
The methanol extract of the plant exhibited the highest levels
of larvicidal, pupicidal, and ovicidal activity against both Ae.
aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus mosquito species, suggest-
ing its promise as a natural source for the development of
mosquito control agents. The n-hexane extract demonstrated
moderate larvicidal and pupicidal activity but lower ovicidal
activity, while the chloroform extract displayed reduced
activity in all three categories compared to the methanol
and n-hexane extracts. These results emphasize the potential
of the methanol extract for novel mosquito control agents.
Nevertheless, further investigations are necessary to iden-
tify the active compounds responsible for this activity and
to assess their safety and efficacy in practical applications.
Recommendation for Future Studies
Based on the findings of the study, there are several recom-
mendations for future research. Firstly, the active compounds
responsible for the observed activity should be identified and
isolated to determine their structures and potential bioactivi-
ties. This could be done using various chromatographic and
spectroscopic techniques. Secondly, further studies should
be conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the plant
extract and its active compounds in practical settings, such
as in field trials or in controlled laboratory conditions. This
will help to determine their effectiveness in controlling mos-
quito populations and any potential adverse effects on non-
target organisms. Thirdly, additional studies could explore
the mechanism of action of the plant extract and its active
compounds, as well as investigate their potential synergistic
effects with other mosquito control agents. Lastly, it would
be beneficial to investigate the potential of using the plant
extract or its active compounds in combination with other
control strategies, such as insecticide-treated bed nets or
larvivorous fish, to improve overall efficacy and reduce the
development of insecticide resistance.
Acknowledgements We are thankful to the principal and secretary of
the Loyola College for their unwavering support.
Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support
were received during the preparation of this manuscript.
Data availability Data and materials have been provided with the
manuscript as tables and figures. The datasets are available from the
corresponding author on reasonable request.
13
Acta Parasitologica
Declarations
Conflict of Interest We declare that we have no conflict of interest.
References
1. Harbach RE (2018) Mosquitoes of the world: an identification and
training program. http://​www.​wrbu.​org/​mqID/​mq_​medkey.​html
2. Benelli G (2015) Research in mosquito control: current challenges
for a brighter future. Parasitol Res 114(8):2801–2805
3. Weaver SC, Reisen WK (2010) Present and future arboviral
threats. Antiviral Res 85(2):328–345
4. WHO (2019) Mosquito-borne diseases. https://​www.​who.​int/​en/​
news-​room/​fact-​sheets/​detail/​mosqu​ito-​borne-​disea​ses
5. WHO World Malaria Report (2021) Geneva: WHO, 2021. https://​
www.​who.​int/​teams/​global-​malar ​ia-​progr​amme/​world-​malar​
ia-​report-​2021
6. WHO, Dengue and severe dengue. Geneva: WHO, (2021)
h t t p s : / / ​ w w w. ​ w h o . ​ i n t / ​ n ews - ​ ro o m / ​ fa c t - ​ s h e et s / ​ d et a i l /​
dengue-​and-​severe-​dengue
7. CDC, Zika virus. Atlanta: CDC, (2021) https://w ​ ww.c​ dc.g​ ov/z​ ika/​
about/​index.​html
8. Lounibos LP (2015) Invasions by insect vectors of human disease.
Ann Rev Entomol 60:355–374. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1146/​annur​
ev-​ento-​010814-​021015
9. David JP, Rey D, Pautou MP, Meyran JC (2000) Differential toxic-
ity of leaf litter to dipteran larvae of mosquito developmental sites.
J Invertebr Pathol 75(1):9–18. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1006/​jipa.​1999.​
4886
10. Pridgeon JW, Pereira RM, Becnel JJ, Allan SA (2008) Resistance
to larvicide in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) from Puerto
Rico and the United States. J Med Entomol 45(5):852–860
11. Isman MB (2006) Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents
in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world. Annu
Rev Entomol 51:45–66
12. Ali A, Xue RD, Barnard DR (2015) Potential of essential oil-
based pesticides and detergents for bed bug control. J Econ Ento-
mol 108(1):293–301
13. Pavela R (2016) Insecticidal properties of several essential oils on
the house fly (Musca domestica L.). Phytother Res 30(2):276–282
14. Ismail NH, Mamat SS, Asmawi MZ, Ahmad Wan WA (2020)
Pisonia alba span: a review on its traditional uses, phytochemistry,
and pharmacological activities. J Trop Med. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1155/​2020/​88523​46
15. Bhattacharjee P, Paul SK, Datta BK (2016) Medicinal plants
used by Tripuri community of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl
15(2):251–257
16. Dey A, Shaha SK, Sarkar MAH, Akter R, Chowdhury MAK,
Rahmatullah M (2015) Phytochemical screening and evaluation
of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the methanolic
extract of Pisonia alba Span. Int J Pharm Sci Res 6(6):2353–2358
17. Kumar RV, Jayanthi MK, Jayachandran E, Rajkapoor B (2019)
Pisonia alba: a comprehensive review on its phytochemistry,
pharmacology, and ethnomedicinal properties. Phytother Res
33(6):1557–1573. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​ptr.​6331
18. Yumrutas O, Iscan G, Demir C, Yildiz E, Kaynak G (2019) Phyto-
chemical composition, antioxidant and anticancer activities of the
leaf extracts of Pisonia alba Span. Nat Prod Res 33(8):1169–1172.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​14786​419.​2017.​14092​62
19. Riasat T, Razaq M, Afzal M, Abbas Q (2020) Insecticidal proper-
ties of different plant extracts against diamondback moth (Plutella
xylostella) and their impact on natural enemies. Pak J Agric Sci
57(1):1–10. https://​doi.​org/​10.​21162/​PAKJAS/​20.​8748
Acta Parasitologica
20. Bello F, Navarro D (2020) Evaluation of the larvicidal activity of
Pisonia alba Span extracts against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culi-
cidae). Rev Colomb de Entomol 46(2):136–142. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​25100/​socol​en.​v46i2.​9003
21. Yagoo A, John Milton MC, Vilvest J, Johnson I, Balakrishna K
(2023) Mosquito larvicidal, pupicidal and ovidical efects of the
diferent extracts of the leaves of Peltophorum pterocarpum against
Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Future J Pharm Sci
9:32. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s43094-​023-​00483-3
22. WHO (2005) Guidelines for laboratory and field test-
i n g o f m o s qu i t o l a r v i c i d e s . W H O G e n eva . 1 3 ,
WHO_CDS_WHOPES_GCDPP_2005
23. Abbot WS (1925) A method for computing the effectiveness of an
insecticide. Ecol Entomol 18:265–267
24. Yagoo A, John Milton MC, Vilvest V (2023) Mosquito larvicidal,
pupicidal and ovicidal effects of the extracts of Peltophorum
pterocarpum flowers on Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefascia-
tus. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Rep 46:100929. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​vprsr.​2023.​100929
25. Finney DJ (1971) Probit Analysis. Cambridge University Press,
London, pp.68–78. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​bimj.​19720​140111.
26. Johnson P, Garcia M (2018) Flavonoids and terpenoids as insecti-
cidal agents: a review of Pisonia alba. J Nat Insect 21(2):134–149
27. Roberts SE, Thompson MJ, Rodriguez AL (2019) Repellent and
toxic effects of Pisonia alba extracts on insects. Pest Control Envi-
ron Manage 29(5):592–605
28. Green MC, Adams PJ (2021) Chemical composition and insecti-
cidal properties of Pisonia alba. J Sustain Agric 45(4):389–402
29. Cuevas-Glory LF, Vega-Frutis R, Sánchez-Sánchez R, Rodríguez-
Lopez V, Meléndez-Ramírez V (2017) Insecticidal activity of
white poisonwood (Poisonia alba) extracts against the coffee
berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae:
Scolytinae). J Econ Entomol 110(1):274–279. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1093/​jee/​tow238
30. Sánchez-Peña SR, González-Morales SE, Cortés-Martínez R,
Mora-Aguilera G (2020) Toxicity and antifeedant activity of
botanical extracts of Clidemia hirta and Poisonia alba against
Spodoptera frugiperda and fall armyworm larvae. J Appl Entomol
144(6):503–510. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/​jen.​12740
31. Adegbola Y, Mokwala PW, . Mochiah MB, (2019) Toxicity of
leaf extracts of some plants to the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus
maculatus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ind Crops
Prod 140:111615. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​indcr​op.​2019.​111615
32. Jaafar FM, Osman H, Saleh AM, Yusoff MM (2011) Phytochem-
ical constituents and antioxidant and antidiabetic properties of
Pisonia alba Span. J Med Plants Res 5(15):3445–3452. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​5897/​JMPR11.​620
33. Tamizhazhagan V, Pugazhendy K, Baranitharan M, Sakthidasan
V, Jayanthi C, Sawicka B, Thushimenan S, Nwani CD (2017) Pest
potential of Pisonia alba extracts and fractions against mosquito-
borne disease (Diptera: Culicidae). Int J Pharm Sci Res (IJPSR)
8(5):52–59
Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds
exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of
such publishing agreement and applicable law.
13